Pre-test: True or False – Write True if the said statement is true, and write False if the statement is false, on a

one-half cross-wised sheet of yellow pad paper.

1. Culture is defined as “the complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws,
norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of a
society” Nationality is the identity that is tied to being part of a nation or country.
2. This is the primary biological component of humans that allowed for culture is the developed heart.
3. The frontal lobe and the motor cortex function for cognition and motor abilities.
4. Compared with other primates, humans have larger brain, weighing 1.4 kg.
5. The respiratory tract acts as the mechanism by which sounds are produced and reproduced to transmit
ideas and values.
6. Power grip enabled humans to hold and pick objects steadily using their fingers. This capacity was
crucial for tool-making activities.
7. Oldowan industry was developed by Neanderthals in Europe and West Asia between 300 thousand and
30 thousand years ago.
8. Quadrupedalism is the capacity to walk on four feet.
9. Old Stone Age, is a period in human prehistory distinguished by the original development of stone tools
that covers c. 99% of the time period of human technological prehistory.
10. Force theory is theory wherein a group forces members of another group to subject themselves to their
rules.
11. The Greek philosopher Aristotle described humans as “political animals”, as it is in their nature to
indulge in politics.
12. Raw materials in Oldowan industry were made through percussion flaking.
13. Mesolithic age is the Old World archaeological period between Paleolithic and Neolithic age. The
Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia.
14. Paternalistic theory is the creation of a state was a mutual agreement between the ruler and the ruled to
ensure order and security from outside threats.
15. The temporal lobe allows for hearing skills.

Lesson 1 – Biological Capacity for Culture

Before we proceed to the main topic, let’s review what is culture.

So, culture is defined as “the complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes,
laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member
of a society” (According to Tylor, circa 2010).
 It is a by-product of the attempt of humans to survive their environment and to compensate for their
biological characteristics and limitations.

To understand further our topic, we need to know:

1. The biological capacity of humans for culture,

2. The place of humans in the animal kingdom, and
3. How humans came to develop early forms of culture.

Let’s talk about the biological capacity of humans for culture:

The need to scrutinize human anatomy to understand culture is indispensable. Physical and cultural
anthropologists argue that we could trace how culture became possible by understanding our biological makeup.

1. Our Thinking Capacity

- This is the primary biological component of humans that allowed for culture is the
developed brain. It has the necessary parts for facilitating pertinent skills such as:

1. Speaking
2. Touching
3. Feeling
4. Seeing
5. Smelling

The frontal lobe and the motor cortex function for cognition and motor abilities.

The parietal lobe allows for touch and taste abilities.

The temporal lobe allows for hearing skills.

The occipital lobe allows for visual skills.

Compared with other primates, humans have larger brain, weighing 1.4 kg. Chimpanzees (chimps in other term)
have a brain weighing only 420 g., and those of gorillas weigh 500 g.

Due to the size of their brain and the complexity of its parts, humans were able to create survival skills that
helped them adapt to their environment and outlive their less adaptive biological relatives.

2. Our Speaking Capacity

- As the brain is the primary source of humans’ capacity to comprehend sound and
provide meaning to it, the vocal tract acts as the mechanism by which sounds are
produced and reproduced to transmit ideas and values.

Example: The vocal tract of a human is longer than that of a chimpanzee (chimp).
A longer vocal tract means that there is a longer vibration surface, allowing humans
to produce a wider array of sounds than chimps. The tongue of humans is also more
flexible than that of a chimp, allowing for more control in making sound.
3. Our Gripping Capacity

- So, this capacity to directly oppose your thumb with your other fingers is an exclusive
trait of humans. It allowed us to have a finer grip. Thus, we have the capability to
craft materials with precision.

The hand of a human has digits (fingers) that are straight, as compared with the
curved ones of the other primates. Notice that the thumb of the human is
proportionately longer than those of the other primates.

These characteristics of the human hand allowed for two types of grip:

1. Power grip – this enabled humans to wrap the thumb on an object; it became
the cornerstone of our capacity to hold tools firmly for hunting and other
activities.
2. Precision grip – this enabled humans to hold and pick objects steadily using
their fingers. This capacity was crucial for tool-making activities.

4. Our Walking and Standing Capacity

- Primates have two forms of locomotion: bipedalism and quadrupedalism.

1. Bipedalism – is the capacity to walk and stand on two feet, whereas,

2. Quadrupedalism – is the capacity to walk on four feet.

Although apes are semi-bipedal, humans are the only fully bipedal primates. Being bipedal, humans gained
more capacity to move while carrying objects with their free hands.

This is an important trait, as it gave humans more productivity with their hands. Apart from this, humans gained
a more efficient form of locomotion suitable for hunting and foraging.

Activity Time!

1. What are the four capacities that enabled humans to have culture?
2. What is the significance of studying human biology in understanding cultural capacity?

Lesson 2 – Human Origins and the Capacity for Culture

There are 3 stages of our origin as humans. The Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic.

1. Paleolithic Revolution – also known as the Old Stone Age, is a period in human prehistory
distinguished by the original development of stone tools that covers c. 99% of the time period of
human technological prehistory.

Our evolution toward humanity as we know it has been a long journey of survival against the
elements of the environment and against competing species. As our ancestors evolved biologically in
response to their environment, they have also developed cultural technologies that aided them to
efficiently obtain food and deter predators.

Archaeologists refer to these early traditions as stone tool industries instead of culture, as the
material products of these periods merely display the methods used by early humans in creating tools
and not the modern context by which we define it.

 The Oldowan Industry – is a stone tool industry that was characterized by the use of
“hard water-worn creek cobbles made out of volcanic rock” (O’Neil, 2012).

These raw materials were then made into tools through percussion flaking, which is a
process involving systematic collision of a hammer stone with a core stone. The
impact of the collision produces a core tool (used for general purposes) and a flake
tool (used as a knife).

Supporting this existence of this industry is the evidence found by Mary and Louis
Leakey at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, which was dated at 2.6 million years ago, and was
known to have been used by Homo habilis.

These forms of technology allowed for the species to “butcher large animals, because
human teeth and fingers are totally inadequate for cutting through thick skins, and
slicing off pieces of meat”.

From Africa, this industry spread out to Europe and Asia during the migration of Homo
erectus, who acquired it from Homo habilis within 1.9 – 1.8 million years ago. By 1.8 –
1.6 million years ago, the Oldowan industry has already reached Java, Indonesia and
Northern China.

 The Acheulian Industry – Homo erectus developed a more complex industry from what
they inherited from Homo habilis. Using the same process of percussion flaking, Homo
erectus created hand axes that were bifacial, shaped in both sizes, and with straighter and
sharper edges.

Some archaeologists contest the general label of “hand axes” as the stone implements
may have been used in different context. However, it is still generally accepted that these
stone implements were used in multiple activities such as light chopping of wood,
digging up roots and bulbs, butchering animals, and cracking nuts and small bones.

Tools that were made were kept and not disposed of like the tools of the former industry,
as the tools of the latter set were more useful due to their generic application. Homo
erectus made other tools such as “choppers, cleavers, and hammers as well as flakes
used as knives and scrappers”. (O’Neil, 2012)

This industry was named after Saint Acheul, a patron saint in southwest France, as these
artifacts were discovered in the area. The artifacts date to 1.5 million years ago. Although
this is industry is believed to have originated in East Asia, scholars argue that its
extensive use may have been out of Africa as Homo erectus invented this industry and
brought it to Europe 500 – 900 thousand years ago and to China 800 thousand years ago.
 The Mousterian Industry

This industry was developed by Neanderthals in Europe and West Asia between 300
thousand and 30 thousand years ago.

This industry was named after a site in France called Le Moustier, where evidence was
uncovered in 1860.

The tools from this industry combined Acheulian industry techniques with the
Levalloisian technique, which involved the use of a premade core tool and the extraction
of a flake tool that has sharpened edges. This type of tools is very efficient as all the sides
of the flake tool are sharpened and, due to the reduction in size, handier.

Evidence of this industry dating back 100 thousand years ago was also found in Northern
Africa and West Asia, where modern humans such as that of Qafze migrated. Most
archaeologists hypothesize that this industry could be and evidence of acculturation of
modern humans with their Neanderthal relatives.

 The Aurignacian Industry

This industry was mainly present in Europe and southwest Asia from 45 – 35 thousand
years ago, the term Aurignacian was derived from Aurignac, an area in France where
evidence for this industry was found. Users of this industry used raw materials such as
flint, animal bones, and antlers.

The method they employed in creating tools such as fine blades was similar to the one
used in the Mousterian industry.

Apart from a more advanced toolmaking industry, what made this industry a cultural
milestone for the modern humans in Europe is their development of self-awareness. This
development was projected through cave paintings and the fabrication of accessories such
as figurines, bracelets and beads.

 The Magdalenian Industry

This industry saw the end of the Paleolithic age as it transformed to the Neolithic period.
This industry was named after the La Madeleine site in Dordogne, France. This industry
which is also a proto-culture used by the early humans, was defined by several
revolutionary advancements in technology such as the creation of microliths from flint,
bone, antler, and ivory.

Apart from functional tools which were at times beautified by artistic engravings, the
early humans during this period were engrossed in creating figurines, personal
adornments, and other forms of mobiliary art.

A defining method used in toolmaking during this period is the application of heat on the
material prior to the flaking process. This was done by casting the raw material on fire,
which allowed for a more precise cut upon flaking.
 Another cultural milestone for the users of this industry was the use of temporary man-
made shelters such as tents made of animal skin. Although the use of rock shelters and
caves were still predominant during this period, the creation of tents allowed the early
humans to be more mobile.

By 10 thousand BCE, this industry has spread to parts of Europe, including contemporary
territories such as Great Britain, Germany, Spain, and Poland.

2. Mesolithic Revolution – is the Old World archaeological period between Paleolithic and Neolithic
age. The Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia. It refers to the final period
of hunter-gatherer cultures, in Europe and Western Asia, between the end of the Last Glacial
Maximum and the Neolithic Revolution.

In Europe, it spans roughly 15 thousand to 5 thousand BCE; in southwest Asia roughly 20 thousand
to 8 thousand BCE. The term is less used of areas further east, and not all beyond Eurasia and North
Africa.

The type of culture associated with the Mesolithic varies between areas, but it is associated with a
decline in the group hunting of large animals in favor of a broader hunter-gatherer way of life, and
the development of more sophisticated and typically smaller lithic tools and weapons than the heavy-
chipped equivalents typical of the Paleolithic.

Depending on the region, some use of pottery and textiles may be found in sites allocated to the
Mesolithic, but generally indications of agriculture are taken as marking transition into the Neolithic.

The more permanent settlements tend to be close to the sea or inland waters offering a good supply
of food. Mesolithic societies are not seen as very complex, and burials are fairly simple; in contrast,
grandiose burial mounds are a mark of the Neolithic.
3. Neolithic revolution – this period is characterized by a major shift in economic subsistence of the
early humans from foraging to agriculture. This dramatic shift affected the other aspects of their
lifestyle, as foraging made them nomads and agriculture encouraged permanent settlement. This shift
in itself changed the entire array of behavior, attitudes, beliefs and corresponding material
inventions.

Characteristics of Paleolithic and Neolithic societies:

Characteristics Paleolithic Neolithic

Tools Small and handy for mobile Included a wider array of

lifestyle small and bigger tools due to
sedentary lifestyle
Personal properties Limited to personal Included structures (example:
accessories and small tools houses), decorative
that could easily be carried ornaments, large containers
around
Art Small and limited to personal Included the creation of
ornaments, bigger artworks artworks that required a
were done but not within a longer length of time and a
long time frame (example: greater number of people.
cave paintings)
 (example: Stonehenge)
Subsistence Foraging Agriculture
Leadership Not rigid; based on age and Semi-rigid; based on
knowledge legitimacy (religious beliefs,
social status)
Social divisions None; communal lifestyle Elite vs. working class
Population size Small (30 – 50 people) Large (in thousands)

There are generally two perspectives on the impact of the Neolithic revolution on human
populations. Traditionally, it is being argued that with the development of agriculture and
technology, humans were able to develop socio-politically, as the existence of systematic food
production has provided food surplus that enabled members of the population to indulge in self-
actualizing activities such as the arts and politics.

Lesson 3 – Early Civilization and the Rise of the State and Democratization of Early
Civilizations

The earliest civilizations rose by the end of Neolithic, as the complexities brought about by the shift in
food production demanded a more rigid social structure that would manage the opposing perspectives of various
sectors. As conflicts between groups developed and intensified, the need to create a more cohesive society
became definite.

Early civilizations were characterized by the presence of city-states, a system of writing, and a
ceremonial center where public debates and decisions were made. However, it must be noted that not all
societies during this period could be considered as civilizations as not all possessed a political system that could
be equated to a state.

As to how states rose, there are 5 primary theories:

1. Divine right theory – rulers ascended to power convinced that their right to rule is based on their filial
relationship with supernatural forces and entities.

The concept of god-king that was upheld in the city of Sumer is an example.

2. Force theory – a group forces members of another group to subject themselves to their rules. This was
observed among Mayans, as conflict over access to rivers resulted to subjugation of one group by
another.

3. Paternalistic theory – the father essentially is the leader of the first political unit, which grew as the
number of the members of his family grew. This is true for highly patriarchal, male-dominated societies.
4. Social contract – the creation of a state was a mutual agreement between the ruler and the ruled to
ensure order and security from outside threats.
5. Natural theory – humans have an innate need to be part of a community. The Greek philosopher
Aristotle described humans as “political animals”, as it is in their nature to indulge in politics.

The early states were governed by a limited few who ascended to power through wealth, birth right or
religious dogma. This alienated the masses from the daily administration of rules and regulations in their
society. As a result, the social cleavage in early civilizations widened and resulted in social clashes.
 Activity Time!

1. What are the key elements of Paleolithic technology?

2. How do cave paintings and accessories promote the possibility of self-awareness among the early
humans?
3. How different was the lifestyle of the Paleolithic society from Mesolithic and Neolithic?
4. Why is Neolithic period considered as revolution?

Evaluation: Multiple Choice – Using your existing one-half cross-wised sheet of yellow pad paper that you
used on the pre-test, write the correct letter of the correct answer.

1. The primary biological component of humans that allowed for culture.

a. Heart
b. Lungs
c. Fist
d. Brain
2. How many kilograms does a human brain have?
a. 420 kg
b. 500 kg
c. 1,4 kg
d. 1000 kg
3. This enabled human to wrap the thumb and fingers on an object.
a. Power grip
b. Precision grip
c. Pointy grip
d. Polishing grip
4. Which is NOT part of the Paleolithic age?
a. Aurignacian
b. Magdalenian
c. Iron Age
d. Oldowan
5. This was named after Saint Acheul, a patron saint in southwest France.
a. Aurignacian
b. Acheulian
c. Archian
d. Athenian
6. This was characterized by the use of hard water-worn creek cobbles made out of volcanic rock.
a. Aurignacian
b. Magdalenian
c. Acheulian
d. Oldowan
7. This was named after Le Moustier.
a. Aurignacian
b. Mousterian
c. Acheulian
d. Oldowan
8. This included a wider array of small and bigger tools due to sedentary lifestyle.
a. Mesolithic
b. Paleolithic
c. Neolithic
 d. Jurassic
9. This refers to small and handy for mobile lifestyle age.
a. Mesolithic
b. Paleolithic
c. Neolithic
d. Jurassic
10. These rulers ascended to power convinced that their right to rule is based on their filial relationship with
supernatural forces and entities.
a. Force theory
b. Divine Right theory

c. Social contract
d. Natural theory

Essay: For ten points, write what have you learned about this weekly topic that we have on this interactive
module.

Some Notes:

1. Post-test will be recorded and the instructor will collect your answers.
2. Activities will also be recorded and the instructor will collect your exercises.

Bibliography/References:

Internet Connection, Wikipedia

Understanding Culture, Society and Politics by DIWA Publishing

Maria Carinnes P. Alejandria-Gonzalez, Author