C L I N I C A L A N D E X P E R I M E N T A L
OPTOMETRY
Sports eyewear protective standards
Clin Exp Optom 2016; 99: 4–23
Stephen J Dain BSc PhD FCOptom FAAO
FIESA(ANZ)
Optics & Radiometry Laboratory, School of Optometry
and Vision Science, The University of New South Wales,
Kensington, New South Wales, Australia
E-mail: s.dain@unsw.edu.au
Submitted: 9 February 2015
Revised: 26 April 2015
Accepted for publication 28 April 2015
Key words: eye and face protection, eye injuries, eye protection, sport, sports injuries
In assessing the need for and usefulness of
standards for eye protection, it would be use-
ful to include consideration of the exposure
to risk in the form of statistics on participa-
tion in sport and the injury rates. This is
important since it allows distinction between
similar numbers of injuries that come from
the range of very different scenarios from
high risk with low participation to low risk
with high participation. Reliable data on
participation rates seem rather elusive. For
instance, the Football Federation Australia
claims 1.96 million ‘actively involved in the
game as a player, coach or match official’1
while the Fédération Internationale de Foot-
ball Association (FIFA) lists Australia as hav-
ing about half that number of players
(435,728 registered and 535,00 unregistered)
and 67,632 officials.2 Some sources include
being a fan in participation, so that the 264
million players claimed worldwide by FIFA2
inflates to 3.5 billion.3,4 Another measure
might be to identify the richest sports tourna-
ments in the world. In this case, four of the
top ten are football associations (soccer).5
The task of assessing participation rates has
Clinical and Experimental Optometry 99.1 January 2016
4
INVITED REVIEW
DOI:10.1111/cxo.12349
Eye injuries sustained during sport comprise up to 20 per cent of all injuries to the eye serious
enough for medical attention to be sought. The prevalence of eye injuries in sport is not easily
assessed due to lack of authoritative participation rates, so most studies report total numbers in
a time period. The evidence on the proportion of all ocular injuries that are from sport is
reviewed. The relative frequencies in different sports are compared in a qualitative manner
and the sports with greater numbers of ocular injuries are detailed. In common with occupa-
tional injuries to the eye, most sports eye injuries are considered preventable.
The hierarchy of action for occupational risk is detailed and adapted to use in a sports scenario.
All the available international, regional and national standards on sports eye protection are
detailed and their provisions compared. The major function of the standards is to provide
adequate protection against the hazard of the sport concerned. These are detailed and
compared as a function of energy transfer. Eye protection must not introduce additional or
secondary hazards (for instance, fracturing into sharp fragments on impact) and not introduce
features that would deter the wearing of eye protection (for instance, restricting field of view to
impede playing the sport). The provisions of the standards intended to limit secondary hazards
are detailed and compared.
The need for future work in standards writing and the activities of the International
Standardization Organization in sports eye protection are detailed.
been rated as a full-time project6 and this 6. field hockey
seems a fair assessment. As a consequence, it 7. ice hockey
seems unlikely that a valid risk estimate is 8. lacrosse
possible and absolute numbers of injuries is 9. squash/racquetball and
the less useful measure that remains. 10. tennis.
Sports Medicine Australia publishes their
evaluation of the risk in sports which, implic- MODERATE RISK SPORTS
itly, is based only on the consequences rather
These involve a high-speed ball or puck, the
than the likelihood.7 It is, nonetheless, a
use of a bat or stick, close aggressive physical
useful tabulation of the problem.
body contact with intentional or uninten-
tional collisions or a combination of these
HIGH-RISK SPORTS factors, for example:
1. American football (gridiron)
These involve small, high speed, dense pro-
2. archery/darts
jectiles in close proximity to athletes. Exam-
3. Australian rules football/rugby union/
ples include:
rugby league
Sports with small, high-velocity projectiles:
4. soccer/volleyball and
1. air rifle and
5. water polo.
2. paintball.
Sports with hard, dense projectiles, fingers at
LOW RISK SPORTS
close contact or the use of a bat or stick:
1. badminton These do not involve a thrown or hit ball, a
2. baseball/softball bat or stick or close aggressive play with phys-
3. basketball ical body contact, for example:
4. cricket/indoor cricket 1. athletics
5. fencing 2. cycling
© 2016 Optometry Australia

3. rowing/canoeing
4. skiing
5. swimming/diving and
6. water skiing.
DEMOGRAPHY OF SPORTS INJURIES
TO THE EYE
There has been a number of reviews of the
issues in sports eye protection8–12 and a
number of figures quoted from other studies.
Some studies directly report the proportion
of ocular injures that is sports-related. Many,
otherwise useful reports, group eye, face
and head injuries together (for instance, in
the Australian context13,14). There are many
problems in understanding the implications
of such data. They are not collected in a con-
sistent way, there are no data on the participa-
tion rates (both people and time per person),
they are mainly retrospective and, at the time
of reporting the outcome of the injury, may
not be evident.10 Different sports are played
to different extents in different nations. As a
consequence, such data should be taken as
only general guidance, when considering
the implications of ocular injuries due to
sports. Table 1 is a summary of 21 studies that
assess the proportion of ocular injuries that
are sports-related. In some cases, the differ-
ence between sport and recreation is not
explicit and in two cases, sport and play have
been explicitly combined. The injuries in-
cluded are almost entirely those for which
medical attention was sought, so the minor
injuries will be under-represented in these
data. With two exceptions, the proportion of
ocular injuries due to sport among all ocular
injuries does not rise above 20 per cent. In
the two where the proportion of ocular inju-
ries is higher, children were the main subjects
of the paper and injuries to the eye while
playing were included, so it is not surprising
that the proportion is very much increased.
The definition of a sport-related ocular injury
could be limited to organised sport, where
protective equipment is used and/or man-
dated or it could include backyard play. This
will, in all probability, make a very significant
difference in the demography of ‘sports-
related’ injuries to the eye. It also leads to
issues of classification. If an injury to the eye
is sustained playing cricket with a tennis ball
in the backyard, is it a cricket or a tennis injury?
This is not to say that eye protection in sport
is not a significant issue meriting attention,
but that some of the emotive articles on the
subject need to be seen as being based on
figures that may not be reliable.
© 2016 Optometry Australia
In Table 2 is reported a number of studies
that provide information on the sport in-
volved in the eye injury. The reported rate
of injury has been interpreted as a rank. No
sport is included in all reports and no report
contains all sports. The sports have been or-
dered from left to right in a hierarchy of sorts.
The rank has been scaled from 1 to 10 (to ac-
count for differing numbers of sports in each
report) and then averaged. ‘Soccer’ has been
used for Association football for brevity and
to distinguish it form other forms of football;
although it is a term that is generally under-
stood but used mainly in the USA and
Australia, purists deprecate its use. There is
a further useful report that groups the sports
and reports a hierarchy of decreasing risk as
baseball/softball, racquet sports, soccer/
rugby/football, basketball, golf and field
hockey.15 This is quite consistent with Table 2;
however, the observation that sport-related
injuries to the eye are not numerous16 seems
to be appropriate. It has been suggested that
sports contribute a disproportionate number
of severe ocular injuries. People presenting to
hospital with sports-related injuries to the eye
are more likely to be admitted than with
other injuries.17 This is a reminder that sam-
pling criteria and location may give signifi-
cantly different results on the incidence of
ocular injuries.
The papers on specific sports will be con-
sidered below. The sports that are both widely
known and played and which have the repu-
tation for eye injury are well represented in
Table 2. Flood and Harrison14 have a com-
prehensive study of injuries in Australian
sport. Much of the data are represented
graphically and it is not possible to extract
values for Table 2. A visual impression of the
data is that they are consistent with Table 2
except that Australian rules football injuries
are particularly evident. They also considered
motor sports, which have not commonly
been considered along with the other sports.
Table 2 is not a quantitative representation
of the data but provides a qualitative frame-
work for this review. Where available, reports
on the specific sports will be considered in
the order in which they appear in Table 2.
HURLING
Hurling is a game of the Irish and the Irish di-
aspora. It is played by men with a hard leather
ball (sliotar) and a hurley (which resembles a
field hockey stick). Camogie is the female ver-
sion of the game.50 The ball is 23 to 25 mm in
diameter and 110 to 120 grams but smaller
Sports eye protection Dain
balls are recommended for junior sport.
The ball can be propelled up to 42 metres
per second and up to 80 metres.51 As with
squash, this ball size is about the same size as
the adult human eye and in a direct hit on
the eye, the orbital bones provide no protec-
tion and the eye is compressed into the orbit.
1n 1984, 817 of 4,500 injuries seen at Cork
regional hospital were sustained playing
hurling.51 New rules were introduced on 1
January 2005 requiring helmets and masks
for under 18 year olds, after which there was
a significant reduction in injuries.52 On 1 April
2006 this was extended to all players under 21
years. Helmet wear has been compulsory for
all since 1 January 2010.53 The injury risk for
goalkeepers in hurling has resulted in their
being dubbed ‘The craziest men in sport’.54
ASSOCIATION FOOTBALL/SOCCER
In the rules of the game,55 the only mandated
protection is the use of shin guards, yet soccer
figures significantly in reports of the relative
frequency of sports injuries. The conven-
tional analysis of the propensity for injury to
the eye would tend to discount soccer as an
issue, given that the ball is several times larger
than the orbit; however, the property of the
ball to distort on impact may result in the for-
mation of a ‘knuckle’ that can enter the orbit.
During the rebound a secondary suction
effect is caused that distort the globe and its
contents.56 As a consequence, ocular injuries,
particularly of younger players, are widely
reported.15,20,27,33,35,43,56–62
GAELIC FOOTBALL
Gaelic football is played with a round ball,
slightly smaller than a soccer ball. It can be
kicked or ‘hand-passed’.63 While two stud-
ies34,46 (Table 2) rate it as having prominence
in ocular injuries, in another it does not rate
a mention of injuries to the eye compared
with muscular and skeletal injuries.64 Sports
Medicine Australia rate the closely related,
Australian rules football as moderate risk.7
Fourteen per cent of children’s sports injuries
in Australian rules football are to the eye, face
and head.65
PAINTBALL
Paintball sports certainly cause some severe
eye injuries and have accumulated an exten-
sive literature for such a young sport with its
adaptation for recreation being as recent as
1981.28,66–73 As is evident in other sports,
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Sports eye protection Dain

Sport eye injuries of

Source N all eye injuries % Venue Country Comments

Alfaro et al. (2005)18 9293 7.9 Eye Injury Registry USA Major eye trauma, defined as "cases
having the potential to cause permanent
loss of function or significant anatomic
disfiguration."
Ashaye (2008)19 472 3.2 Hospital admission Nigeria Traumatic hyphaema
Barr et al. (2000)20 416 12.5 Ophthalmology clinic Scotland
Blomdahl & Norell (1984)21 320 23 Hospital admissions Sweden Penetrating eye injury
Canavan et al. (1980)22 2032 Adult 4.8 Eye and ear clinic Ulster Play and sport
Children 33.8
Casson et al. (2002)23 105 2.8 Hospital Italy Open globe injuries
Cillino et al. (2008)24 298 17.5 Ophthalmology clinic Australia
Conn et al. (2006)25 6705 25.0 NEISS database26 USA Children and teenagers Head and neck
27
Drolsum (1999) 553 13.7 Ophthalmology clinic Norway
Filipe et al. (2003)28 25 8.3 Eye emergency department Portugal
Flood & Harrison (2006)14 6,653,772 0.7 National Hospital Morbidity Australia Hospitalisations
Database
Glynn et al. (1988)29 27 3.7 Telephone survey USA
Karaman et al. (2004)30 383 3.7 Ophthalmology clinic Croatia
Karlson & Klein (1986)31 1347 10.4 Emergency departments USA Sport and recreation
Klopfer et al. (1992) 32
69,729 <8.7 Hospital records USA Included in “Other”
Kujala et al. (11995)33 621,691 0.9 to 3.0 Insurance data Finland Depends on sport concerned
Lynch & Rowan (1997)34 5,835 1.7 Eye casualty department Ireland
MacEwen (1989)35 5,671 2.3 Eye casualty department Scotland
Ong et al. (2012)36 16,999 0.28 Eye emergency department England
37
Punnonen (1989) 387 3 Eye hospital Finland Perforating eye injuries
Rapoport (1990)38 1,127 65.1 Hospital admission Israel Children. Play and sport
Schein et al. (1988)15 3,184 9 Eye and ear emergency USA
Takvam & Midelfart (1993)39 238 10 Hospital admission Norway Children
40
Thordarson (1979) 105 3.8 Hospital admission Iceland
Voon et al. (2001)41 870 5 Emergency service Singapore

Table 1. Proportion of eye injuries that are sports related

children figure more prominently in injuries
reported.74,75 Paintball has been shown to
account for as little as 0.1 per cent of all sports
injuries25 or as much as 20.8 per cent of mod-
ern sports injuries to the eye.28 The topic of
paintball will be taken up in a separate publi-
cation. In Australia, the related sport of
‘airsoft’ is illegal. This is a similar sport to
paintball but using realistic replica weapons.
The pattern of injury occurrence is simi-
lar76,77 and again, children are particularly
at risk.78
SQUASH
When the subject of ocular injuries sports
comes up, squash inevitably becomes a topic
of conversation. The ocular hazards of playing
squash have long been documented.79–83 and
the attitudes of the players to and use of eye
protectors has been investigated probably bet-
ter than in any other sport.84–89
BASKETBALL
While basketball has been identified as a rela-
tively frequent contributor to ocular injuries
(Table 2), specific studies are difficult to iden-
tify. It seems that fingers (35.6 per cent) and
elbows (28.8 per cent) are the most common
agents of the injury. Injuries to the eye and
adnexa make up 5.4 per cent of the injuries.90
ICE HOCKEY
In the 1976–7 season, facemasks were intro-
duced to Canadian hockey and the number
of injuries in the next four seasons was about
one-quarter what it had been in the two
seasons before the introduction.91,92 This
followed concern with the level of ocular
injuries in the sport.93,94 Pucks and high sticks
were the main problems.95 Between that time
and 2000, no blinding eye injury has been
reported;96,97 however, injuries are still
being reported,95,98 particularly in older
players.99,100 The average age of a hockey
player receiving a blinding injury to the eye
was 26 in 1987.95 In 1990, the addition of a
half visor to the standard reduced injuries
but the incorrect wearing of the protection
still permits injuries.97
BADMINTON
Most injuries in badminton result from a
smash hit and the impact of the end of

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 Sports eye protection Dain

Source N Country Hurling Soccer Gaelic football Paintball Squash Basketball Bandy Ice hockey
Alfaro et al (2005)18 732 USA 7 4
Barr et al. (2000)20 416 Scotland 1 2
Chan et al. (1993)42 2,293 Hong Kong 1 2
Drolsum (1999)27 76 Norway 1 4 3
Capao Filipe et al. (1997) 82 Portugal 1 3=
Capao Filipe et al. (2003)28 288 Portugal 2 1
Gregory (1986)43 92 England 2 1 7
Jones (1987)44 84 England 1 2 10
Jones (1988)45 52 England 1 2
31
Karlson & Klein (1986) 1,347 USA 2 1 3
Kelly & Nolan (1983)46 45 Ireland 1 3 2 4
Kujala et al. (1995)33 621,691 Finland 5 1= 4
Lynch & Rowan (1997)34 5,835 Ireland 1 2 3= 10=
MacEwen (1989)35 5,671 Scotland 1 2
Mourouziz & 125 Greece 1 2
Koumoura (2005)47
Ong et al. (2012)36 48 England 1 2
Pieper (2010)48 32,297 USA 4 2 3
Youn et al. (2008)49 10 USA 3 1

Table 2. Most implicated sports

the shuttlecock, which has a diameter of
18 mm. This means that the projectile may
enter the orbit in a similar fashion to a
squash ball.101–103
TENNIS
Tennis is said to rank in the top five sports16
for eye injury, accounting for seven to 11
per cent of sports-related ocular injury based
on a number of studies,17,43,45,61 while an-
other shows only three per cent.62 There is
one study that considered participation and
relegated tennis from fifth place to seventh
place.17 Retinal detachments are reported as
a problem in tennis.104–107
BASEBALL/SOFTBALL
Caveness108 details the early moves to make
protective equipment accepted in baseball.
She also highlighted the greater incidence
of injuries to younger (under 15 years of
age) players. She refers to the loss of an eye
and career for Tony Conigliaro, an outstand-
ing professional baseball player. The most
commonly injured body part is the face,109
the wearing of face-guards reduces the inci-
dence of injury111 and children are the group
most at risk.110–112
CRICKET
Injuries to the eye in cricket are often consid-
ered to be rare.113 The bony orbit provides
protection since the ball (71 to 73 mm diame-
ter for men, 67 to 72 mm for women and 65 to
72 for 10 to 14-year-olds114) is larger than the
orbit; however, when surveys are made in
England, they are significantly represented in
the data on injuries.17,36,43–45 It has been esti-
mated that 20 to 25 per cent of cricket injuries
involve the head, neck and face.115 In South
Africa in 1993, head, neck and face injuries
represented 9.9 per cent of all injuries, equally
shared between batting and fielding. The
same author subsequently reported 14 per
cent in 2001 and 4.1 per cent in 2003.116,117
The Victorian Injury Surveillance System also
reported that cricket was responsible for 13
per cent of sporting injuries sustained by
children. The head and face were the most
frequently injured site and of those with face
injury, only six reported wearing a helmet
and none had a face-shield.65 In another
Australian study,118 head injuries comprised
16 per cent of cricket injuries in adults and
44.2 per cent of children’s cricket injuries.
These are rare but potentially fatal acci-
dents. Anyone who follows cricket will be
aware of the death of Phil Hughes, who was
hit on the head when the ball passed behind
his visor and under his helmet.119
Since first introduced in the 1970s,120 the
wearing of helmets by batsmen appears to
have become universal, at least against the
faster bowlers and the main issue is that the
gap between helmet peak and visor should
not be great enough to allow the ball to pass
between,121 a message that appears to have
been heeded only sometimes.122,123
Wicketkeepers who keep up to the stumps
generally wear a helmet, although this is not
universal. In the same match that Rikki
Wessels had the ball lodge between his visor
and helmet peak, Tim Ludeman had a very
near miss, when the ball hit the underside
of his cap peak.122 The less well appreciated
hazard for the wicketkeeper is the dislodging
bail that cost a South African keeper his
cricket career.124 In indoor cricket, the bails
are attached to the stumps by string.125
FIELD HOCKEY
The term field hockey is used to distinguish the
sport from Canadian/ice hockey. In many sur-
veys, the two are grouped. The latter is certainly
the more hazardous sport. In field hockey, the
high sticks rule was removed in 1982.126 In
Canadian hockey, addition of the same rule in
1975 led to a reduction in blinding injuries.94

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Sports eye protection Dain

Source Water polo Running Badminton Handball Tennis Rugby Baseball Cricket Soft ball Field hockey
Alfaro et al (2005)18 8 1 3
Barr et al. (2000)20 5 4 3
Chan et al. (1993)42 3 6 8
Drolsum (1999)27 5
Capao Filipe et al. (1997) 2
Capao Filipe et al. (2003)
28

Gregory (1986)43 3 4 5 6 8
Jones (1987)44 3 4 5 7 6
Jones (1988)45 3 4 5= 5= 5=
Karlson & Klein (1986)31 4= 4=
Kelly & Nolan (1983)46 5
Kujala et al. (1995)33
Lynch & Rowan (1997)34 10= 5= 3= 12= 7=
35
MacEwen (1989) 3 4
Mourouziz & 5= 7=
Koumoura (2005)47
Ong et al. (2012)36 4= 4= 4= 7= 3
Pieper (2010)48 1
Youn et al. (2008)49 2

Table 2. (Continued)

GOLF
For a while, there appears to have been an oc-
ular hazard from exploding golf balls.127,128
Park and colleagues129 provide a comprehen-
sive description of ocular injuries sustained at
golf driving ranges and on golf courses. These
totalled 22 in a 10-year period. They were
always severe injuries.
WRESTLING
There is a comprehensive survey of college
level injuries to the eye while wrestling. The in-
cidence is low and best summarised as ‘It is ev-
ident from this table that eye injuries do occur
in college wrestling. The average college team
with 25 players and 2,600 athlete-exposures
should expect 1 or 2 such injuries each season
but the average team should expect to see only
1 significant case in nine or ten seasons.’130
AMERICAN FOOTBALL
American football is often not clearly differen-
tiated from soccer, for instance.131 While there
is a substantial literature on concussion132 in
American football, injuries to eyes do not
rate much mention, probably since head
and face protection are universal. In a
bizarre set of incidents, it appears that the
weighted penalty flag used in American
football has been an ocular hazard;133–135
similarly in Canadian football.136
SWIMMING AND WATERSPORTS
Surfing is reported as causing severe ocular
injuries that result in permanent visual
loss.137–139 Windsurfers reported 0.22 injuries
per 1,000 participant hours but only three
per cent of those were ocular irritation. Sev-
enty-six per cent of athletes reported injuries
while boardsailing, but only 15 per cent
reported significant injuries, which never
affected the eyes.140
RACQUET BALL
Racquetball is often included in racquet (racket)
sports along with squash, badminton and
tennis. The ball is 57 mm in diameter,141 which
is smaller than a tennis ball (65 to 73 mm23)
and larger than a squash ball (40 mm142).
There are some reports specifically on ocular
injuries due to racquetball,143,144 while others
cover the whole of racquet sports.82,145–147
There are similar patterns of injury. Compared
with the squash ball, the ball in racquetball is
larger and heavier but more compressible.
While the total energy transfer is greater in
the racquetball, the time course and peak force
are somewhat different. How this translates to
understanding which is the more demanding
test of the eye protector is not at all clear. In
both sports, injury from the racquet also occurs.
BOXING
It is unsurprising that injuries to the eyes occur
in boxing, as trauma is inherent to the sport. It
is considered a high-risk sport especially for
retinal detachment. There is a substantial liter-
ature, which is reviewed by Corrales and
Curreri.148 Eye protection is not a realistic
option, so boxing is not of immediate interest
in this review but a regime of surveillance was
advocated some years ago comprising:149
1. examination of boxers before licensure
and then after one year, six bouts or
two losses or at the stopping of a fight
because of an eye injury or at the discre-
tion of the ringside physician
2. mandatory, temporary suspension from
sparring or boxing for specific ocular
pathology — 30 days for a retinal tear
and 60 days for a treated retinal detach-
ment or individualised after consulta-
tion with the athletic commission
medical advisory board
3. minimal visual requirements of 6/12 or
better in each eye and a full central field
of not less than 30 degrees on each eye

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 Sports eye protection Dain

Source Equestrian Floorball/handball Cycling Volleyball Martial arts Golf Skiing Gymnastics Wrestling
Alfaro et al (2005)18 6
Barr et al. (2000)20
Chan et al. (1993)42 4= 4= 9
Drolsum (1999)27 2 6 7
Capao Filipe et al. (1997) 3=
Capao Filipe et al. (2003) 28
3 4
Gregory (1986)43 9= 9=
Jones (1987)44 15 8= 8=
Jones (1988)45
Karlson & Klein (1986)31 6
Kelly & Nolan (1983)46 6
Kujala et al. (1995)33 3 1=
Lynch & Rowan (1997)34 5= 7= 12= 7=
35
MacEwen (1989) 6 5
Mourouziz & 7= 10 7= 3 4 5=
Koumoura (2005)47
Ong et al. (2012)36 7=
Pieper (2010)48
Youn et al. (2008)49

Table 2. (Continued)

4. an ophthalmologist required on each
state medical boxing advisory board
5. thumbless boxing gloves to minimise
ocular injuries
6. a National Registry of Boxers for all
amateur and professional boxers in the
United States that records bouts, knock-
outs and significant ocular injuries
7. a program from training and
recertifying ringside physicians and
8. a uniform safety code.
FISHING
Fishing does appear in three of the compara-
tive incidence studies,18,34,48 although it is not
a sport in the same sense as the others detailed
here. In one study,18 it was the second most
frequent ocular injury after baseball. Other
studies have been case reports150,151 and six
reports are referenced in one paper.152
LACROSSE
In lacrosse the ball is about 64 mm in diame-
ter.153,154 Injuries in women’s lacrosse are
relatively common.155–158 The men’s and
women’s games have different rules and
protective equipment use159 and injury rates
were significantly higher in women’s lacrosse
than men’s.160 In the 2004–2005 season, the
US initiated mandatory use of protective
eyewear in women’s lacrosse. The rate of
ocular injuries was reduced by 84 per cent
although other injuries did not decrease, so
a direct intervention-outcome was seen.161
MOTOR SPORTS
Motor sports have not appeared in any of the
relative incidence papers, probably since they
are rarely thought of in the same sense as the
other sports considered above. When consid-
ered,14 injuries to the eyes are a significant
factor but the greater emphasis is on head
injuries.162
MARTIAL ARTS
Hyphaema, retinal detachment, lens disloca-
tion and blindness have all been reported
infrequently from martial arts injuries.163
FENCING
Fencing is a sport that was once associated
with a great number of vision-threatening in-
juries but effective protection has essentially
eliminated them.164
SKIING
Neither skiing nor the other winter sports,
such as snowboarding, bobsled, luge, skating
and skeleton appears in the accident statistics
but observation of the Winter Olympics, for
instance, will show that the wearing of protec-
tive eyewear is almost universal. In this case,
the need is not to protect the eyes against
physical damage but against snow, wind and
rain that may have an effect on vision. The
consequence of not wearing protective eye-
wear when skiing is not an injury to the eye
but other injuries caused by distraction or
temporary visual impairment. As a conse-
quence, the physical tests of ski goggles are
more intended to exclude secondary hazards
rather than provide a high level of impact
protection.
MISCELLANEOUS
The literature also contains a number of
curious reports of eye injuries from what
might be considered sports, including baton
twirling,165 ‘Johnny Poppers’166 and ‘Pogs
and Slammers’.167
PRESCRIBING AND RECOMMENDING
PROTECTION FOR THE EYES
Having identified the hazard, the process in
industry is to evaluate the risk by considering
the likelihood of injury and the consequence
of the injury and by that, to create a priority of
action.168

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Sports eye protection Dain
Source Dancing American football
Alfaro et al (2005)18
Barr et al. (2000)20
Chan et al. (1993)42 7
Drolsum (1999)27
Capao Filipe et al. (1997)
Capao Filipe et al. (2003)28
Gregory (1986)43
Jones (1987)44
Jones (1988)45
Karlson & Klein (1986)31
Kelly & Nolan (1983)46
Kujala et al. (1995)33
Lynch & Rowan (1997)34
35
MacEwen (1989)
Mourouziz &
Koumoura (2005)47
Ong et al. (2012)36
Pieper (2010)48
Youn et al. (2008)49
Table 2. (Continued)
There is a hierarchy in dealing with manag-
ing the risks of hazards to the eye and face in
three parts.169 First, the aim is to eliminate
the hazard by modifying the processes,
substituting unsafe with safe processes, hazard-
ous chemicals with safe chemicals and so on.
The nature of sport is the acceptance of risk.
‘Yet risk is an absolute fundamental of
sport. That has long been its very point. For
those who participate, it is the adrenalin rush
of successfully overcoming their own fear. For
those of us who watch, it is the vicarious thrill
of seeing risk being accepted, negotiated and
ultimately triumphantly overcome. It is inher-
ent in all that we enjoy.’170
The second aim is to contain the risk by iso-
lation, work processes and procedures. In
sport, this is mainly by the rules of the game
to outlaw known and unacceptable processes
and procedures.
The third and very much the last resort in
industry is the wearing of appropriate per-
sonal protective equipment (PPE),169 which
needs to be designed and selected as appro-
priate to the hazard. A classification such as
that of Sports Medicine Australia7 has the
problem that the risk as a function of expo-
sure is not well quantified since the number
of injuries is well understood but the partici-
pation rates are ill-defined. This is perhaps
most evident by seeing that in many national
Clinical and Experimental Optometry 99.1 January 2016
10
Swimming Racquetball Boxing
9 5
11
7
11 12= 12=
7
7=
studies, the local sport has the greatest num-
ber of injuries. For example, in Ireland it is
hurling/camogie and Gaelic football,34,46 in
Australia, it is Australian rules football,14 in
the soccer playing nations it often ranks first
(Table 2) and in the USA studies, baseball
and basketball dominate (Table 2).
In specifying personal protective equip-
ment, it is the nature of the hazard that
should be the first consideration. The risk
then influences the governing bodies’ deci-
sion whether to make the wearing of personal
protective equipment mandatory for some
(the most at risk) or all players and in the
absence of mandatory use, the individual’s
own decision, understanding (hopefully),
the risks. For the purposes of this review, only
the need for a standard for personal protec-
tive equipment is considered.
The sports can be categorised as follows.
Sports where the hazards are the
implements and equipment of the
game
These are the sports where the greatest risk is
impact by the projectiles, ball, sticks et cetera
used to play the sport.
Such sports include, paintball, the racquet
sports (tennis, badminton, squash, racquet-
ball), the bat and ball sports (cricket, baseball,
Fishing Lacrosse Marbles Shinty
2
6
9=
12=
7=
5
softball, field hockey, ice hockey, lacrosse),
fencing et cetera.
These sports may necessitate protection of
the eye, eye and face or the whole head.
In these sports, personal protective equip-
ment is the first line of defence against injury.
It will also be relatively specific to the mass,
shape and velocity of the equipment. While
some sports may share a type and specifica-
tion of personal protective equipment, there
is no universal solution.
Sports where the hazards are
principally from bodily contact
These are the sports where the greatest risk is
impact by the bodies of the other players. In
some cases, the ball may also be a specific oc-
ular hazard.
Such sports include the ball sports (soccer,
Gaelic football, rugby league, rugby union,
basketball, American football), boxing and
wrestling.
These sports may necessitate protection of
the eye, eye and face or the whole head but
eye protection alone is relatively rarely seen.
In these sports, personal protective equip-
ment is less evident and where it is commonly
used or mandated, it is mainly head protec-
tion that incorporates protection for the
face (and hence, the eye). Appropriate ocular
© 2016 Optometry Australia
 International Europe Australia Canada Japan UK (not BS EN) USA

Implements
High speed Paintball ASTM F1776172
and equipment
projectiles
Airsoft Banned ASTM F2879173
174 174
Racquetball AS/NZS 4066 CSA P400 ASTM F803175
176
Racquet Squash AS/NZS 4066 CSA P400 BS 7930-1 ASTM F803

© 2016 Optometry Australia

(racket) sports Tennis AS/NZS 4066 ASTM F803
Badminton AS/NZS 4066 ASTM F803
ASTM F803
Baseball
NOCSAE 072-04m13177
Youth baseball ASTM F910178
Baseball catchers NOCSAE 024-11m13179
Softball NOCSAE 072-04m13
Softball catchers NOCSAE 024-11m13
Bat and ball ASTM F803
Field Hockey
sports ASTM F2713180
ASTM F803
174 ASTM F3077181
Lacrosse CSA Z262.8
NOCSAE 045-09m13182,183†
NOCSAE 041-11m12184,185†
Lacrosse goalkeeper CSA Z262.8
Cricket AS/NZS 4499.3186 BS 7928187,188
Polo NOCSAE 055-11m12189,190‡
FIE Fencing
Fencing USA Fencing Rules192
Rules191

Ice sports ASTM F513195

Ice Hockey ISO 10256193 EN ISO 10256 CSA Z262.2194
NOCSAE 035-11m12189,196‡
Ice hockey goaltender ISO 10256 EN ISO 10256 CSA Z262.2 ASTM F1587197
198
Ringette CSA Z262.5
Body impact American football NOCSAE ND087-12m14199,200†
201
Martial Arts EN 13277
Skiing EN 174202 JIS S 7027203 ASTM F659204
Environmental
Snow-boarding EN 174 ASTM F659
hazards
Swimming goggles JIS S 7301205 BS 5883206
Environmental Snowmobile users EN 13178207
hazards Motorised Automotive (goggles) EN 1938208 AS 1609209 ASTM F2812210
sports § 211
Automotive (visors) AS 1609 BS 4110 Snell SA2015212
Children’s motorsports Snell CMR/CMS 2007213
Go-karting Snell K2010214
215
Irish Standard Hurling and camogie IS 355
†
This second referenced standard comes into force 31 October 2015
‡
The second referenced standard comes into force January 2016
§
The Department of Transport in the USA also certifies helmets and visors but for on-road use rather than motorsport.
Sports eye protection Dain

Clinical and Experimental Optometry 99.1 January 2016

11
Table 3. Internationl, regional and national standards for sports eye protection
Sports eye protection Dain

Sport Standard Projectile Diameter mm Mass g Velocity m/s Energy Transfer J Notes

Paintball ASTM F1776 68 calibre 17.3 3.5 122 ± 6.0 26.0 ± 2.6 3 impacts in 3 s
Paintball 94.5 ± 6.0 15.6 ± 2.0 5 impacts in 1 s
Airsoft ASTM F2879 6 mm Airsoft 6 0.25 177-0/+3 3.9 -0/+0.1
Racquetball AS/NZS 4066 Racquetball is in the scope, but no specific test is defined
ASTM F803 Racquetball 56 ± 0.5 40 ± 1.0 40 ± 2.0 32.0 ± 4.2
CSA P400 Racquetball 57 40 40 ± 1.0 32.0 ± 1.6
Squash AS/NZS 4066 Squashball 40.5 ± 0.1 24 ± 0.6 40 ± 2.0 19.2 ± 2.5
ASTM F803 Yellow dot 40.0 ± 0.5 24 ± 1.0 40 ± 2.0 19.2 ± 2.9
squashball222
BS 7930-1 Yellow dot 40.0 ± 0.5 24 ± 1.0 40 19.2 ± 0.8
squash ball
CSA P400 Green or blue 40.6 ± 0.5 20 40 ± 1.0 16.0 ± 0.8
dot squash ball
Tennis AS/NZS 4066 Tennis is in the scope, but no specific test is defined
ASTM F803 Tennis ball 57.6 ± 0.9 40 ± 2.0 46.1 ± 5.5
Badminton AS/NZS 4066 Badminton is in the scope, but no specific test is defined
Baseball ASTM F803 <8 years old Baseball223 73.8 ± 1.0 144.5 ± 3.5 18 ± 2.0 23.4 ± 6.2
9 to 14 years old Baseball 73.8 ± 1.0 144.5 ± 3.5 25 ± 2.0 45.2 ± 8.8
>15 years old Baseball 73.8 ± 1.0 144.5 ± 3.5 31 ± 2.0 69.4 ± 11.2
>15 years old Baseball 73.8 ± 1.0 144.5 ± 3.5 38 ± 2.0 104.3 ± 14.1 One frontal
impact
NOCSAE 072- Batter’s Baseball 73.8 ± 1.0 144.5 ± 3.5 30 ± 0.9 65.0 ± 5.6
04m13
ASTM F910 Youth Baseball 73.8 ± 1.0 144.5 ± 3.5 30 ± 2.2 65.0 ± 11.7
NOCSAE 024- Catcher’s Baseball 73.8 ± 1.0 144.5 ± 3.5 24.6 ± 0.7 43.7 ± 3.8
11m13
Softball NOCSAE 072- Batter’s Softball 88.9 ± 1.0 170 ± 4 25 ± 0.8 53.1 ± 4.6
04m13
NOCSAE 024- Catcher’s Softball 88.9 ± 1.0 170 ± 4 31 ± 0.9 81.7 ± 7.0
11m13
Field hockey ASTM F803 Field hockey is in the scope, but no specific test is defined
ASTM F2713 Hockey ball 73.1 ± 1.8 159.5 ± 3.5 25 ± 2 49.8 ± 9.6
Lacrosse CSA Z262.8 Lacrosse ball 63.7 ± 1.0 145.3 ± 3.5 28 ± 0.5 57.0 ± 3.5 Contact
Lacrosse ball 63.7 ± 1.0 145.3 ± 3.5 33 ± 0.5 79.1 ± 4.4 Toughness
ASTM F803 Women’s Lacrosse ball 63.7 ± 1.0 145.3 ± 3.5 27 ± 2 53.0 ± 9.6
Women’s youth Lacrosse ball 63.7 ± 1.0 145.3 ± 3.5 21 ± 2 32.0 ± 7.3
ASTM 3077 Women’s NOCSAE ND049- 63.7 ± 1.0 145.3 ± 3.5 26.82 ± 2 52.2 ± 9.5
05m12a†
Women’s youth 63.7 ± 1.0 145.3 ± 3.5 20 ± 2 29.1 ± 6.9
NOCSAE 045- NOCSAE ND049- 63.7 ± 1.0 145.3 ± 3.5 32 ± 2 74.4 ± 11.6
09m13 05m06†
Lacrosse CSA Z262.8 Contact Lacrosse ball 63.7 ± 1.0 145.3 ± 3.5 33 ± 0.5 79.1 ± 4.4
goalkeeper
Toughness Lacrosse ball 63.7 ± 1.0 145.3 ± 3.5 33 ± 0.5 79.1 ± 4.4
†
NOCSAE ND049-05m06 and ND049-05m12a are superseded standards and not obtainable. The current standard is NOCSAE ND049-12m12.230 In April
2015, it will be superseded by NOCSAE ND049-14m14231 and on 31 October 2015 by NOCSAE ND049-14m14a.232

Table 4.Compilation of the mechanical strength tests of the international, regional and national standards for sports eye protection with
calculation of the energy transfer. See Table 3 for the references to these standards. In some standards, the dimensions of the projectile
and not the mass are given. In these cases, the mass has been taken from standards nominating the same dimensions. In some standards,
the values are in imperial units. These have been converted to metric (1 oz = 28.35 g and 1 inch = 25.4 mm).

Clinical and Experimental Optometry 99.1 January 2016 © 2016 Optometry Australia
12
 Sports eye protection Dain

Sport Standard Projectile Diameter mm Mass g Velocity m/s Energy Transfer J Notes

Cricket AS/NZS Cricket ball and 1500 -0/+30 6.3 29.8 -0/+0.6
4499.3 holder
BS 7928 Adult Cricket ball 71.5 ± 1.5 145.0 ± 5.0 28 ± 3 56.8 ± 15.2
Junior 68 ± 1.0 118.5 ± 3.5 23 ± 3 31.3 ± 9.9
Cricket BS 7928-2 Helmet and face-guard drop on to cricket ball. Equivalent energy transfer claimed = 15
wicketkeepers
Polo NOCSAE 055- U.S. Polo 82.6 ± 6.4 113.4 ± 14.2 40.2 ± 1.2 91.6 ± 17.8
11m12 Association ball224
Fencing There is no impact test for fencing masks
Ice hockey ISO 10256, Face-guards CAN/CSA-Z262.4 Diameter 162.5 ± 7.5 28 ± 0.5 63.7 ± 5.3 Contact
players EN ISO 10256 puck 76.2 ± 0.6 162.5 ± 7.5 33 ± 0.5 88.5 ± 6.9 Toughness
Visors Thickness 162.5 ± 7.5 10 ± 0.5 8.1 ± 1.2 Contact
25.4 ± 0.6 162.5 ± 7.5 28 ± 0.5 63.7 ± 5.3 Toughness
CAN/CSA- >10 years old CAN/CSA-Z262.4 Applies to all 162.5 ± 7.5 28 ± 1.0 63.7 ± 7.8 Contact
Z262.2 puck pucks
162.5 ± 7.5 33 ± 1.0 88.5 ± 9.8 Toughness
≤10 years old 162.5 ± 7.5 33 ± 1.0 88.5 ± 9.8 Toughness
162.5 ± 7.5 15 ± 1.0 18.3 ± 3.5 Contact and
toughness
Visors 162.5 ± 7.5 10 ± 1.0 8.1 ± 2.2 Contact
162.5 ± 7.5 28 ± 1.0 63.7 ± 7.8 Toughness
ASTM F513 Players 162.5 ± 7.5 28 ± 1.0 63.7 ± 7.8 Contact and
toughness
≤10 years old 162.5 ± 7.5 15 ± 1.0 18.3 ± 3.5 Contact and
toughness
Visors 162.5 ± 7.5 10 ± 1.0 8.1 ± 2.2 Contact
162.5 ± 7.5 28 ± 1.0 63.7 ± 7.8 Toughness
NOCSAE 035- IIHF standard 163 ± 7 28 ± 1.0 63.9 ± 7.6
11m12 puck225
Ice hockey ISO 10256, 162.5 ± 7.5 33 ± 0.5 88.5 ± 6.9 Contact
goalkeepers EN ISO 10256, 162.5 ± 7.5 36 ± 0.5 105.3 ± 7.9 Toughness
CSA Z262.2
and
ASTM F1587
Ringette CSA Z262.5 >10 years old CAN/CSA-Z262.4 162.5 ± 7.5 28 ± 0.5 63.7 ± 5.3
puck226
≤10 years old 162.5 ± 7.5 15 ± 0.5 18.3 ± 2.1
Hurling and
American NOCSAE Helmet drop test (on to face-guard) rather than object impact test
football ND087-12m14
Skiing EN 174 Steel ball 22 43 min 5.1 0.56 -10°C
JIS S 7027 Steel ball JIS B 22 43 5.1 0.56 -12°C
1501227
ASTM F659 Missile 500 5.1 6.5
Snow-boarding EN 174 As for skiing
ASTM F659
Swimming JIS S 7301 Steel ball JIS B 22 43 5.1 0.56
1501227

Table 4. (Continued)

© 2016 Optometry Australia Clinical and Experimental Optometry 99.1 January 2016
13
Sports eye protection Dain

Sport Standard Projectile Diameter mm Mass g Velocity m/s Energy Transfer J Notes

BS5883 Steel ball 22 44 5.1 0.57

Snowmobile EN 13178 Steel ball 22 43 min 5.1 0.56 -40°C
Automotive EN 1938 Steel ball 6 0.86 min 45 -0/+2 0.87 -0/+0.07
goggles (method
EN168228)
Enhanced Steel ball 6 0.86 min 60-0/+2 1.5 -0/+0.10 Optional
AS1609 Steel ball 6 0.86 50 -1/+2 1.1 -0.05/+0.08
ASTM F2812 Steel ball 6.35 1.06 ± 0.02 45 1.1 ± 0.02 -10°C and +50°C
Steel ball 6.35 1.06 ± 0.02 70 2.6 ± 0.05 23.0± 2.0°C
Missile 500 5.1 6.5
Hurling and IS 355 Sliotar impact GAA Sliotar 76.0 ± 4.0 115 ± 5 27 ± 2% 41.9 ± 3.6
camogie resistance (size 5)229
Camogie sliotar 66.8 100 ± 10 27 ± 2% 36.5 ± 3.7
(size 4)230
Hurley impact Steel disk 100 diam 400 ± 10 10 ± 2% 20.0 ± 1.3
resistance
10 thick
Automotive AS1609 Steel ball 6 0.86 50 -1/+2 1.1 -0.05/+0.08
visors
BS 4110 Steel ball 6 0.86 70 ± 2.0 2.11 ± 0.1
Increased (optional)Steel ball 6 0.86 120 ± 2.0 6.19 ± 0.2
Snell SA 2015 No tests for visor specifically
Children’s Snell CMR/ No tests for visor specifically
auto sports CMS 2007
Go-karting Snell K2010 No tests for visor specifically

Table 4. (Continued)

protection is likely to be more generic as the
hazard is similar in the various sports.
Sports where the hazards are
principally from the ambient
environment
These are the sports where the hazards are
the same as for non-participant but where
the nature of the sport may increase the risk
or consequences. For instance, in cycling
and skiing the hazards of insects, rain, wind
or foreign bodies impacting the eye are not
specific to the sport but the risk is increased
due to the velocity of the participant or the
consequences of falling are greater. In the
NEISS26 database, there are several examples
of foreign bodies in the eye being classed as a
golfing injury because that was what the
person was doing at the time.
Goggles for motor sports would fall under this
classification but visors incorporated into hel-
mets are more common. The visor itself has a
dual function as protecting against the ambient
hazards but, along with the helmet, protecting
against the consequences of high speed.
In these sports, personal protective equip-
ment is common and is often specifically eye
protection, although head protection may
also be worn. Appropriate eye protection is
likely to be more generic since the hazard is
similar in the various sports.
AVAILABLE STANDARDS
The available standards are summarised in
Table 3. They have been grouped as sports
with high-speed projectiles, racquet sports,
bat and ball sports, ice sports, body impact
sports, sports needing protection from the
ambient environment and motorised sports.
The European Standards also cover the mem-
bers of the European community. Ireland has
a standard for helmets for players of hurling
and camogie and this has been added at the
end of the table.
Comparison of provision of the
standards
Protection standards are generally written
to provide protection against the relevant
hazards and then to exclude or limit any
undesirable effects of the protection. For
instance, where the eye and face protector is
a mesh, such as in baseball or cricket, there
may be a need to limit the restrictions on
the visual field. Where the eye and face pro-
tector is a transparent material, there may
be a need to limit refractive and prismatic
power and/or scattered light.
In many standards, the primary function is
protection against a mechanical hazard.
Where the sport involves implements and
equipment, the nature of the hazard (mass,
velocity, and hence energy transfer) is well
understood and the standard writers gener-
ally seek to replicate that hazard. The test
then becomes specific to the sport. Table 4
shows the details of the standards that include
this type of test. Apart from being a reference
source, this also demonstrates the extreme
variability of energy transfers varying from ski-
ing (European and Japanese) and swimming
(British and Japanese) at 0.6 J to 105 J for
the ice hockey goalkeepers, although base-
ball (104 J for the single frontal impact) and

Clinical and Experimental Optometry 99.1 January 2016 © 2016 Optometry Australia
14
 Sports eye protection Dain

Standard Scope Coverage How specified

ASTM F1776 Paintball Three levels. Basic, full Points on a headform

and complete
ASTM F2879 Airsoft None
AS/NZS 4066 Racquet sports Ocular area from front Defined "area of coverage"
and lateral on a head form
ASTM F803 Selected sports None
CSA P400 Racquetsports Ocular area from front Defined "minimum area of
and lateral coverage" on a head form
BS 7930-1 Racketsports None
NOCSAE 072-04m13 Baseball and softball Eyes, nose, mouth Areas of no contact and
and to mid chin limited contact
ASTM F910 Baseball Face below lower forehead Areas of no contact and
limited contact
NOCSAE 024-11m13 Baseball and softball Eyes, nose, mouth Areas of no contact and
and to mid chin limited contact
ASTM F2713 Field hockey Eye only Impact aim point
CSA Z262.8 Lacrosse Eyes, nose and mouth No contact zone
ASTM 3077 Lacrosse Eye No contact region
NOCSAE 045-09m13 Lacrosse Eyes, nose, mouth Areas of no contact and
and to mid chin limited contact
AS/NZS 4499.3 Cricket Below helmet to chin Defined "area of coverage"
including cheeks on a head form
BS 7928 Cricket Eyes, nose and mouth No contact zone
NOCSAE 055-11m12 Polo Eye area Areas of no contact
FIE Fencing Rules Fencing Whole head Dimensions of welding mask
ISO 10256 Ice Hockey Face to beginning of ear Defined "protected area"
EN ISO 10256 on a head form
CAN/CSA-Z262.2 Ice Hockey Face to beginning of ear Defined "protected area"
on a head form
ASTM F513 Ice Hockey Face to beginning of ear Defined "protected area"
on a head form
NOCSAE 035-11m12 Ice Hockey Eyes, nose, mouth Areas of no contact and
and to mid chin limited contact
CSA Z262.5 Ringette Face to in front of Defined "area of coverage"
ear of ear on a head form
NOCSAE ND087-12m14 American football None
EN 174 Skiing and snow-boarding None
JIS S 7027 Skiing None
ASTM F659 Skiing and snow-boarding None
JIS S7301 Swimming None
BS 5883 Swimming None
EN 1938 Automotive goggles None
AS1609 Automotive goggles and visors None
ASTM F2812 Automotive goggles None
BS 4110 Automotive visors None
IS 355 Hurling and camogie Face to in front of ear Defined "protected area"
on a head form

Table 5. Compilation of the required coverage or protected area and their specification of the international, regional and national
standards for sports eye protection with calculation of the energy transfer. See Table 3 for the reference to these standards.

© 2016 Optometry Australia Clinical and Experimental Optometry 99.1 January 2016
15
Sports eye protection Dain

polo (92 J) are not far behind. All these values
should be contrasted with the values for sun-
glasses and occupational eye protectors.215
The Australian/New Zealand216 and USA217
standards require sunglasses to withstand a
drop ball test that has an energy transfer of
0.2 J. This shows the utter inappropriateness
of sunglasses in a sporting context. The mini-
mum requirement of the European occupa-
tional standard218 (0.56 J) is the same as for
skiing (except the ASTM requirement) and
swimming but the European occupational re-
quirement is lower than the Australian/New
Zealand219 and USA220 (0.74 and 0.76 J,
respectively). This also shows that entry-level
occupational eye protection is, for the vast
majority of sports, also inappropriate. Even
the highest impact level for the European
and Australian/New Zealand standards,
about 16 J (depending on the mass adopted
for the ball) is less than the majority of the
sports. This indicated clearly, that even the
most impact-resistant occupational eye pro-
tection is almost entirely unsuitable.
The variety of energy transfers and
impacting projectiles, varying in mass, size
and flexibility, show clearly that a one size fits
all approach does not work for sports eye
protection, where implements and balls are
involved. In addition, it can be argued that
by being directly relevant to the hazard, the
test has a manifest validity.
In addition to the impact test consistent
with the hazard, there also needs to be speci-
fication of the area to be protected. Some
hazards may only require eye protection,
while others at the other end of the scale,
represent a sufficient impact that the whole
head merits protection. These are detailed
in Table 5. While many standards define the
extent of the coverage and are consistent with
the magnitude of the hazard, there is a signif-
icant number of standards that do not con-
tain a coverage clause, which seems to be a
major omission on the part of the writers.
The major aim of these standards is to
provide the necessary protection as detailed
above. At the same time, it is also necessary

Refractive power limits D Prismatic power limits Local power Scattered light
(Prism Dioptres) variation test

Standard Sport(s) Sphere Cylinder Meridians Single Vertical Horizontal Haze Light
between lens % diffusion
eyes (cd/m2/lx)
In Out

ASTM F1776 Paintball -0.37/+0.06 0.25 0.25 0.5 0.25 0.25 1.0 √ 3
ASTM F2879 Airsoft ±0.12 0.25 0.18 0.5 0.25 0.25 1.0 √ 3
AS/NZS 4066 Racquetball, squash, ±0.12 0.12 0.12 0.25 0.25 1.0 1.0 3
tennis and badminton
ASTM F803 Selected sports. -0.18/+0.06 0.12 0.18 0.5 0.25 0.25 1.0 √ 3
Type I and II. See ASTM
1776 (below) for Type IV
CSA P400 Racquetball and squash "Definition" task 0.12 0.25 0.25 0.25 * 2
BS 7930-1 Squash ±0.12 0.12 0.12 0.25 0.25 1.0
ISO 10256 Ice hockey players’ visors "Definition" task 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 * 3
EN ISO 10256
CAN/CSA-Z262.2 Ice hockey players’ visors "Definition" task 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 * 3
ASTM F513 Ice hockey players’ visors "Definition" task 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 * 3
EN 174 Skiing & snow-boarding Class 1 ±0.09 0.09 0.12 0.25 0.25 0.75 1.0
Class 2 ±0.12 0.12 0.25 0.25 0.25 1.00 2.0
ASTM F659 Skiing & snow-boarding ±0.12 0.12 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.75 3
JIS S 7027 Skiing ±0.12 0.12 0.17
JIS S7301 Swimming ±0.12 0.12 0.17
BS 5883 Swimming ±0.12 0.09 0.25 0.25
EN 13178 Snowmobile Class 1 ±0.09 0.09 0.12 0.25 0.25 0.75 1.0
Class 2 ±0.12 0.12 0.25 0.25 0.25 1.00 2.0
EN 1938 Automotive goggles ±0.12 0.12 0.18 0.25 0.25 1.00 Single lens 1
and visors Multiple lenses 2
AS1609 Automotive goggles ±0.12 0.12 0.12 0.25 1.00 1.00 1.00
ASTM F2812 Automotive goggles ±0.12 0.12 0.12 0.5 0.25 0.25 0.75 3
BS 4110 Automotive visors ±0.12 0.12 0.25 0.25 1.00 Single lens 1
Multiple lenses 2

Table 6. Compilation of the refractive and prismitic power and scattered light requirements of the international, regional and national
standards for sports eye protection

Clinical and Experimental Optometry 99.1 January 2016 © 2016 Optometry Australia
16
 Sports eye protection Dain

that no additional hazard be introduced and
that the personal protective equipment is as
acceptable to the wearer as possible, so as
not to introduce reasons/excuses for protec-
tive equipment not to be worn and not to
cause error or injury while in use. The
foremost control on this is usually refractive
power and prism and sports eye protection
is no exception. In Table 6 are compiled
the refractive power, prismatic power and
scattered light requirements of the standards,
where transparent media is used as protec-
tion. In some cases, the refractive power limi-
tation is by means of a resolution task (it is the
same test and acceptance criteria in each
case). As far as can be ascertained, the rela-
tionship between refractive power and com-
pliance using this method has never been
published. The limits on refractive power
are generally 0.09 D or 0.12 D. The ophthal-
mic industries generally argue for the less
stringent value and this has been incorpo-
rated in to ISO 21987233 and related stan-
dards and in the absence of compelling
arguments to the contrary, it is likely to be
promulgated throughout ISO personal pro-
tective equipment standards with sunglasses
being the first example.234
The limits on prism are very variable. In
general, the vertical limits are, as expected,
tight; however, the one prism dioptre vertical
limit of the ice hockey standards seems
destined to cause diplopia. The Canadian
Committee list of members (the only one
detailed) seems not to contain anyone from
an optical background.193 When measure-
ment is made in the as-worn position, wrap
around designs are know to cause base-out
prism and the binocular system can adapt to
base-out more easily than base-in. Setting a
0.25 prism dioptre base-out limit seems un-
necessarily strict just as a limit of one prism
dioptre base-in limit seems very liberal.
The last item in this Table is a limit of
scattered light. In the North American system

Minimum field of view (degrees)

Standard Sport(s) Nasal Temporal Superior Inferior

ASTM F1776 Paintball 30 50 30 30

ASTM F2879 Airsoft 30 50 30 30
AS/NZS 4066 Racquetball, squash, tennis 45 80 45 60
and badminton
ASTM F803 Selected sports. Type I and II. "Not required"
See ASTM 1776 (below)
for Type IV
CSA P400 Racquetball and squash 45 80 45 60
BS 7930-1 Squash 40 80 45 60
ISO 10256 EN Ice hockey players’ visors ±90 binocular 35 No requirement "There shall be no occultation
ISO 10256 in the field of vision"
CAN/CSA-Z262.2 Ice hockey players’ visors Shape defined ±90 binocular 35 60 "…shall have no overlapping
bilateral scotomata in the
peripheral field of vision"
ASTM F513 Ice hockey players’ visors Shape defined ±90 binocular 35 60 "…have no occultation in the
field of vision."
EN 174 Skiing & snow-boarding Ellipses defined 13.5 46.1 25.3 27.8
ASTM F659 Skiing & snow-boarding 30 50 30 30
JIS S 7027 Skiing "The goggles can maintain the full field of view."
JIS S7301 Swimming No requirement
BS 5883 Swimming No requirement
EN 13178 Snowmobile goggles Plano 150 55
Prescription 130 55
Snowmobile visors 105 55
EN 1938 Automotive goggles Ellipses defined 13.5 46.1 25.3 27.8
AS1609 Automotive goggles No requirement
and visors
ASTM F2812 Automotive goggles No requirement
BS 4110 Automotive visors …"shall not reduce the peripheral vision afforded
by the helmet."
IS 355 Hurling and camogie Binocular 105 40 45 "There shall be no occultation
in the field of vision…"

Table 7. Compilation of the field of vision requirements of the international, regional, and national standards for sports eye protection.
See Table 3 for the references to these stadards.

© 2016 Optometry Australia Clinical and Experimental Optometry 99.1 January 2016
17
18
Luminous transmittance
Transmittance Ultraviolet
Standard Sport(s) Untinted Tinted Other matching requirements Colour UV resistance test
†
ASTM F1776 Paintball ≥60% <60% ≥20% <20% ≥8% if No requirements No requirements No requirements
labelled "Very dark"
Sports eye protection Dain

ASTM F2879 Airsoft ≥60% <60% ≥17% <20% ≥8% if No requirements No requirements No requirements
labelled "Very dark"
AS/NZS 4066 Racquetball, squash, ≥85% ≤50% ≥8% No requirements "Outdoor untinted" No requirements
tennis and badminton and "tinted"
ASTM F803 Selected sports. ≥85% <80% ≥20% 1.1 ≥ τ right/τ left ≥ 0.9 ANSI Z80.1238 No requirements Yes
CSA P400 Racquetball and squash No requirements No requirements No requirements No requirements

Clinical and Experimental Optometry 99.1 January 2016

BS 7930-1 Squash ≥80% Category 0, 1 or 2 BS No requirements BS EN 1836:1997‡ No requirements
EN 1836:1997‡ Table 1 Cat 0, 1 or 2
ISO 10256 Ice hockey players’ visors ≥80% <80% ≥20% No requirements No requirements No requirements "resistant to irreversible
EN ISO 10256 polymeric changes"
CAN/CSA-Z262.2 Ice hockey players’ visors ≥80% <80% ≥20% No requirements No requirements No requirements "resistant to irreversible
polymeric changes"
ASTM F513 Ice hockey players’ visors ≥80% ≥20% No requirements No requirements No requirements "resistant to irreversible
polymeric changes"
EN 174 Skiing & snow-boarding ≥80% EN 1836:1997‡ multiple categories EN 1836:1997‡ EN 1836:1997‡ EN 1836:1997‡ Yes
217
ASTM F659 Skiing & snow-boarding No requirements No requirements ANSI Z80.3 No requirements Yes
JIS S 7027 Skiing No requirements No requirements τ(365) ≤ 10 % No requirements
JIS S7301 Swimming No requirements No requirements No requirements No requirements
BS 5883 Swimming No requirements No requirements No requirements No requirements
EN 13178 Snowmobile ≥80% S1 to S4 consistent with EN 1836 categories EN 1836:1997‡ More stringent No requirements Yes
than EN 1836
EN 1938 Automotive goggles ≥80% S1 to S2 consistent with EN 1836 categories No requirements As EN 1836:2005‡ EN 1836:2005‡ Yes
and visors
AS1609 Automotive goggles ≥85% <85% ≥50% No requirements No requirements AS 1067‡
ASTM F2812 Automotive goggles No requirements No requirements Requirements of No requirements Yes
ANSI Z80.3
BS 4110 Automotive visors ≥80 <80% ≥50% Method specified As EN 172239 As EN 172239 Yes
EN 167234
†
All tinted paintball eye protectors are required to be marked ‘Not for use in low light conditions’
‡
BS EN 1836:1997239 was replaced by BS EN 1836:2005240, which is now replaced by BS EN ISO 12312-1.
§
AS 1067-1990241 has been replaced by AS/NZS 1067:2003.215

Table 8. Compilation of the transmittance requirements of the international, regional, and national standards for sports eye protection

© 2016 Optometry Australia


it has been usual to set limits on large-angle
scatter often called ‘haze’. All the methods
derive from one developed in the plastics in-
dustry.235 On the other hand, the European
standards use a small-angle scatter method.236
The European method has the advantage
that it can be used with very dark (including
welding) filters. It has been said to correlate
poorly with practical experience. The two
methods correlate well with abraded surfaces
but not for scattering due to inclusions in the
sample or its coating. Abraded samples with
three per cent haze return about 1.5 cd/m2/lx
light diffusion but the samples with inclu-
sions in the lens or coating and three per
cent haze have about 0.3 cd/m2/lx.236 The
difference is very significant. ISO 12312-1
has been written with large-angle scatter
(haze) as the measure234 and it is proba-
bly the correct measure for sports eye
protection.
Restriction of the field of view is likely to be a
significant reason/excuse for non-compliance
and peripheral vision is important in many
sports. For the automotive-related protec-
tion, there is also the connection with the re-
quirements for visual fields. In the Australian
context, a binocular field of 120 degrees is
required,237 so that the absence of a require-
ment (AS 1609 and ASTM F2812) or the
setting of a requirement significantly less than
this value (EN 1938) seems negligent (Table 7).
In the case of the face-guard type protector,
the requirement to avoid binocular scoto-
mata is prudent but needs to be repeated
in the advice to users in making the individ-
ual selection of personal protective equip-
ment, since only the standard head(s) and
inter-pupillary distance(s) are the subject
of the standards.
Finally, there are the requirements
summarised in Table 8 for transmittance.
Many eye protectors are used in outdoor situa-
tions and the need to provide protection
against discomfort glare is no less for the sports
participant than for the spectator or anyone
else in the same environment.239 Since the
sports often include fast-moving objects, the
need for the lenses of a pair to be matched rea-
sonably closely in transmittance, so that judge-
ment of distance is not affected adversely,
seems no less than for the casual bystander,
whose sunglasses are covered by a sunglass
standard. Yet only three standards (ASTM
F803, EN 174 and EN 13178) actually contain
requirements. BS 4110 sets a method for
measuring it but does not actually set a limit.
As many of these sports occur outdoors,
the same logic applies to the requirements
© 2016 Optometry Australia
for ultraviolet protection, with at least the
same protection as required in sunglass stan-
dards, yet nearly half (nine of 19) of the stan-
dards fail to apply this logic. It is interesting to
note that the three ice hockey standards have
an ultraviolet resistance requirement for the
lens (so ultraviolet exposure must be a con-
cern) but fail to require ultraviolet protection
for the eye.
Coloured lenses are well known to inter-
fere with coloured signal recognition and
every sunglass standard has requirements re-
garding colour and driving. These are appropri-
ately repeated in three of the four automotive
sports personal protective equipment.
SUMMARY
The hazard of the implements
Those sports that have a hazard based in the
implements that were identified as high risk,
have, to a significant extent, been addressed.
The main exceptions seem to be the large
ball sports. Of the widely played sports, soccer
features very significantly. Whether this is
simply because it is so widely played is not
clear. While a mechanism for ocular damage
from large ball impact has been described,56
the databases do not distinguish fully between
ball impact and other impacts, but at first
sight, arguments for ocular protection in
soccer, in particular, cannot be easily refuted.
The hazard of bodily contact
The sports in which ocular injuries are
among other bodily injuries and come from
body to body contact, for instance in rugby
league and rugby union, do not seem amena-
ble to protection for the eyes, particularly as
fogging would be a major problem. In such
case, the rules of the game prohibit attacking
the head or the eyes.
The hazard of the ambient
environment
The sports in which the hazards are the ambi-
ent environment (perhaps enhanced by the
location or speed) are only catered for in
the form of skiing and snowboarding. There
seems to be a number of other sports, for
example, cycling and running that might
benefit from a mainly generic eye protection
standard.
Automotive sport hazards
These are covered by a number of national
and regional standards with rather varied
Sports eye protection Dain
provisions. The time would seem right for
the preparation of an international standard
along with a standard for the helmets.
Spectacles as a secondary hazard
Other issues that have been highlighted re-
cently are the secondary hazards represented
by prescription spectacles.245 Prescription
spectacles alone cannot be assumed to pro-
vide adequate protection even against the
lesser hazards of activities, such as cycling or
running. Lens materials and their appropri-
ate thicknesses for situations where impacts
occur can be identified.215 Any eye protec-
tion standard needs to pay attention to the
needs of participants for refractive correc-
tion. In this case, protection is the first
priority.
Current activity
ISO Technical Committee 94 is responsible
for personal protective equipment. Sub-
committee 6 is responsible for eye and face
protection. Working group 5 is responsible
for sports eye protection. For the past two
years, work has been proceeding on two
standards as preliminary work items. These
cover skiing and snowboarding and similar
activities and also racquet sports (squash
and racquetball). Working group 2 is also
working on the test methods. At the plenary
meeting of ISO TC95/SC6 in Paris in June
2015, it was intended that these will all be
moved forward to (at least) committee draft
stage. WG5 is ready to listen to proposals for
the next work items.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My thanks to Ronald Rabbetts for checking
the tables and to Annette Hoskin for alerting
me to the Irish standard on helmets for
hurling and camogie.
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