NEW TRENDS IN MOLECULAR

MAGNETISM
Abstract
Even though it belongs to the field of chemistry, molecular magnetism is much broader than
synthesis and has close ties to many other areas of the physical sciences. Although there are
other avenues of research toward medical diagnostics and catalysis, magnetic memory and
quantum information processing currently dominate this field. Popular subtopics,
coordination polymers, metalorganic frameworks (MOFs), spin crossover complexes, single-
molecule magnetism, magnetic switching at the molecular level, and some of the most recent,
noteworthy findings in the field are covered in this review along with their design,
mechanisms, applications, and study. In addition to the aforementioned subjects, an outline of
relevant electronic structure techniques is included, along with an outlook.

Keywords
Molecular magnetism, coherence, coordination polymers, spin crossover complexes

Introduction
The field of molecular magnetism concerns the study of paramagnetic molecule- based
accoutrements and is a fantastic playground for chemists, physicists, accoutrements scientists,
experimentalists, and practitioners to explore. The great appeal of these accoutrements is the
tunability of their magnetism via chemistry, where the connection between structure and
physical characteristics can be modulated in borderline immeasurable ways, a significant
difference from solid- state magnetic accoutrements . Further, the essential emplacement of
molecular magnetic moments allows the simulation of magnetic states with Hamiltonians of
finite dimension, easing the exact treatment of quantum magnetic properties. The
combination of these two features allows the precise construction of magnetic topologies to
study essential drugs. For example, slow magnetic dynamics can be manipulated in zero-
dimensional( 0D) single- molecule magnets( SMMs), which are atomically precise
superparamagnets with tuneable magnetic anisotropy( 1); low- dimensional magnetism can
be studied in 1D single- chain magnets( 2) or in 2D assembled accoutrements ( 3); the
quantum – classical boundary can be studied with large spin clusters( 4); optic-, thermal-, or
pressure- brought spin state switching can be studied in spin- crossover( SCO) accoutrements
( 5); magnetic frustration( both Heisenberg( 6) and Ising( 7) models) and toroidal spin
textures( 8) can be studied in cyclic molecules; spin waves can be studied in larger cyclic
molecules( 9, 10); and coherent spin dynamics can be manipulated in molecular spin
qubits( 11, 12). Beyond an interest in controlling and studying the underlying physics of
doctored magnetic systems, molecular magnets are oftentimes touted for their prospect in
high- consistency data repository (13), quantum information processing (14), and spintronics
(15) and are central in the design of multimodal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) disparity
agents.
The project focuses on transition metal or lanthanides and actinides in complexes give rise to
an unique response to an external magnetic field leading to preferred alignments of their
magnetic moments. This property is titled magnetic anisotropy. In axial symmetry anisotropy
is described by the parameter D which quantifies the zero- field splitting of the 2S+1
sublevels M (-S<M<S) of the spin S (E=DM^2) of the non-relativistic ground state. Magnetic
anisotropy is a result of coupling between orbital and spin angular momentum. Below the
blocking temperature, TB the acting total angular momentum and its magnetization brought
by an external magnetic field may persists after switching off the field. The relaxation time
and the specific life-time of this magnetic state depends on the magnitude of the orbital
angular momentum and its coupling to its dissipative surrounding (thermal bath). Orbital
momenta are maximized in atoms and ions with orbitally degenerate ground states, such as
Fe( I) 4F( d7) or Fe( II) 2D( d6). However, due to their spherical symmetry the orbital
moments are isotropic. Anisotropic magnetic moments are intrinsic for molecules retaining
the axial (four of threefold) symmetries, which in addition, are orbitally degenerate or nearly-
degenerate ground states. Spin-orbit coupling introduces atoms like orbital moments which
couple with the spin leading to an entirely anisotropic magnetization (Ising anisotropy). This
magnetization is maximized along the axis of quantization (the easy axis, D<0) and in weak
magnetic fields it is very small in directions perpendicular to it.

Orbital momenta are maximal in atoms and ions with orbitally degenerate ground states,
such as Co(II) 4F or Fe(II) 2D. However, because of the spherical symmetry, such orbital
moments are isotropic and do not create magnetic
anisotropies. Anisotropic magnetic moments are
intrinsic for molecules possessing axial four of threefold
symmetries, which in addition, are in orbitally
degenerate ground states. First order spin-orbit coupling
in such systems introduces atomic like orbital moments
which couple with the spin and this leads to an entirely
anisotropic magnetization. This magnetization is
maximal along the axis of quantization (the easy axis,
D<0) and (in weak magnetic fields) very small in
directions perpendicular to it (Ising type anisotropy). A
series of pseudo-tetrahedral Fe(II) complexes of this type has been theoretically predicted [1]
by first principles calculations and synthesized and magnetically characterized [2,3] at about
the same time (see 1). These were shown to display slow relaxation of the magnetization
and were termed single ion magnets (SIM). These discoveries opened a new field in magneto
chemistry.

1.Single Molecule Magnets and Design Strategies

Large magnetic anisotropy in [Mn12O12(CH3COO)16(H2O)4] [herein {Mn12}] led to the discovery of
SMMs (19, 20), molecules exhibiting memory effects resulting from purely intramolecular
interactions without the needing long-range order, the first observation of molecular magnetic
hysteresis (18). The three essential components of SMMs identified are large easy-axis
magnetic anisotropy, a bistable ground state, and a large magnetic moment. It takes a highly
magnetic molecule to create a molecular magnet, and classical binary memory requires two
degenerate states that can be switched between
The third prerequisite is arguably the most important, but it's also the hardest to engineer.
Uniaxial easy-axis anisotropy dictates that one spatial direction should have the largest
magnetic susceptibility. Magnetic anisotropy is the relationship between a molecule's
physical structure and its magnetic properties. This combination of characteristics results in a
well-isolated manifold of magnetic states with a distinctive shape (Figure 1), where a doubly
degenerate ground state and an intrinsic energy barrier separate it. Each molecule must climb
this barrier to reverse its magnetization, which is the cause of slow magnetic dynamics and,
consequently, memory effects in SMMs. The magnetic relaxation or magnetic reversal
energy barrier is denoted by the symbol Ueff, and it results in an exponential temperature
dependence of the magnetic relaxation rate, which is also called the spin-lattice relaxation
rate (T1), as shown in Equation 1 (22),
1.

Figure 1 Illustrative energy barrier to magnetic relaxation (Ueff) in single-

molecule magnets. Gray bars are doubly degenerate electronic states (Kramers
doublets), which have opposite projections of the total angular momentum Jz.
Magnetic relaxation processes mediated by phonons are shown as colored solid
arrows, with red indicating single-phonon processes (the sequence displayed is
called the Orbach process) and green indicating a Raman two-phonon process.
The gray dashed line indicates a virtual state, which is not a real state and simply
depicts that all excited states are involved in a second-order perturbation to
facilitate the Raman-like scattering process. Magnetic relaxation mediated by
quantum tunneling of the magnetization is shown as a blue dotted arrow.
Thermally assisted quantum tunneling of the magnetization between excited
states is not shown .

This is comparable to the Arrhenius law for chemical kinetics; for {Mn12}, hysteresis is
detectable below 4 K, and Ueff/kB = 61 K. However, almost any paramagnetic molecule can
exhibit out-of-equilibrium behavior (i.e., memory effects) if the temperature is low enough
and the experiment's duration is short enough, since magnetic relaxation entails the exchange
of energy with a bath. Therefore, even though it is standard practice to designate as an SMM
any molecule having observable slow magnetic dynamics, here we are referring a definition
that includes the presence of a Ueff barrier.

Exchange interactions were used to create molecules with huge total spin in the vein of
{Mn12}, with the research of SMMs initially focused on 3d-based polymetallic compounds,
which culminated in a recent complex called {Ni21Gd20} (4) with S = 91. The magnetic
anisotropy and Ueff in this initial generation of SMMs are a result of second-order (excited
state) spin-orbit coupling (SOC) effects in each of the three-dimensional ions, which are
projected onto the molecule's total spin ground state. As a result Ueff values are small even
though magnetic moments can be quite large due to their large total spin. The magnetic
anisotropy of each ion is typically small and tends to cancel out when projected onto the total
ground spin state because it is difficult to control a collinear alignment of many individual
anisotropy axes.

The community shifted to the usage of 4f ions in SMMs, most frequently as monometallic
complexes (24), after being inspired by the groundbreaking work of Ishikawa et al. (23), who
in 2003 isolated the Tb(III) SMM [NnBu4][TbPc2] (H2Pc = phthalocyanine) with Ueff/kB =
331 K. Due to the contracted structure of the 4f orbitals, 4f ions have huge quantities of
unpaired electrons and nearly-unquenched orbital angular momentum, which results in
significant magnetic moments and magnetic anisotropy. The crystal field (CF) effects are best
described as splitting the total angular momentum states into projections m due to the
contracted 4f orbitals. Here, SOC acts in first order to give total angular momentum, J = L +
S ground states in the late 4f period (J = L − S in the early 4f period). Thus, discussing 4f
bonding or antibonding interactions with ligands is meaningless. As a result, the CF splits the
ground total angular momentum state, resulting in the Ueff barrier for monometallic 4f-based
SMMs. By selecting a 4f ion with an odd number of unpaired electrons, which by Kramers'
theorem ensures twofold degeneracy in zero magnetic field, the criteria for magnetic
bistability can also be met (25). As a result, it was discovered fast that Dy(III), which
contains a 6H15/2 ground term, was the ideal ion to construct SMMs. A strategy for rational
design of 4f-based SMMs was proposed in a seminal perspective paper by Rinehart & Long
(26) after a scattergun approach to the design of new 4f paramount importance. While
reverse engineering this problem may seem daunting, a significant piece of the puzzle was
actually solved in the 1980s by Sievers (27), who demonstrated that the m states of the free 4f
ions have strongly anisotropic analytical f-electron density distributions. Therefore, Rinehart
and Long suggested that the anisotropic f-electron density of the greatest (highest magnetic)
m state of a given 4f ion be stabilized by setting up the electrostatic potential created by the
ligands. In fact, it was demonstrated that the ground state magnetic anisotropy in Dy(III)
complexes could be explained by a classical electrostatic model consistent with the results of
ab initio electronic structure computations (28). The preferred coordination geometry for
Dy(III) is two-coordinate linear (29, 30), which concentrates negative charge on a single axis
(Figure 2). This approach has been repeatedly verified as producing significantly higher Ueff
barriers. (figure 2b) (31)

Figure 2 (a) The ideal coordination environment for a Dy(III)-based single-molecule magnet is linear two-coordinate. X
represents anionic ligand donor atom(s), and the rendered shape is the overexaggerated 4f9 electron density for Dy(III) in the
mJ = ±15/2 state (27). (b) Timeline of record-breaking Ueff barriers for different SMMs: 1993, [Mn12O12(CH3COO)16(H2O)4] (43);
2003, [NnBu4][TbPc2] (23); 2013, [TbPc(Pc-(OPh-p-tBu)8)] (44); 2016,[Dy(OtBu)2(pyridine)5][B(C6H5)4] (45); 2018, [Dy(C5Me5)
(C5iPr5)][B(C6F5)4] (38); and 2022, [Dy2I3(C5iPr5)2] (46).

These results have prompted theoretical (32, 39, 41) as well as experimental (42)
investigations into how and why this class of compounds has such extraordinary properties.
These investigations have yielded the following conclusions: (a) the ligands are small and
charge dense; (b) the axial ligands can approach closely due to the absence of equatorial
ligands; (c) the bulky nature of substituents encourages linear coordination; (d) rigid C5 (or
C4P) rings in the first coordination sphere of the Dy(III) ion, leading to high-energy
intramolecular vibrations (optical phonons); and (e) the bulky substituents on these cations
when paired with bulky anions result in diffuse molecular charges, leading to weak
intramolecular interactions and low-energy intermolecular vibrations (acoustic and
pseudoacoustic phonons). Points d and e result in weak two-phonon coupling, which slows
down relaxation via the Raman mechanism (see below) (42). Points a–c lead to a large CF
splitting and consequently a large Ueff barrier, slowing down relaxation via the Orbach
process (Equation 1). Though theoretical research indicates that Ueff barriers have reached
their maximum, improving this design remains an open problem. However, advancements
can be accomplished by carefully crafting the SMM's vibrational modes (41)

Because magnetic relaxation does not always exhibit an exponential temperature dependence,
other SMMs with comparable large Ueff barriers do not exhibit open hysteresis to such high
temperatures (31, 47). Phonon absorption and emission promote magnetic relaxation, the
process by which molecules transition between various electronic states (see Section 5). The
Raman-like two-phonon scattering

processes, which give a power-law temperature dependence to the relaxation rate (25, 48),
and quantum tunneling of the magnetization (QTM), which is temperature independent (49,
50), are other processes that lead to the exponential over barrier process (Orbach process) that
can be used to bypass the Ueff barrier (Figure 1). Therefore, (a) disentangling the relationship
between chemical structure and Raman relaxation and (b) comprehending the drivers of QTM
in 4f SMMs are two of the most important domains in the development of SMMs.

Through the work on monometallic 4f SMMs that now dominates the field, it has become
well known how to design molecules that exhibit large magnetic anisotropy. However,
progress is not sure to continue along this route owing to fundamental limitations in the
possible chemistry and the underlying physics. Another route to improving the performance
of SMMs is through strong magnetic coupling between 4f ions, which can augment existing
strong anisotropy. However, magnetic interactions between 4f ions are generally weak and
often dominated by through-space dipolar interactions (51); hence, polymetallic 4f molecules
tend to behave magnetically as a collection of individual 4f centers (52). On the other hand,
radical spins on appropriate bridging ligands can produce strong contacts and strong 4f–4f
coupling (53). The most notable example in this case is [{Tb(tetrahydrofuran)
(N{SiMe3}2)2}2N2], which has a strong antiferromagnetic coupling to each Tb(III) through a
bridging N23− radical anion, resulting in a highly anisotropic ferrimagnetic ground state (54).
Until the emergence of dysprosocenium SMMs (32), this molecule was the record holder for
the highest temperature observation of molecular magnetic hysteresis, at 14 K. However,
these strongly coupled SMMs have large coercivities (55) that seem to block the effects of
QTM that afflict monometallic 4f SMMs (56, 57). But the majority of these radical-bridged
SMMs have anionic radical bridging ligands that coordinate perpendicularly to each metal
ion's main anisotropy axis (Figure 3a) (55, 58, 59). It would be better if the radical bridge was
collinear with the local anisotropy axes so that (a) any coupling between the metal ions was
supported by through-space ferromagnetic dipolar interactions and (b) the anionic radical
bridge enhanced, rather than diminished, the magnetic anisotropy that was already present
(Figure 3). The emergence of dimeric 4f units encased in fullerene cages exhibiting single-
electron metal–metal interactions that provide extremely strong magnetic coupling is an
intriguing advance in this field (60). In this case, anisotropy (negative charge on a single axis)
for each Dy(III) ion originates from the bonding electron, as does the magnetic coupling,
which, crucially, adheres to the collinear principle. This results in magnetic hysteresis
opening up to 21 K and an order-of-magnitude stronger interaction than generally reported
(even for radical-bridged complexes).

Figure 3 Chemical structures of (a) [(Dy(C5Me5)2)2(bipyrimidine)]+ (58) and (b) [Dy2I3(C5iPr5)2] (46) with indication of
anisotropic magnetic moments in the ground state (red arrows). H atoms are omitted for clarity .

1(a). Applications Of SMMs

Due to the typically large, bi-stable spin anisotropy, single-molecule magnets promise the
realization of perhaps the smallest practical unit for magnetic memory, and thus are possible
building blocks for a quantum computer. Consequently, many groups have devoted great
efforts into synthesis of additional single-molecule magnets. Single-molecule magnets have
been considered as potential building blocks for quantum computers. A single-molecule
magnet is a system of many interacting spins with clearly defined low-lying energy levels.
The high symmetry of the single-molecule magnet allows for a simplification of the spins that
can be controllable in external magnetic fields. Single-molecule magnets display
strong anisotropy, a property which allows a material to assume a variation of properties in
different orientations. Anisotropy ensures that a collection of independent spins would be
advantageous for quantum computing applications. A large amount of independent spins
compared to a singular spin, permits the creation of a larger qubit and therefore a larger
faculty of memory. Superposition and interference of the independent spins also allows for
further simplification of classical computation algorithms and queries.
Theoretically, quantum computers can overcome the physical limitations presented by
classical computers by encoding and decoding quantum states. Single-molecule magnets have
been utilized for the Grover algorithm, a quantum search theory. The quantum search
problem typically requests for a specific element to be retrieved from an unordered database.
Classically the element would be retrieved after N/2 attempts, however a quantum search
utilizes superpositions of data in order to retrieve the element, theoretically reducing the
search to a single query. Single molecular magnets are considered ideal for this function due
to their cluster of independent spins. A study conducted by Leuenberger and Loss,
specifically utilized crystals to amplify the moment of the single spin molecule magnets
Mn12 and Fe8. Mn12 and Fe8 were both found to be ideal for memory storage with a retrieval
time of approximately 10−10 seconds.
Another approach to information storage with SMM Fe 4 involves the application of a gate
voltage for a state transition from neutral to anionic. Using electrically gated molecular
magnets offers the advantage of control over the cluster of spins during a shortened time
scale. The electric field can be applied to the SMM using a tunneling microscope tip or
a strip-line. The corresponding changes in conductance are unaffected by the magnetic states,
proving that information storage could be performed at much higher temperatures than the
blocking temperature. The specific mode of information transfer includes DVD to another
readable medium, as shown with Mn12 patterned molecules on polymers.
Another application for SMMs is in magnetocaloric refrigerants. A machine learning
approach using experimental data has been able to predict novel SMMs that would have large
entropy changes, and therefore more suitable for magnetic refrigeration. Three hypothetical
SMMs are proposed for experimental synthesis: ,
, . The main SMM characteristics that contribute to the entropy
properties include dimensionality and the coordinating ligands.
In addition, single-molecule magnets have provided physicists with useful test-beds for the
study of quantum mechanics. Macroscopic quantum tunneling of the magnetization was first
observed in Mn12O12, characterized by evenly spaced steps in the hysteresis curve. The
periodic quenching of this tunneling rate in the compound Fe 8 has been observed and
explained with geometric phases.

In addition, single-molecule magnets have provided physicists with useful test-beds for the
study of quantum mechanics. Macroscopic quantum tunneling of the magnetization was first
observed in Mn12O12, characterized by evenly spaced steps in the hysteresis curve.The periodic
quenching of this tunneling rate in the compound Fe8 has been observed and explained with
geometric phases.

2. Spin Crossover Complexes (SCO)

The phenomenon known as spin-crossover (SCO) occurs when a transition metal center's
high-spin (HS) and low-spin (LS) electronic configurations transfer states. Many people
acknowledge the SCO phenomenon as an illustration of molecular bistability. Six-coordinate
first-row transition metal complexes with d4–d7 configurations are the most extensively
researched SCO compounds. Tanabe–Sugano diagrams, which are commonly found in
textbooks on coordination chemistry, highlight how coopetition between spin pairing
energies and ligand field stabilisation (LFS) can result in a relatively modest enthalpy change
between LS and HS states. An rise in temperature can cause the Gibbs free energy to change
from a positive to a negative sign since an entropy variation in spin multiplicity from LS to
HS is always positive. At this point, the SCO conversion takes place from the LS to HS state.

First row transition metal complexes with an octahedral ligand structure and an electron
configuration of d4 through d7 are frequently found to exhibit spin crossing. Plotting the
high-spin molar fraction vs temperature is a common application for spin transition curves.
Frequently, an abrupt (ΔT = 10K) transition with hysteresis and a two-step transition occurs
after a slow spin change. Hysteresis coupled with abruptness denotes cooperativity, or
"communication," between adjacent metal complexes. In the latter scenario, the material is
bistable and is able to exist in the two distinct spin states for the two processes, LS → HS and
HS → LS, with a varying range of external stimuli (heat, in this example). Although the two-
step transition is not common, it can be seen in certain cases, such as in dinuclear SCO
complexes, where the transition in one metal centre is less favourable due to the spin
transition, and vice versa. A number of distinct forms of spin crossover have been reported,
including charge transfer induced spin transition (CTIST), ligand-driven light induced spin
change (LD-LISC), and light induced excited spin-state trapping (LIESST).

2(a). Characterisation Tools

Magnetic susceptibility measurements are essential to the characterization of spin crossover
compounds because of the changes in magnetic characteristics that result from a spin
transition, where the complex is more magnetic in an HS state and less magnetic in an LS
state. The main method for describing SCO complexes is the magnetic susceptibility as a
function of temperature, or χT.