• PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY is an analytical technique used to separate and analyze mixtures of

soluble substances. It is a type of chromatography.

• We use a solvent, called the mobile phase, to dissolve a sample of a soluble mixture. The solvent
carries the mixture up a solid called the stationary phase.
- The stationary phase is a static solid, liquid, or gel. In chromatography (You can actually think
of the stationary phase as being a complex matrix made of water and paper, not just the paper
itself.)
- The mobile phase is the solvent used to carry the mixture analyzed through the stationary
phase (we typically use a nonpolar solvent- Nonpolar solvents interact more with the mobile
solvent, travelling quickly along the polar stationary phase, while polar solutes are attracted
to the stationary phase and travel more slowly. This property allows for separation based on
polarity.)
• Components that travel faster have a greater affinity to the mobile phase
RETENTION FACTOR (RF)
- The ratio between the distance travelled by each component and the total distance
travelled by the solvent gives us Rf values.
- Rf values are important because each component has a fixed Rf value under a specific set
of conditions. If you repeated the experiment again, keeping the mobile phase, the
stationary phase, and the temperature exactly the same, you would get the same Rf value
for the same component. We can then compare Rf values to ones in a database to identify
the components in the mixture.
RELATIVE AFFINITY
- In chromatography, relative affinity describes how well a component is attracted to either
the stationary or mobile phase. It determines how quickly the component moves through
the stationary phase.
- Remember how the stationary phase is a matrix of cellulose and water? This means that
it is polar and can experience permanent dipole-dipole forces. The water molecules can
also form hydrogen bonds with suitable substances. In contrast, the mobile phase in
paper chromatography is typically nonpolar. It can only form weak van der Waals forces.
From this we can deduce the following:
A. Lower Rf - they have a greater affinity to the stationary phase.
- If any of the components within the sample mixture are polar, or
contain chemical groups that can form hydrogen bonds, they will bond
more strongly to the polar cellulose-water structure than to the
nonpolar solvent.
B. Higher Rf - have a greater affinity to the mobile phase
- non-polar compounds.
ANALYSIS
- each spot represents a different component found in the original solute mixture.
ADVANTAGES: Paper chromatography is cheap, simple, and uses small sample sizes.
BOILING POINT

• The boiling point of a compound is the temperature at which it transitions from a liquid
to a gas. This transition occurs when the vapor pressure of the liquid matches the
pressure exerted on it, which is typically the atmospheric pressure.
• Boiling points can be constant for pure compounds or vary for mixtures. They can change
with atmospheric pressure, making them less precise than melting points. Yet, the boiling
point of a substance is still a valuable measurement in the determining its purity.
• To turn into the gas phase, the molecules should overcome the intermolecular
interactions and escape the liquid surface, and the stronger these interactions, the
harder it is for the molecules to overcome those
• In this experiment, the goal was to determine the boiling points of the distillates from a
prior experiment to assess their purity. This was done by comparing the measured boiling
points to the expected boiling point of the pure substance. Any deviations from the
expected value could indicate impurities or external factors like atmospheric pressure

Q1. When do you note the temperature?

T1 – When the bubbling cease and the liquid rose to the capillary tube.

T2- First bubbling starts from the capillary.

QUALITATIVE DETECTION OF SOME ELEMENTS

- Carbon compounds generally can be detected by heating. Heating the compound with
copper(II) oxide (CuO) in a dry test tube. If the CO2 produced turns lime water milky and
the H2O.
- Be cautious with reactive substances: Sodium metal is highly reactive.

How to calculate substance percent:

Calculate from freezing point depression:

- The challenge in determining nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens in organic compounds arises from their non-
polar nature, which prevents the organic compounds from ionizing in solution to generate ions of these
elements.

- Lassaigne's test or the sodium fusion test- When organic compounds are heated with sodium metal,
these elements transform into their respective sodium salts.

Nitrogen Test

- Heating the compound with sodium metal converts nitrogen to sodium cyanide. This
sodium cyanide is subsequently examined by introducing iron (II) sulfate crystals. These
crystals undergo aerial oxidation to form iron (III) sulfate during heating. Afterward, the
mixture is acidified with dilute sulfuric acid. The formation of a Prussian blue precipitate,
resulting from the creation of iron (III) ferrocyanide (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3), signifies the presence
of nitrogen.

Sulfur Test

- The formation of a black precipitate in this reaction indicates the presence of sulfur
because it forms lead sulfide (PbS), which is insoluble in water. When lead acetate is added
to a solution containing sulfide ions, it reacts to form lead sulfide as follows:

Halogen Test

Sulfur test and Nitrogen test importance: If the organic compound contains nitrogen or sulfur, the creation
of a white precipitate of AgCN or a black precipitate of AgS might disrupt the halogen test.

- After exposure to a silver nitrate solution, a dense white precipitate was noted. This white
precipitate forms as a result of silver chloride formation, providing evidence of chloride
presence.

Beilstein Test

Principle: When heated in a burner flame, chlorine reacts with copper compounds to produce excited
copper atoms or ions that display a brilliant green or blue-green flame.

NOTE: Impurities, such as fingerprints, or surface treatments that contain chloride can give a weak green
flame that disappears quickly