Diamonds & DiamondGrading

8
Diamonds and Light
 Table of Contents

Subject Page

An Introduction to Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Transmission and Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Critical Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Light and a Diamond’s Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Brightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Scintillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Cut-grading the Round Brilliant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Visual Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
©
©2002 The Gemological Institute of America
All rights reserved: Protected under the Berne Convention.
No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, transferred, or
transmitted in any form or by any means whatsoever without the
express written permission of GIA.
Printed in the United States.
Revised and updated 2006

Cover photos: (clockwise from left) Valerie Power/GIA, Christie’s Images Inc., Lauren Stomel Advertising/Krystall Smolensk, Eric Welch/GIA Back cover: Glodiam Israel Ltd.

Facing page: Diamond has a special relationship with light that’s apparent only after the gem is fashioned by a skilled cutter.
DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
A polished diamond’s beauty lies in its complex relationship with the light
around it. When diamonds and light interact, the result can dazzle the eye.
The main elements of the relationship between diamonds and light are
how the light strikes the surface, how much of it enters the diamond, and
how and in what form the light returns to your eye. Each element depends
on diamond’s optical properties as well as on the quality of its cut.
Cutters understand that a diamond’s primary optical display happens in
Eric Welch/GIA
and around the crown. This means that diamonds are meant to be seen
Diamond professionals use motion to
face-up. Motion also helps to show off a fashioned diamond’s beauty. By assess a diamond’s beauty and market-
tilting and rocking a diamond, you can create constantly changing view- ability. Rocking and tilting the diamond
ing angles. Diamond professionals use this to assess a diamond’s beauty changes lighting and viewing angles.
and marketability.
Ke y C o n c e p t s
A fashioned diamond is a three-dimensional object. When light enters,
it follows complex paths within the diamond. GIA researchers have stud-
A fashioned diamond’s optical display
ied and mapped the intimate relationship between light and a diamond’s is meant to be seen face-up and in
interior. Their research led to an understanding of how different facet motion.

©2002 GIA. All rights reserved. 1

 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING
scintillation
brightness
fire
Eric Welch/GIA
Diamond’s special relationship with light
gives it white light reflections called
brightness, flashes of color called fire,
and a combination of contrasting light
and dark areas called scintillation.
Brightness—The effect of all the
diamond’s internal and external
reflections of white light.
Fire—The flashes of color you see
in a polished diamond.
Scintillation—The flashes of light
and the contrasting dark areas
you see when the diamond, the
light, or the observer moves.
Proportions—The angles and rela-
tive measurements of a polished
gem and the relationships
between them.
Ke y C o n c e p t s
A skilled cutter’s faceting and pro-
portion choices unlock a diamond’s
unique optical potential.
2
8
Peter Johnston/GIA
When light enters a diamond, it follows complex pathways as it bounces off the
diamond’s interior surfaces.
sizes, arrangements, and angles can improve or diminish a gem’s optical
performance. This understanding led to the development of the state-of-
the-art GIA Diamond Cut-grading System.
A beautiful diamond looks the way it does because of three optical
effects: brightness, fire, and scintillation.
Brightness—called brilliance by many in the trade—is the combined
effect of all the diamond’s surface and internal white light reflections. Fire
is the display of spectral colors created by the interaction of white light
with a diamond’s facets. Scintillation consists of the flashes of light and
the contrasting dark areas you see when a faceted diamond, the light
source, or the observer moves. Together, these factors give the diamond
life and determine its visual appeal.
When diamond rough is unearthed, its brightness, fire, and scintillation
are still locked inside. As you learned in Assignment 6, it takes a lot of
processing to separate diamonds from their surrounding host rock. Even
after separation, some diamond crystals might have thick, dark coatings—
layers of lower transparency that must be polished away before cutting
can begin.
A skilled cutter knows how to make the right choices to unlock the
potential in a rough diamond. The proportions of a polished diamond—
its angles and relative measurements and the relationships between
them—have a dramatic effect on how light performs when it strikes that
diamond. The cutter’s choice of faceting style and proportions converts
diamond rough into a beautiful, dazzling gem.
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

Georges Gobet/AFP

Diamond crystals are rarely beautiful in

their rough form. They often don’t look
much different from the other minerals
in a miner’s basket.

Christie’s Images Inc. Eric Welch/GIA

Skilled cutting releases a diamond’s brightness, fire, and scintillation. These three The cutter unleashes a diamond’s opti-
properties are essential to its ability to dazzle the eye. cal potential by transforming a rough
crystal into a glittering gem.
You’ve already been introduced to the crystal structure of diamond.
This assignment will help you understand how light interacts with that
structure and the cutter’s skills to bring out a diamond’s matchless
beauty.

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DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 8

Facet Arrangement of a Standard Round Brilliant

NUMBER OF FACETS IN A
STANDARD ROUND BRILLIANT
Table
Bezel facet
Table 1
Bezel 8
Star 8 Star facet
Upper Girdle 16
(upper half)
Upper girdle facet
Crown Total 33
Lower Girdle 16 Crown

(lower half)
Girdle
Pavilion Main 8
Culet 1
Culet Pavilion
Pavilion Total 25
Total 58

Lower girdle facet

Pavilion main facet

Peter Johnston/GIA

Crown—Top part of a faceted gem, above the girdle.

Table facet—Facet at the top of the crown, usually the largest facet on the
stone.
Upper girdle facets—Facets that extend from the girdle edge toward the
table. Also known as “upper halves” in the trade.
Bezel facets—Diamond-shaped facets between the table and the girdle.
Star facets—Facets that extend from the table edge toward the girdle.
Girdle—Narrow section that forms the boundary between a stone’s
crown and pavilion.
Lower girdle facets—Facets that extend from the girdle edge toward the
culet. Also known as “lower halves” in the trade.
Pavilion—Lower part of a faceted gem, below the girdle.
Pavilion main facets—Diamond-shaped facets between the girdle and
the culet.
Culet—Small facet at the bottom of the diamond where the pavilion
mains meet. Its purpose is to protect loose diamonds against abrasion and
chipping.

4
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

AN INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT Wavelength—The distance

between two adjacent high points
■ What are the basic principles of light and its behavior? of an energy wave.
■ What happens to light when it strikes a diamond?

Diamonds and light interact in many ways. To understand their interac-

tion, you need to know a few things about light itself. First of all, visible
light is a form of radiant energy, or radiation. It’s a combination of elec-
tric and magnetic (electromagnetic) energies, and it travels in waves. All
electromagnetic energy, including light, is measured in wavelengths. A
wavelength is the distance between one high point and the next along the
path that an energy wave follows.
Light travels from its source to an object in a straight line, and then
bounces off the object to the viewer’s eye. If the object is transparent,
some of the light might also pass through it. Sometimes, the object and
the source are the same—the sun, a glowing coal, or a light bulb—and the
light goes directly from the source to your eye.
You can’t see a beam of light unless it meets your eye or falls on an
object. And you can see an object only if it scatters or reflects light. That’s
why a very clean window is almost invisible: The light passes through it
without being reflected or scattered.
Visible light is a small portion of the entire range of radiant energy,
which is called the electromagnetic spectrum. Besides visible light, the
electromagnetic spectrum also includes rays with very short wavelengths,
like gamma rays and X-rays, and very long ones, like radio waves.
Wavelengths in the visible spectrum are measured in nanometers, abbrevi-
ated nm. A nanometer is tiny: One nm equals a millionth of a millimeter.

Ke y C o n c e p t s
Light is a form of radiant energy that
wavelength travels in waves.

light source observer Visible light is a small portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum.

direction of travel

Peter Johnston/GIA

Light travels in waves along a straight line. A wavelength is the distance from one
high point in the wave to the next high point.

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 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING
Ke y C o n c e p t s
White light is a combination of all
the spectral colors.
Valerie Power/GIA
The light reflecting from the car’s window
shows an image of a neighboring car,
while transmitted light lets you see the
interior.
Transmission—The passage of
light into or through a material.
Reflection—The bouncing back of
light when it strikes a surface.
Angle of incidence—The angle at
which a ray of light strikes a sur-
face, measured from the normal.
6
8
visible light
infrared ultraviolet
740 610 570 500 450 357
590
wavelength (nm)
low energy high energy
Peter Johnston/GIA
Visible light, which consists of all the colors of the rainbow, is just a small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The numbers mark the boundaries of the spectral colors.
In the electromagnetic spectrum, ultraviolet (UV) radiation falls just
below visible light. Shortwave UV includes wavelengths from about 200
nm to 280 nm, and longwave UV falls between about 315 nm and 400 nm.
The visible spectrum begins at about 400 nm and extends to approxi-
mately 700 nm.
Your eye sees the combined rays from the visible spectrum as white
light, but that white light is really a combination of the spectral colors red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet.
TRANSMISSION AND REFLECTION
When light strikes any transparent material, including diamond, some of
it is transmitted, which means it enters the material. The rest bounces off.
That’s called reflection.
You experience transmission and reflection when you pass a store
window. You can see the displays inside because the window glass transmits
much of the light. The transmitted light strikes the merchandise inside the
window and comes back through the glass, making the display visible to
you. At the same time, some of the light reflects off the window’s surface
on the outside, so you can see yourself in the glass.
How much light enters a diamond and how much reflects from its surface
depends on a number of factors. First, it depends on the angle at which the
light strikes the diamond’s surface. At right angles—perpendicular—to the
surface, there’s maximum transmission of light. If light strikes nearly parallel
to the diamond’s surface, there’s maximum reflection.
The angle at which light hits a diamond’s surface is called the angle of
incidence, and the angle at which the light bounces off is known as the
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

Angle of reflection—The angle

between the normal and a
angle of reflected ray of light.
incidence
Normal—An imaginary line per-
angle of pendicular to the point where a
reflection ray of light strikes the surface.

= normal

When a light ray strikes the inner or outer surface of a diamond, the angle at
which it strikes is measured from the normal. The closer the light’s direction is to
the normal, the more of it travels into the diamond, and the less of it reflects off the
diamond’s surface.

Ke y C o n c e p t s
The angle of incidence always equals
the angle of reflection.

Both by Peter Johnston/GIA

Racquetball and table tennis players know that the ball will bounce back from a
surface at the same angle at which it hit. The same applies to light bouncing off a
diamond’s interior and exterior surfaces.

angle of reflection. Both are measured from the normal, an imaginary line
at a 90-degree angle to the point where the light strikes the surface. The
angle of incidence always equals the angle of reflection. This is true whether
the light rays are reflecting off the outside or the inside of the diamond.
The game of racquetball utilizes this principle. Experienced players
know that the ball will hit the wall and bounce back at the same angle. So
a ball coming from the right will strike the front wall at a specific angle
(incidence) and bounce toward the left wall at an angle (reflection) equal
to the first one. A light ray bouncing around inside a diamond is like a ball
bouncing off the walls of a racquetball court.

7
 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING
Bettman/Corbis
When you try to cross a crowded city square, the crowd slows your progress. The crowded conditions also keep you from
following the most direct path. You’re like a ray of light encountering diamond’s densely packed atoms.
Ke y C o n c e p t s
A material’s optical density affects
the speed of the light that passes
through it.
8
8
Light’s performance is affected in another way as it passes from air to
diamond or from diamond to air. As you learned in Assignment 7, diamond’s
atoms—unlike the atoms of other transparent gem materials—
are very tightly packed. This gives diamond its high optical density. The
higher the optical density of a material, the more it slows light down. Light
that enters a diamond meets the resistance of its closely packed carbon
atoms and slows down. When the light leaves the diamond, it speeds up
again because of air’s lower optical density.
Here’s an illustration of the relationship between optical density and
light speed: Imagine that you have to walk across a town plaza. If there
are only a few people in the plaza, you can walk straight across without
slowing down much, if at all. Now imagine that the plaza is packed with
people, almost shoulder to shoulder. It would take you a lot longer to cross
the plaza because you’d keep bumping into people as you worked your
way through the crowd. The people in the crowd are just like the closely
packed atoms in a diamond, and you’re like the light, slowing down as
you move through them.
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

The Speed of Light

diamond: 77,000
miles per second

air: 186,000 miles per second

air: 186,000 miles per second

Peter Johnston/GIA

Diamond causes light to change direction and slow considerably as it passes

through. Once it crosses back into the air, it speeds up again.

The speed of light isn’t always the same: It depends on the substance
that it’s traveling through. Because the carbon atoms in diamond’s
crystal structure are so tightly bonded, they slow incoming light
dramatically. Other minerals, like quartz, corundum, and topaz, don’t
slow light as much as diamond because their atoms are of different
elements and aren’t as tightly packed.
In the near vacuum of interstellar space—with almost no interfer-
ence—light speed is about 186,000 miles (almost 300,000 kilometers)
per second. It slows down a little as it enters the earth’s atmosphere.
In water, light slows to about 140,000 miles (225,000 km) per second.
In glass, it slows to about 123,000 miles (197,000 km) per second. But
diamond really puts on the brakes! In a diamond, light slows to about
77,000 miles (124,000 km) per second—less than half its speed in
space. When light leaves a diamond and goes back into the air, it imme-
diately resumes its original speed.

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 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 8

Refraction—Change in speed
and possible change in direction
of light as it travels from one
material to another.

Refractive index (RI)—A measure

of the change in the speed and
angle of light as it passes from
one material to another.

Valerie Power/GIA

Refraction makes the straw appear to bend at the place where it enters the water.
It’s actually the light that’s bending.

REFRACTION
When light strikes a diamond perpendicular to the diamond’s surface, the
light slows down and goes straight into the diamond without changing
direction. When light strikes the diamond’s surface at an angle other than
perpendicular, it slows down and also changes direction. This change in
speed and possible change in direction is called refraction.
The change of direction occurs because, when a light ray strikes at an
angle, one side of the ray contacts the denser material first and slows down
before the other side of the ray. This causes the ray to bend as it enters the
material. The direction of the bending, which is measured from the normal,
depends on whether the light is passing into a denser material or a less dense
material. When light travels from the air into a diamond, it bends toward the
normal. When light leaves a diamond, it bends away from the normal
because it’s traveling into a less dense medium—air.
The amount of bending depends on the difference in optical density
between the materials. It’s described by a ratio known as refractive index
(RI). Instruments that measure RI—including the standard gemological
refractometer—generally measure the angle of each ray as it bends from
the normal.

10
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

The greater the difference in optical density between two materials, the Ke y C o n c e p t s
more the light bends. Diamond’s RI is 2.417, one of the highest among Light rays that enter at the
natural transparent gem materials. Synthetic cubic zirconia (CZ), a common
diamond simulant, usually has an RI near 2.150. Synthetic moissanite, maximum angle of refraction form
another simulant, is more refractive than diamond: Its RI is about 2.670. a critical angle cone inside the
diamond.
CRITICAL ANGLE
Each facet of a diamond provides a point of contact—or interface—
between the diamond and the surrounding air. Light rays that arrive
perpendicular to a facet slow down and pass into the diamond without
bending. Rays arriving at angles other than 90 degrees slow and bend
toward the normal when they enter the diamond. Rays that arrive almost
parallel to the surface bend the most. They have the largest possible angle
of refraction.
Rays exiting a diamond—in any direction other than perpendicular to Critical angle—Angle between the
a facet—cross the interface and are bent away from the normal at an angle normal and the maximum angle of
greater than their angle of incidence. The critical angle is the largest angle refraction, which is the largest
at which light rays inside the diamond can escape. It’s the angle between angle at which rays inside the dia-
the normal and the maximum angle of refraction. The light rays that strike mond can escape.
the inner surface at the critical angle exit almost parallel to the diamond’s
surface.
All the light rays that strike a specific point on a facet’s inner or outer
surface form a three-dimensional cone around the normal. The cone that’s
formed by the light rays that strike an inner surface at the maximum angle
of refraction is called the critical angle cone. The cone’s side-to-side
measurement is twice the critical angle.

normal

critical angle cone These three light rays show what hap-
pens to light that’s returning to the
crown from the pavilion (left to right). If
it strikes within the critical angle, it exits
critical angle the diamond to the viewer’s eye. If it
strikes at an angle close to the edge of
the critical angle, it exits almost parallel
to the surface. If it strikes outside the
Both by Peter Johnston/GIA critical angle, it’s completely reflected
Light can exit a diamond only when it strikes inside the critical angle. Ideally, a light back into the diamond.
ray should enter the crown, strike the pavilion outside the critical angle, and reflect to
the opposite side. Once more, it should strike outside the critical angle and return to
the inner surface of the crown, where it strikes within the critical angle and exits.

11
DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 8

Peter Johnston/GIA

In a poorly proportioned diamond, most of the light strikes the pavilion within a critical
angle cone and exits the diamond without returning to the crown. This make the
diamond look dark.

If the pavilion is too deep (left) or too shallow (center), it allows light to strike the
interface inside the critical angle and exit. A properly proportioned pavilion (right)
controls the way light travels through a diamond and forces it to exit through the
crown, giving the diamond maximum brightness.

correctly proportioned too shallow too deep

Peter Johnston/GIA

In a well-proportioned diamond, a high percentage of the light rays reflect back to

the eye as brightness. If the gem is too shallow or too deep, a high percentage of
the light rays exit through the pavilion without contributing to brightness.

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 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

Ke y C o n c e p t s
The higher a gem’s RI, the smaller
its critical angle.

Nicholas DelRe/GIA

When light exits through the pavilion of a diamond rather than through the crown, it
results in dark areas like these.

Light inside the diamond can exit only when it strikes within a critical
angle cone at an angle that’s less than or equal to the critical angle. When
the light strikes outside the critical angle cone, it reflects back into the
diamond. This is called total reflection.
The more a material bends light—the higher its RI—the smaller
its critical angle. Diamond’s high RI means it has a small critical angle—
24.5 degrees. The small critical angle is one reason why well-cut
diamonds can be so bright. A small critical angle gives light less oppor-
tunity to exit.
In a well-proportioned pavilion, light strikes repeatedly outside multiple
critical angles. This causes the light to reflect inside the diamond several
times before it strikes an interface within the critical angle and is finally able
to exit. These multiple reflections contribute to the diamond’s overall
brightness, fire, and scintillation.
If the pavilion is too deep or too shallow, it can force the light to strike Peter Johnston/GIA

the interface inside the critical angle. When that happens, the light leaves Most colored stones have lower RIs
through the pavilion, reducing the diamond’s optical performance. Even than diamond, which means they have
larger critical angles. Their pavilions
if it reflects properly from the first pavilion interface, it might strike a have to be deeper to compensate for
second pavilion interface within the critical angle and exit there. this and achieve maximum brightness.
Most gems have much larger critical angles than diamond. The differ-
ences in gems’ critical angles are important to cutters because they require
variations in pavilion angles. Gems like quartz and beryl have lower RIs
and larger critical angles than diamond, so their pavilions have to be much
deeper to reflect the light back through their crowns instead of allowing it
to exit through the pavilions.

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 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 8

Diamonds and Grease

You might be wondering how the
principles of light return apply
to the everyday operation of a
diamond business. Well, RI isn’t
just a number. It also provides a
really good reason to keep dia-
monds clean.
Diamond has a remarkable
affinity for grease and oily sub-
stances. That means that grease
and diamonds stick to each other.
As you learned in Assignment 6,
miners took advantage of this
Peter Johnston/GIA affinity by using a grease belt to
A layer of grease or oil on the pavilion separate rough diamonds from
of a diamond reduces its optical other minerals. They covered the
performance by increasing its critical surface of the belt with a mixture
angle. This causes more light to
escape through the pavilion. of wax and grease. When the
crushed ore mixture washed over
the grease belt, the waste materials washed away and the diamonds
stuck to the greasy surface.
The same property that made the grease belt possible is a disad-
vantage when a diamond becomes part of a piece of jewelry. When
it’s handled or worn, it gradually accumulates a layer of skin oil and
other greases, losing its direct contact with the air. This changes the
diamond-to-air interface to a diamond-to-grease interface.
While the RI of air is 1.0, the RI of the grease layer is around 1.50.
In any area where a material with an RI between the values for air and
diamond contacts the gem with no air pocket in between, the diamond’s
critical angle increases.
A clean diamond’s critical angle is 24.5 degrees. Where grease
contacts a diamond’s surface, the critical angle increases to about 38
degrees—about 55 percent larger. This results in the loss of a lot of
the light that would have reflected from a clean pavilion. Instead of
going back out through the crown, it falls inside the wider critical
Both by Maha Tannous/GIA
angle cone and leaks out through the pavilion. This diminishes the
Diamonds attract grease, and the grease
layer interferes with light performance
diamond’s overall brightness, even if it’s well cut.
(top). When a diamond is cleaned, its There’s an important lesson in these facts: Keep the diamonds you
brightness and luster return (bottom).
carry or display as clean as possible. Always handle them with tweezers
and rub them with a cleaning cloth before and after you present them to
your clients.

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 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

Peter Johnston/GIA

When white light passes through a prism, it’s broken up into its spectral colors
(above). This is called dispersion, and it causes fire (right), one of diamond’s most
important optical properties.

DISPERSION
As you learned earlier, white light is a combination of all the spectral
colors, each with its own energy and wavelength. When it strikes a material
that’s denser than air—like a glass prism—at an angle, the light slows,
bends, and separates into its component colors.
When mineralogists and gemologists determine RI, they use a specific
wavelength in the yellow portion of the visible spectrum as the standard
for measurement. They call this narrow yellow spectral portion, or band,
“sodium light.” Sodium light’s value falls within the visible spectrum at
589 nm. Scientists use the RI that corresponds to sodium light—2.417—
to define diamond’s RI.
In reality, the RI of most solid transparent materials, including diamond, Eric Welch/GIA
is different for different wavelengths of light. Light at both ends of the Most diamond simulants are much more
visible spectrum—the violet and red wavelengths—have different RIs. dispersive than diamond.
The value for violet is 431 nm and the value for red is 687 nm. Their
differing values cause them to refract to different degrees within diamond. Dispersion—An optical property
This is what causes light to separate into a spectrum or rainbow when it that’s the difference between the
passes through a prism. RI values of specific violet and red
wavelengths of visible light for a
Diamond slows and bends some wavelengths of light more than others. given material.
In diamond, violet and blue wavelengths slow and bend the most, while
red wavelengths slow and bend the least. Gemologists use the difference
in RI between the violet ray (2.451 RI) and the red ray (2.407 RI) to Ke y C o n c e p t s
mathematically define diamond’s dispersion as 0.044. White light breaks up into its
Diamond’s dispersion is among the highest of any natural transparent component colors when it passes at
gem material, but there are some simulants that are more dispersive than an angle into a denser material.
diamond. CZ’s dispersion, for example, is 0.060, and synthetic moissanite’s
dispersion is 0.104. When you’re separating diamond from these simulants,
their higher dispersion provides an important visual clue: Their rainbow Each spectral color has its own RI
colors are more prominent than diamond’s. and angle of refraction.

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 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING
Luster—The appearance of a
material’s surface in reflected
light.
Adamantine luster—The highest
degree of luster possible in a
transparent material.
Excellent
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8
LIGHT AND A DIAMOND’S APPEARANCE
■ Which proportions contribute the most to a diamond’s
brightness?
■ What factors influence the amount of fire a diamond displays?
■ What are the two components of scintillation?
A skillfully cut diamond’s proportions maximize its interaction with light.
Well-cut diamonds are brighter and more beautiful than poorly fashioned
ones, even if they’re of equivalent size, color, and clarity. When light
interacts with a fashioned diamond, the quality of its cut shows in its
brightness, fire, and scintillation.
BRIGHTNESS
As you learned earlier, cutters design most fashioned diamonds so a light
ray that enters through the crown strikes a pavilion facet outside the critical
angle, reflects to the opposite pavilion facet—again outside the critical
angle—and eventually reflects back toward the diamond’s crown. Many
light rays finally strike the crown facets within critical angles and exit
the gem to the viewer’s eyes, contributing to the diamond’s display of
brightness.
Diamond’s brightness is possible because of its extremely high
luster—the appearance of its surface in reflected light. The higher a gem’s
RI, the more light its surface reflects. Surface quality is also important. A
smooth, even surface produces a clear reflection. If the surface texture is
uneven, as on a piece of frosted glass or the unpolished girdle of a diamond,
the surface irregularities catch the light at many different angles and
reflect it in a lot of different directions. This produces fuzzy or diffuse
reflections.
As you’ve learned, diamond has an exceptionally high RI. And its
superior hardness allows it to take and hold a superior polish. These features
combine to give a finished diamond a distinctive luster described as
adamantine, which literally means “diamond-like.”
Good Poor
All by Eric Welch/GIA
A diamond’s level of brightness indicates its probable cut grade. These diamonds
(left to right) have high brightness, moderate brightness, and low brightness.
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

Eric Welch/GIA

Diamond’s hardness allows it to take a high polish, so it has the highest luster of all
transparent gemstones (left). Others, like turquoise (right), have lower luster than
diamond.

The polished surfaces of many other familiar gemstones lack the shine Ke y C o n c e p t s
of a diamond. Their luster is vitreous, which means “glass-like.” When All diamonds have the same
light strikes a well-polished diamond’s surface at a 90-degree angle, 17 dispersion value, but differences in
percent of that light is reflected and 83 percent enters the gem. Glass
reflects only four percent of the light that strikes it at the same angle. diamond cut bring out differing
Some gems, like well-polished garnets and zircons, have a luster
amounts of fire.
somewhat brighter than vitreous but still not equal to diamond. They’re
classified as subadamantine. The brightest luster, which occurs on fresh,
highly polished metal surfaces—or a gem like hematite—is labeled
metallic. At the other extreme, surfaces like those on unglazed pottery
have dull luster.

FIRE
Not all gems separate light enough for dispersion to be visible, but
diamonds do. Diamond professionals use the term “fire” to describe a
diamond’s display of dispersion. Fire is defined as the rainbow colors you
see when you move a well-proportioned diamond under the correct lighting.
Fire results from the arrangement of a diamond’s facets and the angles
between them. So, although every diamond has the same dispersion value,
not every diamond shows the same amount of fire. Four factors of the
interaction between diamonds and light contribute to the fire you see in
the face-up view of a diamond.

17
 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 8
Peter Johnston/GIA
The angle of incidence affects the way
light separates into its spectral colors.
When a light ray strikes exactly perpen-
dicular to a facet surface, it travels into
the gem without separating (left). At
greater angles, the spread of spectral
colors widens (center and right).
18
©Harold and Erica Van Pelt
Diamonds have a special ability to break light up into its spectral colors, causing the
fire you see in these beautiful gems. Slight variations in their proportions cause
them to show differing amounts of fire.
First is the angle at which light enters the diamond. As soon as white
light enters a diamond, the spectral colors begin to spread and separate.
The greater the angle, the greater the refraction. If the angle of incidence
is one degree, for example, the difference between the angles of refraction
for violet and red is very small—less than one one-hundredth of a
degree—and you won’t see much fire. At the maximum interior angle of
incidence—24.5 degrees—the spread is closer to half a degree, and the
fire is a little more visible.
Second is the number of times a light ray interacts with the diamond’s
internal facets. Dispersion increases every time light reflects or refracts,
which happens many times within a well-cut diamond. The farther the
dispersed rays travel in a diamond, the greater the difference between
them, and the more visible the spectral colors become.
Facet junctions also influence fire. As a ray of light enters a diamond,
especially at a shallow angle, it begins to separate into its spectral colors. If
the colored wavelengths happen to strike on opposite sides of a facet junc-
tion, the colors can divide and take completely different paths as they travel
through the diamond. Each new set of spectral colors contributes to the dia-
mond’s fire. The more times this happens, the more fire a diamond displays.
Finally, there’s the angle of the light rays as they exit the diamond.
Basically, the smaller the exit angle, the larger the angle of refraction.
This means that the colored bands will spread farther apart, creating the
appearance of greater fire. Some cuts are designed with increased numbers
of crown facets to take advantage of this effect.
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

AIR
facet DIAMOND
junction

white light
enters here

Both by Peter Johnston/GIA

When a ray of white light enters a diamond, it begins to When white light enters a diamond at a shallow angle, it
separate into its spectral colors. The farther the dispersed begins to disperse immediately. If it strikes across a facet
rays travel within the diamond, the wider their spread. junction, it bounces off in more than one direction. This can
increase the amount of fire displayed by a diamond.

All by Eric Welch/GIA

Lighting can affect a diamond’s display of fire. Fluorescent lighting (left) suppresses fire, while incandescent lighting (center)
emphasizes it. When the lighting is mixed (right), there’s more balance between brightness and fire.

Lighting can also affect fire. Diffuse lighting—such as that produced

by fluorescent lights—bounces off the surrounding walls and furnishings
so the light that strikes the diamond comes from all angles. This type of
lighting emphasizes a diamond’s brightness but suppresses its fire.
Directional lighting—also called spotlighting or point source lighting—
strikes a diamond only from certain angles. This type of bright illumination
contrasts with the surrounding dark areas to bring out the fire in a diamond.
A mix of fluorescent and incandescent lighting creates a balance between
brightness and fire.

19
DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 8

Both by Eric Welch/GIA

Many jewelry retailers use directional spotlighting to bring out the fire in the store’s
diamond displays (top). Colored lighting and other background colors can produce
a false appearance of fire (bottom).

You can see fire only if the dispersed light waves travel separately to
your eye. This might not always happen because, just as white light spreads
out into colors as it enters the diamond, colored light can recombine into
white light as it exits. Because diamonds are best appreciated face-up,
cutters direct the greatest display of fire through the gem’s crown. That’s
why the best way to see how much fire a diamond has is to rock and tilt
it and change its orientation.
Sometimes background colors—like clothing or objects of contrasting
color surrounding a diamond—can produce the appearance of fire.

20
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

SCINTILLATION
Scintillation has two components: sparkle and pattern. Sparkle appears as 2 1
flashing spots of light. In an attractive diamond, they’re evenly distributed
and balanced in size. Pattern is the relative size, arrangement, and contrast
of the bright and dark areas. 3

The bright areas result from surface and internal reflections. The dark
areas might represent a loss of light through the diamond, or reflections
from the diamond—both of which direct light away from the viewer’s
eye—or they might be reflections of dark objects around the diamond.
They might also be a combination of two or three of these factors.
2
A diamond’s face-up pattern reveals almost every choice the cutter 1
made to fashion the gem. A steep crown or deep pavilion, for example,
probably makes a diamond darker than it would be if it had a crown or
3
pavilion of more standard dimensions. An off-center culet causes a
diamond’s pattern to be off-center.
There must be enough contrast between the bright and dark areas to
give the pattern a crisp, sharp look. A diamond that lacks contrast can look
Both by Eric Welch/GIA
dull and gray.
Motion under incandescent light caused
Unattractive diamonds tend to have obvious or prominent dark areas changes in this diamond’s pattern of
that detract from their face-up appearance. They might also have combi- light and dark. The small but distinct
changes are most obvious in the
nations of patterns that give them an overly dark appearance. If a diamond’s numbered areas.
patterns are excessively dark, it’s probably because the cutter took steps
to retain more weight from the rough. These steps often lead to light
leakage from the diamond, which diminishes its optical performance.
The diamond pattern called a fisheye is a pale gray reflection of the Sparkle—The spots of light
girdle just inside the diamond’s table facet. Another diamond pattern is the that flash as the diamond, the
dark center—a dark area in the center of the table. Stones with this pattern observer, or the light source
are sometimes referred to as “nailheads.” The pattern known as dark moves.
radiating mains is a dark spoke-like pattern of radiating pavilion mains.
Pattern—The relative size,
A polished diamond’s interaction with light is very complex. Not all
arrangement, and contrast of
diamonds with high brightness and fire have attractive patterns. Some
bright and dark areas that result
patterns detract from a diamond’s appearance more than others. Fisheyes from a diamond’s internal and
and dark centers are very detrimental to a diamond’s appearance. Dark external reflections.
radiating mains aren’t too distracting unless the dark mains extend beyond
the table facet, cause the center of the gem around the culet to appear dark
from the face-up view, or both.

Ke y C o n c e p t s
A diamond’s face-up pattern reveals
almost all of the cutter’s fashioning
choices.

All by Al Gilbertson & Barak Green

Diamond patterns that contribute to scintillation include the fisheye (left), dark
center (center), and dark radiating mains (right).

21
 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING
Al Gilbertson/GIA
GIA researchers studied computerized
diamond models as well as real diamonds
to arrive at specific criteria for the GIA
cut grades. The grades apply to standard
round brilliants.
22
8
The Evolution of the GIA Cut Grade
The relationship between a dia-
mond’s cut and its appearance is
complex. To develop the cut grade
for standard round brilliant
diamonds, GIA researchers con-
sidered the same question that
diamond cutters have pondered
for decades: What effect do vari-
ations in a diamond’s proportions
have on its appearance?
GIA researchers developed
a computer-modeled “virtual”
diamond for initial study. It was
a digital model of a standard 58-
facet round brilliant with a fully
faceted girdle. The model was
completely colorless and flawless,
with perfect symmetry and polish.
After using this computer model to arrive at preliminary values for
brightness, fire, and scintillation, researchers turned to real diamonds
to confirm and refine their findings.
A combination of scientific research and real-life observation
led GIA researchers to conclude that while every facet matters, a
diamond’s appearance arises from the combined effect of all its
proportions. Based on this conclusion, they introduced a cut-grading
system for the round brilliant diamond.
Rather than considering individual proportions in isolation, the
system considers how those proportions relate to each other.
For example, if one proportion is more extreme than the others, an
otherwise well-cut diamond might get a lower cut grade.
The system also recognizes another research finding—that no
one set of angles or proportions is the only way to make a beautiful
diamond. In fact, there are many possible combinations. Each cut
grade allows for a variety of appearances, so two diamonds with the
same grade won’t necessarily have the same appearance.
The GIA cut-grading system considers both global and individual
preferences. Some consumers prefer bright diamonds, while others
prefer more fire. Some like to see particular symmetrical patterns in
a diamond’s face-up appearance. But the system also represents a
consensus: Not many people like diamonds in the lower cut grades,
while almost everyone likes diamonds in the two top grades.
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

CUT-GRADING THE ROUND BRILLIANT

■ What are the cut grades in the GIA system?
■ Why is proper lighting important to diamond cut grading?

Each facet in a well-cut diamond contributes its share of optical magic. They
work together like a tiny set of mirrors to interact with light and create the
gem’s face-up appearance. Contributing to that interaction are the diamond’s
basic proportions and the precision of its facets. Every angle and every facet
affects the amount of light returned or lost.
GIA has developed a cut-grading system for standard round brilliant
diamonds in all clarities across the D-to-Z color range. The system assigns
one of five cut grades: Excellent (Ex), Very Good (VG), Good (G), Fair
(F), and Poor (P).

Excellent Very Good

There are five GIA cut grades for
All by Eric Welch/GIA standard round brilliant diamonds.

Ke y C o n c e p t s
GIA diamond cut grades apply to
standard round brilliants in all clari-
ties across the D-to-Z color range.

Good Fair

These diamonds are examples of each

of the GIA cut grades.

Poor

23
 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING
Ke y C o n c e p t s
Variations in lighting and surroundings
can affect a diamond’s appearance.
Fluorescent lighting helps you
evaluate a diamond’s brightness,
while spotlighting helps you evaluate
its fire.
Eric Welch/GIA
The GIA DiamondDock™ provides a
neutral background and consistent
lighting for diamond cut grading.
24
8
Christie’s Images Inc.
The best-quality diamonds are always well cut. They’re extremely beautiful because
the cutters plan their angles for maximum light return.
VISUAL ESTIMATION
Before taking formal measurements, graders use visual observation to
estimate the diamond’s potential cut grade. An important first step is to
make sure the lighting environment allows for consistent and repeatable
results.
Diamonds interact with light so completely that the same diamond can
look quite different when it’s viewed under different types of lighting
in different positions. Diamonds also reflect everything around them, even
nearby furniture and a grader’s head and clothing. That’s why a standardized
viewing environment and neutral background are essential for consistent
grading results.
Fluorescent lighting from an overhead or desk lamp can help you
evaluate a diamond’s brightness, but the same light suppresses its fire.
Spotlighting emphasizes a diamond’s fire, but if it’s too strong it can
overwhelm everything else and make the gem appear dark.
The GIA DiamondDock™ is designed to provide consistent and
repeatable viewing conditions for every diamond a grader assesses. It
features daylight-equivalent fluorescent light for judging brightness
and face-up pattern and an array of light emitting diodes (LEDs) for
judging fire.
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

After cleaning the diamond, the grader places it face-up in a grading Symmetry—The exactness of a
tray that’s then placed into the DiamondDock™ or other lighting finished gem’s shape and the
environment. placement of its facets.
The grader turns on the fluorescent light first to assess the diamond’s
Polish—The overall condition of
brightness and pattern. Depending on how “lively” the stone looks, it gets the facet surfaces of a finished
a brightness rating of Excellent to Poor. The grader then assesses the diamond.
amount of contrast and the balance between the bright and dark areas to
assign a pattern grade of Excellent to Poor.
Next, switching to spotlighting, the grader evaluates the diamond’s
fire. Based on the flashes of fire that are visible, the diamond’s fire can be
rated Excellent to Poor.
Finally, the grader checks the diamond’s profile for hidden weight, an
extremely thin girdle, or obvious deviations in the shape and placement of
the diamond’s facets, called symmetry. An examination of the diamond’s
surface condition, or polish, completes the grader’s evaluation.
The initial cut grade estimate is based on the lowest rating assigned for
brightness, fire, or pattern. For example, if a diamond’s brightness and fire
rate Very Good but its pattern rates Good, the cut grade estimate that
results from this visual assessment is Good.
After the visual assessment is complete, the next part of the process
involves carefully measuring a diamond’s proportions to arrive at a final
cut grade. You’ll learn about this part of the cut-grading process in
Assignments 14 and 15.

All by Eric Welch/GIA

To check for brightness, the grader turns on the fluorescent light (top left) and
places the diamond in the neutral gray tray (bottom left). The grader then tilts the
tray to examine the diamond at different angles (right).

25
 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 8
The grader switches from fluorescent
light to incandescent light (top) and
places the diamond in the tray, then tilts
it in different directions to observe the
diamond’s display of fire (bottom).
26
Although the DiamondDock™ is the best cut-grading option, you can assess a
diamond’s fire using a penlight or small flashlight. In addition, a microscope’s
overhead fluorescent light is an acceptable alternative for grading brightness.
All by Eric Welch/GIA
Careful, skilled cutting takes advantage of diamond’s crystal structure to make it the
exquisite and much-loved gem that it is.
Diamond’s crystal structure and optical properties make the final result
possible, but it’s skilled cutting that maximizes a diamond’s brightness, fire,
and scintillation. This special combination of nature’s creation and human
skill is what makes a fashioned diamond so unique. In the next assignment,
you’ll discover how cutters turn diamond rough into beautiful, glittering
gems.
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT
Ke y C o n c e p t s
A fashioned diamond’s optical display is meant to be seen
face-up and in motion.
A skilled cutter’s faceting and proportion choices unlock a
diamond’s unique optical potential.
Light is a form of radiant energy that travels in waves.
Visible light is a small portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
White light is a combination of all the spectral colors.
The angle of incidence always equals the angle of reflection.
A material’s optical density affects the speed of the light
that passes through it.
Light rays that enter at the maximum angle of refraction
form a critical angle cone inside the diamond.
The higher a gem’s RI, the smaller its critical angle.
White light breaks up into its component colors when it
passes at an angle into a denser material.
Each spectral color has its own RI and angle of refraction.
All diamonds have the same dispersion value, but differences
in diamond cut bring out differing amounts of fire.
A diamond’s face-up pattern reveals almost all of the cutter’s
fashioning choices.
GIA diamond cut grades apply to standard round brilliants in
all clarities across the D-to-Z color range.
Variations in lighting and surroundings can affect a diamond’s
appearance.
Fluorescent lighting helps you evaluate a diamond’s
brightness, while spotlighting helps you evaluate its fire.
27
 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 8

Key Terms
Adamantine luster—The highest degree of luster
possible in a transparent material.
Angle of incidence—The angle at which a ray of light
strikes a surface, measured from the normal.
Angle of reflection—The angle between the normal
and a reflected ray of light.
Brightness—The effect of all the diamond’s internal
and external reflections of white light.
Critical angle—Angle between the normal and the
maximum angle of refraction, which is the largest
angle at which rays inside the diamond can escape.
Dispersion—An optical property that’s the difference
between the RI values of specific violet and red
wavelengths of visible light for a given material.
Fire—The flashes of color you see in a polished
diamond.
Luster—The appearance of a material’s surface in
reflected light.
Normal—An imaginary line perpendicular to the point
where a ray of light strikes the surface.
Pattern—The relative size, arrangement, and contrast
of bright and dark areas that result from a diamond’s
internal and external reflections.
Proportions—The angles and relative measurements
of a polished gem and the relationships between
them.
Reflection—The bouncing back of light when it
strikes a surface.
Refraction—Change in speed and possible change in
direction of light as it travels from one material to
another.
Refractive index (RI)—A measure of the change in
the speed and angle of light as it passes from one
material to another.
Scintillation—The flashes of light and the contrasting
dark areas you see when the diamond, the light, or
the observer moves.
Sparkle—The spots of light that flash as the diamond,
the observer, or the light source moves.
Symmetry—The exactness of a finished gem’s shape
and the placement of its facets.
Transmission—The passage of light into or through a
material.
Wavelength—The distance between two adjacent
high points of an energy wave.

Polish—The overall condition of the facet surfaces of

a finished diamond.

28
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

ASSIGNMENT 8

QUESTIONNAIRE

Each of the questions or incomplete statements below is followed by several possible answers. Choose
the ONE that BEST answers the question or completes the statement. Then place the letter (A, B, C, or D)
corresponding to your answer in the blank at the left of the question.
If you’re unsure about any question, go back, review the assignment, and find the correct answer. When
you’ve answered all the questions, transfer your answers to the answer sheet.

________1. The relative size, arrangement, and contrast of bright and dark areas that result from a
diamond’s internal and external reflections is called
A. pattern.
B. sparkle.
C. refraction.
D. transmission.

________2. The flashes of color you see in a polished diamond are called
A. fire.
B. brilliance.
C. dispersion.
D. scintillation.

________3. Variations in lighting and surroundings can affect a diamond’s

A. RI.
B. SG.
C. luster.
D. appearance.

________4. Visible light is

A. also called brilliance.
B. the result of dispersion.
C. a form of radiant energy.
D. a type of ultraviolet radiation.

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE...

IF YOU NEED HELP: Contact your instructor through GIA online, or call 800-421-7250 toll-free in the US and Canada, or 760-603-4000;
after hours you can leave a message.

29
DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 8

________5. White light is actually

A. shortwave radiation.
B. the result of dispersion.
C. the result of transmission.
D. a combination of all the spectral colors.

________6. The passage of light into or through a material is called

A. reflection.
B. dispersion.
C. absorption.
D. transmission.

________7. The higher the optical density of a material, the

A. less it bends light.
B. less it reflects light.
C. more it speeds light up.
D. more it slows light down.

________8. The change in speed and possible change in direction of light as it travels from one
material to another is called
A. reflection.
B. refraction.
C. dispersion.
D. scintillation.

________9. In order to exit a diamond, light must strike an inner surface

A. at a facet junction.
B. inside the critical angle.
C. outside the critical angle.
D. nearly parallel to the surface.

________10. The flashes of light and the contrasting dark areas you see when the diamond, the light,
or the observer moves are called
A. extinction.
B. dispersion.
C. scintillation.
D. transmission.

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE...

30
 DIAMONDS AND LIGHT

________11. The appearance of a material’s surface in reflected light is called

A. luster.
B. reflectance.
C. polish quotient.
D. incident light return.

________12. Grease on the pavilion of a diamond results in

A. more fire.
B. greater brilliance.
C. a smaller critical angle.
D. more light leakage through the pavilion.

________13. The difference between the RI values of specific violet and red wavelengths of visible
light for a given material is its
A. fire.
B. dispersion.
C. critical angle.
D. transmission value.

________14. The angle of incidence always equals the

A. RI.
B. angle of reflection.
C. dispersion of diamond.
D. critical angle of diamond.

________15. The combined effect of all the diamond’s surface and internal white light reflections is its
A. brightness.
B. reflectivity.
C. scintillation.
D. transmission.

31
 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 8

PHOTO COURTESIES
The Gemological Institute of America gratefully acknowledges the following people and organizations
for their assistance in gathering or producing some of the images used in this assignment:
Finell’s Jewelers, 20 (top)
Hearts On Fire, 1 (top)
Lauren Stomel Advertising/Krystall Smolensk, 15 (top right)

32
 1. Introduction: Beyond the Essentials

2. Birth of the Modern Diamond Industry

3. The Modern Diamond Market

4. How Diamonds Form

5. Exploring for Diamonds

6. Diamond Mining

7. The Diamond Crystal

8. Diamonds and Light

9. The Evolution of Diamond Cutting

10. Finding and Identifying Clarity

Characteristics

11. Grading Clarity

12. Diamonds and Color

13. Grading Color

14. Grading Proportions—Table, Crown,

and Girdle

15. Grading Proportions—Pavilion and

Culet—and Evaluating Finish

16. Grading Fancy Cuts

17. Estimating Weight, Recutting, and

Repolishing

18. Diamond Simulants

19. Synthetics and Treatments

20. Succeeding in the Marketplace