The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-09950-2

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Tool wear monitoring through online measured cutting force

and cutting temperature during face milling Inconel 718
Delin Liu1,2 · Zhanqiang Liu1,2 · Jinfu Zhao1,2 · Qinghua Song1,2 · Xiaoping Ren1,2 · Haifeng Ma1,2

Received: 31 March 2022 / Accepted: 11 August 2022 / Published online: 16 August 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
Tool wear monitoring has been an indispensable strategy for workshop operators to know the tool wear state accurately. Tool
wear monitoring system can illustrate the effects of various wear patterns by using analytical tool wear models. However,
the current tool wear monitoring methods rarely consider analytical modeling of tool wear patterns in milling process. In
this research, the indirect tool wear monitoring system with online measured cutting force and cutting temperature is pro-
posed. The proposed tool wear monitoring system is composed of five sections. These sections include local cutting force
prediction modeling, tool wear modeling for tool flank face, cutting force and cutting temperature sensing, cutting force
modifying, and tool wear width calculating. Firstly, the local cutting force model was modified as a function of flank wear
width VB to fit the method. Secondly, the analytical model of WC–Co carbide tool flank wear rate was proposed as a func-
tion of cutting force and cutting temperature in milling process. Finally, the flank wear width was calculated and modified
based on the flank wear rate model and the measured cutting force and cutting temperature. The system proposed for tool
wear monitoring was verified with interrupted face milling Inconel 718 experiments. The monitoring error and robustness
are also analyzed. This tool wear monitoring system can be extended to monitor the shape of tool flank wear zone and can
provide guidance for workshop application.

Keywords Tool wear monitoring · Theoretical modeling · Cutting force · Cutting temperature · Inconel 718

1 Introduction edge and workpiece surface finish in practical application.

The Inconel 718 has been widely used to process high
value-added turbine blades in aerospace field due to its high
strength, excellent thermal resistant and corrosion resistant,
etc. [1]. Inconel 718 is prone to severe tool wear in milling
process due to its internal hard points and uneven mechani-
cal properties [2]. The tool wear has decisive effects on tool
cost, machining accuracy, and surface quality. Some ultra-
sonic vibration techniques are used to suppress tool wear
and improve surface quality [3–6]. However, the judgment
of tool wear status is based on visual inspection of cutting
* Zhanqiang Liu
melius@sdu.edu.cn
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University,
Jingshi Road 17923, Jinan 250061, China
2
Key National Demonstration Center for Experimental
Mechanical Engineering Education/Key Laboratory of High
Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture of MQE,
Jinan, China
This judgment method requires excellent experience and a
set of skills. Massive unworn tools could be replaced by new
ones due to the inaccurate judgment of the operators. The
inaccurate judgment could increase the manufacturing cost
and the waste of resource [7].
Tool wear monitoring (TWM) has become an indispensa-
ble strategy for factory operators to know the tool wear state
accurately. The relationship between sensor signals and tool
wear status is established by TWM methods [8–12]. The
TWM methods are mainly divided into the data-driven and
model-driven methods [13], respectively. The data-driven
TWM methods have been proposed based on machine learn-
ing models to estimate the tool wear status [14–16]. These
methods need some sort of training before actual machin-
ing. The acquisition of training data sets for different cut-
ting conditions brings the high costs of pre-experiment [17].
This imposes crucial limitations on the commercial TWM
system.
The model-driven TWM method uses the analytical model
to estimate tool wear status or predict tool wear rate [18–21].

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730 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740
The tool wear patterns revealed by the analytical model can help
operator optimize cutting process. Some analytical models have
been used for tool wear prediction, such as the empirical models
and analytical models. Capasso et al. [22] studied the tool wear
mechanism in turning process of Inconel DA718. The proposed
empirical model included the cutting speed and cutting distance.
Nouri et al. [23] proposed a real-time tool wear monitoring
method by tracking the behavior of force model coefficients
in milling process. This method could not reveal the tool wear
modes. Some of the existing research on model-driven TWM
methods is about turning process rather than intermittent cutting
of milling process. Nevertheless, these methods are utilized to
monitor the tool wear status in milling process.
An indirect tool wear monitoring (TWM) system with
online measuring cutting force and cutting temperature
is to be proposed. The proposed TWM system consists of
five sections. A local milling force model and a flank wear
model suitable for machining conditions are developed. The
accuracy of TWM is improved by the process of prediction-
calculation-measurement-modification. The high monitoring
accuracy is obtained by calibration data from one test group.
The TWM system can be extended to monitor the shape of
flank wear zone. It shows a new thought to the application
of analytical models in the TWM system which can provide
guidance for workshop application.
2 Tool wear monitoring system during cutting
process
The overall framework of the TWM system is shown in Fig. 1.
The tool wear coefficients and cutting force coefficients are
estimated by the pre-experimental tool wear, cutting force and
Fig. 1  Framework of tool wear
monitoring system during cut-
ting process
13
cutting temperature data. The cutting parameters, workpieces
and tool properties, tool geometry, and coefficients are regarded
as input parameters. Firstly, the local cutting force is predicted,
based on the current flank wear width ­VB0. Secondly, the tool
wear rate on flank face during the current spindle revolution is
calculated by the flank wear model considering different tool
wear modes based on the predicted local cutting force and meas-
ured cutting temperature. Thirdly, the tool wear volume on flank
face is obtained by integrating the tool wear rate over time and
corrected by the measured cutting force. Finally, the flank wear
width VB* after the current spindle revolution is obtained by
the geometric relationship between ­VB0 and VB*. The VB* is
used as ­VB0 to predict the local cutting force in the next spindle
revolution. The algorithm in the TWM system is realized by the
programming software MATLAB R2019a.
2.1 Cutting force prediction model for cutting tool
arc edge
The cutting force components along the X-axis (Fx), Y-axis
(Fy), and Z-axis (Fz) in the machine coordinate system
(MCS) are shown in Fig. 2a. The tangential (Ft) and radial
(Fr) cutting force components in rotating tool coordinate sys-
tem (TCS) is obtained by coordinate transformation accord-
ing to Eq. (1).
Fc = Fy cos 𝜑 + Fx sin 𝜑
Fr = Fy sin 𝜑 − Fx cos 𝜑 (1)
Fz = Fz
where φ is the radial immersion angle.
The cutting edge engagement shown in Fig. 1b is actually the
tool arc edge in the small depth of cut conditions. The cut section
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740 731

2.2 Tool wear modeling considering various wear

modes on tool flank face

The tool wear is caused by the normal pressure and friction

on the tool-workpiece interface in metal cutting process. The
hard particles formed by the TiC and NbC carbide impuri-
ties in the workpiece will also damage the tool surface. Luo
et al. [18] proposed a tool wear model considering adhe-
sive wear and diffusive wear. However, the wear caused by
other wear modes such as abrasive wear is considerable in
Fig. 2  Face milling process: a components of cutting force; b cutting the machining of Inconel 718. In this section, a flank wear
edge engagement and discretization model suitable for milling process was proposed by consid-
ering various wear patterns based on the Luo’s wear model,
as shown in Eq. (4).
geometry is shown in Fig. 2b. The position of the cutting edge
is in the Pr plane (ISO 3002–1). The angle corresponding to dw dwH dwA dwT dwB
= + + + (4)
cutting edge is small enough to approximate the cutting edge as dt dt dt dt dt
straight by discretizing the cutting edge into N segments. The
where dw/dt is the total tool wear rate, dwH/dt is the abrasive
engaged cutting edge is between the axial immersion angle on
wear rate, dwA/dt is the adhesive wear rate, dwT/dt is diffu-
machined surface (θ0) and on the unprocessed surface (θm). The
sive wear rate, and dwB/dt is the impact wear rate.
dynamic cutting thickness h is restricted by axial immersion
angle (θ), cutting depth (ap), feed (fz), and tool nose radius R0.
The local cutting force on the cutting edge segment corre- 2.2.1 Tool wear rate due to abrasive wear
sponding to the immersion angle dθ is modified from a function
of cutting time (t) to a function of flank wear (VB) based on the The abrasive wear was found as the dominating tool wear mecha-
Bastien Toubhans’ cutting force model [24], as shown in Eq. (2). nism when using carbide tool insert to machine Inconel 718 [25].
Similarly, the local cutting force coefficient is different from The position of the hard particles on the tool-workpiece interface
Bastien Toubhans’ model. The local and global cutting force is difficult to predict by a theoretical model.
acting on cutting edge is shown in Fig. 2b. The local cutting It is assumed that the appearance of abrasives on the tool-
force is divided into three components fh, fv, fo, where fo is the workpiece interface and the flank wear width are uniform dur-
force component related to the chip flow. ing the cutting process to simplify the theoretical model. The
� � � � average normal stress σn on flank face can be expressed as
⎧ f (𝜃) = �k ⋅ h(𝜃) + k � ⋅ vc (𝜃) nv + k ⋅ h(𝜃)nhv ⋅ VBnwv ⋅ vc (𝜃) nvv
⎪ v cv ev
� 0 �
v wv
� 0 �
v Eq. (5).
⎪ f (𝜃) = �k ⋅ h(𝜃) + k � ⋅ vc (𝜃) nh + k ⋅ h(𝜃)nhh ⋅ VBnwh ⋅ vc (𝜃) nvh
⎪ h ch eh v0 wh v0
⎪ fh
⎨
fo,i = b ⋅ ko ⋅ 𝜂cf ,i ⋅ hi 𝜎n = (5)
⎪ 𝜂cf ,i = 𝜃cf − 𝜃i VB
⎪
∫𝜃 max h(𝜃)⋅𝜃d𝜃
𝜃
⎪ Based on the abrasive wear model under three-body
∫𝜃 max h(𝜃)d𝜃
⎪ 𝜃cf = min 𝜃
⎩ min wear condition [26], the abrasive wear rate in milling can be
(2) expressed as Eq. (6).
where b is the length of cutting edge segment, kcv and kch are
dwH H n−1
the cut effect coefficients, kev and keh are the edge effect coef- = KH wn fh (𝜃)vc (𝜃)d𝜃 (6)
ficients, kwv, kwh, nhv, nwv, nwh, nth are the tool wear effect coef- dt HT
ficients, ηcf is the chip flow angle, ko is the chip flow effect
coefficient, v0, nv, nvv, nh, nvh are the cutting speed coefficients. where KH is the abrasive wear coefficient, n is a constant,
The global cutting forces are calculated by Eq. (3). and Hw, HT are the hardness of workpiece and tool insert,

�� � � v (𝜃) �nv � �nvv �

Fc = ∫𝜃 m kcv ⋅ h(𝜃) + kev ⋅ cv
⎧ 𝜃 v (𝜃)
⎪ + kwv ⋅ h(𝜃)nhv ⋅ VBnwv ⋅ cv d𝜃
�� � � nh � �nvh �
⎨ Fr = ∫ 𝜃 0 sin𝜃d𝜃 − ∫𝜃 m ko ⋅ 𝜂cf ⋅ h(𝜃)cos𝜃 ⋅ d𝜃
�
0
⎪
0 0
𝜃m
kch ⋅ h(𝜃) + keh ⋅ cv
v (𝜃)
+ kwh ⋅ h(𝜃)nhh ⋅ VBnwh ⋅ cv
v (𝜃) 𝜃
(3)
� � 0 � � 0 � �
⎪ Fz = ∫𝜃0 cos 𝜃d𝜃 + ∫𝜃 m ko ⋅ 𝜂cf ⋅ h(𝜃) sin 𝜃 ⋅ d𝜃
⎪ 𝜃m � � vc (𝜃) nh
0
nvh
nhh n vc (𝜃) 𝜃
kch ⋅ h(𝜃) + keh ⋅ v + kwh ⋅ h(𝜃) ⋅ VB ⋅ v wh
⎩ 0 0 0

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732 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740

Table 1  The coefficients KH and Hardness ratio KH n assumed that the cutting temperature is evenly distributed
n [26] along the tool-workpiece interface. Based on Fick’s first
HT/HW ≤ 0.8 3 1 law, the average flux rate Jave can be calculated by Eq. (9).
0.8 ≤ HT/HW ≤ 1.25 5.3 3.5 √
1.25 ≤ HT/HW 2.43 7 vc D
Jave = −2C0 (9)
𝜋VB
respectively. The coefficients KH and n are selected in Table 1 where D is the diffusion coefficient, and C0 is the concentra-
depending on the hardness ratio of tool and workpiece material. tion of diffusing elements at the tool-workpiece interface.
The diffusive wear rate can be expressed as the product
2.2.2 Tool wear rate due to adhesive wear of the average flux rate Jave and the contact time tcontact
between materials [27]. The diffusive wear rate on the cut-
The high temperature and pressure on the tool-workpiece ting edge segment can be determined by Eq. (10).
interface lead to the formation of adhesion layer in processing √
Inconel 718. The tool material on the flank face is lost during dwT VB3 − 2R(T+273.15)
Q
�|
= KT |Jave ||Atcontact = KT e d𝜃 (10)
the adhesion layer falling off. dt vc (𝜃)
The adhesive wear has a great relationship with the nor-
mal stress on the contact surface. However, some areas on the where KT is the diffusive wear coefficient, Q is the process
contact surface are not adhered according to the research [27]. activation energy, and R is the gas constant.
It is presumed that p is the ratio of the adhesion area to the
contact area. The normal stress acting on the adhesion zone is
expressed as Eq. (7). 2.2.4 Other tool wear patterns caused by BUE and impact
in milling process
fh p
𝜎a = (7)
VB The BUE formed by adhesion on the tool-workpiece inter-
The adhesive wear rate on the cutting edge segment can be face is serious in the machining process of Inconel 718.
calculated by Eq. (8) by extending Childs’ [28] adhesive wear The stable BUE can increase the effective rake face angle
model to the milling process. and reduce tool wear [29]. However, the vibration and
impact in milling process make the BUE fall off leading
dwA K f (𝜃) to the formation of large and unstable BUE. The tool mate-
= A h vc (𝜃)d𝜃 (8)
dt HT VB rial on the tool-workpiece interface is taken away with the
unstable BUE falling off, causing tool wear.
where KA is the adhesive wear coefficient, and vc is the rela-
The flank wear rate on the cutting edge segment caused
tive sliding speed between contact surface, which is the cut-
by BUE and impact is proposed by the empirical model
ting speed in this study.
shown in Eq. (11) based on the form of cutting force
empirical model in Sect. 2.1.
2.2.3 Tool wear rate due to diffusive wear
( )
dwB ( ) vc (𝜃) nv
The diffusion of chemical elements between tool and workpiece = KB kcv ⋅ h(𝜃) + kev ⋅ d𝜃 (11)
dt v0
in metal cutting process will result in the tool material volume
and strength lost. The elements Ni and Fe in the workpiece where KB is the impact wear coefficient.
material have no traces of diffusion into the tool matrix, while
the elements in tool matrix is found to diffuse into the work- 2.3 Tool wear width prediction model
piece material when machining Inconel 718 with carbide tool.
The initial content of elements in the WC–Co cemented The wear volume on flank face wp can be written as Eq. (12) by
carbide tool is assumed to be constant C0. It is further integrating Eq. (4) over time and immersion angle θ.

t1 𝜃m ( )
dwH dwA dwT dwB
∫t0 ∫𝜃0
wp = + + +
dt dt dt dt
( √ ( )nv ) (12)
t1 𝜃m Hwn−1 K f (𝜃)vc (𝜃) ( ) vc (𝜃)
∫t0 ∫𝜃0
VB3 − 2R(T+273.15)
Q
= KH fh (𝜃)vc (𝜃) + A h + KT e + KB kcv ⋅ h(𝜃) + kev ⋅ d𝜃dt
HTn HT VB vc v0

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740 733

The normal stress on the tool-workpiece interface is
obtained by predicting the local cutting force in Sect. 2.2. The
accumulated error of model will finally cause the theoreti-
cal results to deviate from the experimental results. The wear
volume during one spindle revolution after modification (w)
can be modified by the measured cutting force to reduce the
cumulative error as shown in Eq. (13).
√ R0 𝜃m − 𝜃0 tan 𝛼
Fmeasure
w = wp (13)
Fpre
where Fmeasure and Fpre are the resultant forces of measure-
ment and prediction, respectively.
The shape of the cutting edge segment is shown in Fig. 3a.
The effective rake angle γ′ is actually the angle of negative
chamfer. The cross section through the tool flank surface is
shown in Fig. 3b. It is assumed that the effective rake angle
is constant during cutting. The geometric relationship of the
tool flank wear on cutting edge segment can be expressed as
Eq. (14).
( )
w = R0 𝜃m − 𝜃0 Awear (14)
where Awear is the cross-sectional area of the volume lost
on flank face. Awear is assumed to be the average area of the
cross-section to obtain the geometric relationship of the total
wear volume.
The geometric relationship in Fig. 3b between the exist-
ing tool wear ­VB0 and tool wear VB* after one spindle revo-
lution can be obtained by Eq. (15).
( ∗ )
VB + VB0 hc
Awear = (15)
2
where VB* is the flank wear width on fresh worn surface
after one spindle revolution, V
­ B0 is the flank wear width
on former worn surface, and hc is the distance between the
former and fresh worn surfaces.
By combining Eqs. (14) and (15), the geometric relation-
ship between the flank wear width VB and wear volume w
can be further expressed as Eq. (16).
√
2w(1 + tan 𝛼 tan 𝛾�)
VB∗ = VB20 + ( ) (16)
The proposed model could be extended to different work-
piece materials and tool inserts by considering some proper-
ties. The hardness Hw and the process activation energy Q
were predefined mechanical and thermal properties when
the proposed model was applied to other workpiece materi-
als. The tool geometry needs to be taken into consideration
while applying the proposed model to other types of tool
and coated tools.
3 Milling experiment and model verification
3.1 Experiment setup and measurement
The hardness of the workpiece material of Inconel 718 is
473 HV. The chemical compositions and physical–mechani-
cal properties of Inconel 718 are listed in Tables 2 and 3,
respectively. The indexable face milling cutter used in experi-
ment was FMP02-080-A27-SE09-08 (diameter D = 80 mm,
maximum number of teeth z = 8). The milling insert was
SEET09T308PER-PM YBG202, which was provided by
ZCC·CT. The tool material was TiAlN-coated WC–Co-
cemented carbide with 0.8-mm tool nose radius. The experi-
ment was carried out with one tooth cutter. When mounted in
the tool holder, the effective rake, the clearance and inclina-
tion angle are − 15°, 5°, and 0°, respectively.

Fig. 3  a Volume wear on cut-

ting edge segment; b Cross-
sectional view of cutting edge
segment

13
734
Table 2  The chemical C Mn
composition of Inconel 718
wt% 2.82 0.44
The milling experimental setup of Inconel 718 is
shown in Fig. 4. The milling experiments was carried
out on a VMC0540d CNC machining center. The refer-
ence range of the cutting parameters (vc = 45 –75 m/min,
fz = 0.05–0.15 mm/r) was recommended by the technical
support of cutting tool supplier ZCC·CT, while the cutting
depth was kept constant at 0.2 mm. The experimental design
table used in this study is shown in Table 4.
The cutting force and cutting temperature measuring
devices are shown in Fig. 4. The cutting force was meas-
ured in-process in the MCS with 3-component dynamom-
eter (Kistler 9129AA, with the sensitivity of − 7.975pC/N)
equipped with charge amplifier (5070A) and data acquisition
card (5697A, with the resolution per channel of 16 bit and
the sample rate of 1000 Hz). The DTC1401 infrared thermal
imager with a range of − 20 to 900℃ was used to extract
the maximum temperature in the infrared image as the aver-
age cutting temperature of the cutting area. The Inconel 718
emissivity was 0.2 without oxidation [30]. The flank wear
width VB was measured with optical microscope every 20 s
in each cutting condition until the 300-μm flank wear width
(ISO-8688).
3.2 Calibration of cutting force and tool wear
monitoring model
The model calibration is the problem of estimation of the
unknown distribution coefficients based on the curve fitting.
The nonlinear relationship between cutting force and tool
wear makes the model very complex, which makes it hard
to solve the model coefficients. In this paper, model coef-
ficients are estimated by the nonlinear least squares (NLS)
method based on the Levenberg–Marquardt (LM) method
[31] proposed by Marquardt [32] aiming at minimizing the
sum of square errors (SSE).
The local cutting force model introduced in Sect. 2 has
several coefficients to be estimated. The global cutting force
in Eq. (3) is the average cutting force during one spindle
revolution. Consequently, the average value of cutting force
obtained by the dynamometer is necessary in the coefficient
estimation. The measurement results of flank wear and
Table 3  Critical physical–mechanical properties of Inconel 718
Elastic Poisson’s Tensile Yield Hardness
modulus ratio strength strength (HV)
(GPa) (GPa) (GPa)
199.9 0.29 1394 1179 473
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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740
Cr Mo Al Ti Co Nb Fe Ni
17.29 3.10 0.43 0.95 0.95 5.39 17.72 Bal
cutting temperature shown in Fig. 5 are recorded for further
fitting. The model coefficients are calibrated with the data
of experimental group 1 by NLS method.
Figure 6 shows the fitting result of cutting force and tool
wear curve. The reduced error criterions 𝜒𝜈2 of cutting force
is 0.9567 in Fig. 6a. The evolution trend of the average cut-
ting force during one spindle revolution with cutting pass is
clearly shown in Fig. 6. A classic tool wear model proposed
by Gavin is also fitted to further verify the model proposed
with the experiment result in Fig. 6b. The reduced error cri-
terions 𝜒𝜈2 of two models are 1.011 and 1.071, which indicate
the curve is well fitted according to [33].
The resultant cutting force of experimental and theoreti-
cal results are shown in Fig. 7. It can be seen that the nota-
ble errors occur in groups 3, 8, and 9. This is due to the cut-
ting force changes slightly with the tool wear at the feed of
0.15 mm/r, which need further investigation. The relative error
is 21% after removing the obvious outliers. Since the tool wear
monitoring model in Sect. 2.2 has error compensation accord-
ing to the measured cutting force, the monitoring model is not
sensitive to force error and the cutting force error is acceptable.
3.3 Verification of tool wear monitoring model
Figure 8 shows the comparison of the experimental results
with the theoretical results of Luo’s model and the TWM
system proposed in this study. The evolution trend of the
theoretical value and the experimental value of the tool wear
has been observed to a satisfactory agreement under the
experimental conditions in Fig. 8. Although the cutting force
error between the measured value and the theoretical value
has an effect on the tool wear calculation, the monitoring
error can be reduced through the cutting force modification
in the TWM system. The monitoring errors of flank wear
width in Fig. 8 are 9.4%, 17.1%, and 15.9%, respectively.
Luo’s model has considerable accuracy when the cutting
speed and feed rate are low. However, serious errors occur
with the increase of cutting parameters in Fig. 8b, c. The
RMSEs of TWM system are significantly smaller than Luo’s
model at large cutting parameters in Fig. 9. The TWM system
proposed in this study can accurately monitor the tool wear
in the process of milling 718 compared with Luo’s model.
The tool wear data of other test groups are also analyzed.
The RSME and determination coefficient R2 between the
TWM system and experimental data are shown in Fig. 10. The
results are less different from each other except for test groups
3 and 7. The noticeable error between the measured value and
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740 735

Fig. 4  Face milling experiment

device

the theoretical value of tool wear can be observed in the test in TWM system after small coefficients disturbance. The
groups 3 and 7 in Fig. 10. Experiments were repeated to rule variations of theoretical results for ± 5% and ± 10% errors
out chance results. The possible reasons are the following: (1) of the coefficients as small disturbance are summarized in
inconsistent tool quality causing tool to fail very quickly under Fig. 12 under the cutting conditions of group 1. The abra-
these conditions; (2) Inconel 718 material has uneven mechani- sive wear coefficient KH could be determined in Table 1
cal properties; (3) the tool wear rate changes sharply due to without being affected by the fitting results, thus the
the rapid change of the effective rake angle. The effective rake coefficient KH is not involved in the robustness analysis.
angle is considered to be constant in tool wear model. The ± 5% and ± 10% errors of the three coefficients leads
Of course, the error may also come from the inaccurate meas- to the maximum variations of 1.42% and 2.61% on the
urement of tool wear used in the coefficient calibration. Cutting monitoring value of flank wear width VB, respectively. It
force modification based on cutting force measurement men- is readily seen that the small disturbance of diffusion wear
tioned in Sect. 2 can reduce the cumulative error of tool wear. coefficient KT has the least effect on the theoretical results.
Figure 11 shows the comparison of the tool wear model According to the above results, the proposed TWM sys-
calculated with cutting force modification and without cut- tem with only one calibration group has reached over 70%
ting force modification in test group 2. The determination monitoring accuracy with high robustness in face milling
coefficient R2 is improved from 0.9051 to 0.9355 through Inconel 718. It can be seen that the TWM system proposed
cutting force modification. in this study requires less experimental data to obtain high
In addition, the robustness analysis of the proposed accuracy. The errors of this system could be attributed to
system is conducted to evaluate the stability of the model the cutting force model and the simplification of the tool-
workpiece contact condition. Besides, the increase of moni-
Table 4  Cutting conditions for tool wear monitoring test toring error was found in the experiment when the flank
wear width is over 300 μm. In our future study, detailed
Test index Cutting speed (m/min) Feed rate (mm/z)
reasons will be further investigated based on this work.
1 45 0.05
2 60 0.05
4 Case study‑application for evolution
3 75 0.05
of tool wear zone
4 45 0.1
5 60 0.1
The flank wear zone shape is directly reflected in the surface
6 75 0.1
topography of processed workpiece, causing the surface of
7 45 0.15
the workpiece to become rough [34]. Monitoring the evolu-
8 60 0.15
tion of flank wear zone shape can further control the work-
9 75 0.15
piece surface quality.

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736
Fig. 5  Measurement results
of flank wear and cutting tem-
perature
The evolution trend of the flank wear zone shape over
cutting times is calculated based on the discretized cut-
ting edge according to Eq. (12) as shown in Fig. 13a. The
evolution trend of flank wear width at different positions
of the cutting edge is similar. Obviously, the tool wear
zone shape has a turning point along the cutting edge.
The instantaneous cutting thickness h(θ) in Fig. 1b has a
turning point along the cutting edge. The tool wear rate is
positively correlated with h(θ) according to Eqs. (3) and
(12). Therefore, the changes of the instantaneous cutting
thickness h(θ) lead to the appearance of turning point in
Fig. 13a.
The theoretical results of flank wear zone shape in
Fig. 13b is compared with the experimental shape. The
observable errors on both sides of the turning point are
quite different. The theoretical results of the flank wear zone
shape before the turning point is larger than the experimental
Fig. 6  The fitting result of a cutting force and b tool wear
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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740
results while it is the opposite after the turning point. These
errors have two possible reasons. The first is that the mate-
rial hardness in the model is assumed to be uniform. How-
ever, the surface hardness of the material is higher than the
internal hardness due to work hardening. The assumption
of uniform hardness leads to the larger theoretical value of
theoretical boundary. The second is the chip plastic side flow
in chip deformation. The impact of chips staying near the
cutting edge causes serious wear on the part after the turning
point. The chip plastic side flow becomes more severe with
the increase of tool wear [35]. The scraping of chips on the
wear zone is more serious resulting in high wear rate.
To summarize, the TWM system can reduce the monitor-
ing error by using cutting force modification. It has a con-
vincing result on tool flank wear evolution monitoring. The
TWM system proposed in this study can be extended to the
monitoring of the flank shape.
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740 737

Fig. 7  Experimental and theo-

retical cutting forces of worn
tool

Fig. 8  Comparison of the

experimental results with the
theoretical results of Luo’s
tool wear model and the TWM
system proposed

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738 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740

Fig. 9  RMSE of theoretical tool

wear result against a feed and b
cutting speed

Fig. 10  RSME and determina-

tion coefficient R.2 of TWM
system with experimental data
of each test in Table 4

Fig. 11  Tool wear of experimental value, theoretical value with and Fig. 12  Robust analysis of the TWM system under the cutting param-
without cutting force modification eters of test group 1

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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740
Fig. 13  Shape monitoring of flank wear zone: a evolution of flank wear zone shape with cutting time; b comparison between theoretical results
and experimental results
5 Conclusion
This study proposes an indirect TWM system with online
measured cutting force and cutting temperature in milling
process. The validity of the cutting force model and the tool
wear model is verified by milling experiments. The main
conclusions are summarized as the following.
1. The local cutting force modified model has been
developed to be suitable for tool wear monitoring in
face milling process. The experimental results veri-
fied that the cutting force modification considering
wear could effectively present the evolution trend of
cutting force.
2. A tool wear analytical model was proposed. The tool
wear mechanisms including abrasion, adhesion, and
diffusion caused by impact were analyzed. A tool wear
monitoring (TWM) system was developed based on the
tool wear model by measuring cutting force and cutting
temperature. The system could effectively monitor the
tool wear in face milling process with solely one test
group for coefficients calibration.
3. The proposed TWM system was resistant to small dis-
turbance on coefficients. The robustness analysis for pre-
dicted tool wear showed that the error of TWM system
is within 3% under the ± 5% and ± 10% disturbance of
the coefficients.
4. Based on the tool wear monitoring system, a case study
was presented to monitor the tool wear zone shape on
flank face by discretizing the cutting tool edge. The case
739
application showed the TWM system could be expended
in complex tool wear monitoring cases.
Author contribution Delin Liu: investigation, conceptualization, writing
– original draft. Zhanqiang Liu: writing – review & editing, validation,
resources, data curation, supervision, project administration, funding
acquisition. Jinfu Zhao: analysis, suggestion, and discussion. Qinghua
Song: writing – review & editing. Xiaoping Ren: methodology, valida-
tion. Haifeng Ma: formal analysis.
Funding The authors would like to acknowledge the National Key
Research and Development Program of China (2019YFB2005401) and
the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (91860207). This work was also supported by grants from Tais-
han Scholar Foundation and Shandong Provincial Key Research and
Development Program (Major Scientific and Technological Innovation
Project 2020CXGC010204).
Data availability The raw data required to reproduce these findings
cannot be shared at this time as the data also forms part of an ongoing
study.
Code availability Not applicable.
Declarations
Consent to participate All the authors listed agree to participate in
this manuscript.
Consent for publication All co-authors agree to publish the version
of this work in The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology.
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
13
740 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 122:729–740

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