Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement Civil Disobedience and Beyond SES SIS LAE Oh INTRODUCTION « Just as Garibaldi is associated with the making of Italy, Gearge Washington is associated w ith the American: War of Independence and Ho Chi Minh is associated with the freedom of Vietnam, Mahatma Gandhi is associated with the struggle for India’s independence. + Gandhi is known as the father of the Indian nation, A LEADER ANNOUNCES HIMSELF * Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi retums to India in January 1915 after spending almost two decades as a lawyer in South Africa. Back in South Africa, he had become a leader of the Indian community residing there. Gandhi’s techniques of non-violent protest like “satyagraha’ were shaped in South Africa. Through his techniques, he was also able to promote harmony between religions and make the upper caste Indians aware of their discriminatory treatment towards women, and the lower castes. oa ‘ The India Gandhi came back to was far more ative in the political sense. The Indian ches in major towns and cities in various parts of the country. peal among the middle classes. Tilak_from National Congress had its bran © Swades ement had widened the nationalist ap i tad a Mo ae important leaders like Bal Gangadhat It had also brought fo ee tis: Bipin from Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai from beepers Se reflected the all-India character 0 Lees ee caitamilieal form of opposition against colonial rule. Lal, Bal and Pal advocated a milian rt Gopal Krishna Goal and Mo On the other side, there were PaGora! AOLUGOR Ali Jinnah ; was at BHU where he had been invited on account The first public appearance of of his work in South Aftic® 1 lamed the Indian elites for their lack of concern ing of BI Athis speech at the openin& oe towards the labouring Poor Gandhi222 _ Flying Colours History * Through his speech at the BHU, Gandhi tried to remind the people present of the Peasants and workers who constituted a majority of the Indian population but were unrepresented in the audience. * Gandhi's speech highlighted the elite nature of Indian nationalism at that point—it was popular only among the doctors, lawyers and landlords. His speech also highlighted the need to make Indian nationalism represent the Indian people as a whole. THE MAKING AND UNMAKING OF NON-COOPERATION In 1917, Gandhi was presented with the opportunity of testing out his non-violent method of protest at Champaran, where the peasants were being harshly treated by the British indigo planters. In 1918, two other campaigns in Gujarat witnessed a further success of Gandhi’s weapons. First, he intervened in a labour dispute in Ahmedabad, where the textile mill workers were demanding better working conditions. Secondly, at the Kheda district, he joined in the peasant’s demand for remission of taxes due to the failure of harvest. The struggles of Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda identified Gandhi as a nationalist with a deep sympathy for the poor. During the First World War (1914-18), the British government had censored the press and permitted detention of anyone without trial. After the war, based on the recommendation ofa committee chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt, these measures, known as the Rowlatt Act were continued. In response to the Rowlatt Act, Gandhi called for an all-India campaign against the very Act in the form of a bandh or strike, In North and West India, shops and schools were closed in response to the call for bandh. ‘The protests were intense in Punjab especially because many men from there had helped the British to fight and win the war. However, as a reward for their support and efforts, they were given the Rowlatt Act. “This wes followed by a series of arrests that included local Congressmen and others. The reaction in Amritsar grew more tense in April 1919 with the Jallianwala Bagh massacre that took the lives of more than 400 people and injured many more. However, it was through the Rowlatt Act Satyagraha movement that Gandhi emerged a a true national leader. Following the success of the Rowlatt Act Satyagraha, Gandhi called for a struggle for *non-cooperation’ with the British government, © As part of the Non-Cooperation Movement, people were asked to abandon all government positions, titles, institutions and not to pay taxes. To widen the base of the Non-Cooperation Movement, Gandhi merged it with the Khilafat Movement, © The Khilafat Movement was aimed at the restoration of the Caliphate.The obje Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement 273 Joining the unity between t Non- ‘ : Cooperation Movement with the Khilafat Movement + The Non-Cooperation Move he Hindus and the Muslims, Workers went on Strike j 5 in m: am 396 strikes in 192} alone) any towns and cities (according to official figures about There was discontent in th # violated the forest laws € Countryside too, For example, tribes in northern Andhra Farmers in Awadh refused to Pay taxes, © Peasants in Kumaon refused rhe Non-Cox i « The No £ operation Movement shook the foundations of British rule in India for the very first time since the tevolt of 1857. In iis re of 1922, the Movement took a violent tum when a group of peasants attacked and burnt down 4 police station at a village named Chauti Chaura. The incident took the lives of several policemen, + Following the Chauri Chaura incident, the Non-Cooperation Movement was called off. + The Non-Cooperation Moyement also saw repression form the government. © Thousands of Indians were arrested and imprisoned. © Gandhi was arrested in March 1922 and charged with sedition and sentenced to 6 years of imprisonment. + With the Non-Cooperation Movement, Gandhi transformed the face of Indian nationalism. It was no longer a movement of only the intellectuals and professionals, now it also included hundreds of thousands of peasants, workers and artisans. * Gandhi was revered and was known by several names like ‘Gandhi baba’, ‘Gandhi mabaraj’ or just “Mahatma”. Above everything, unlike other leaders, the masses were able to identify themselves with him. His ascetic te dhoti, charkha and love for manual labour allowed Gandhi to empathise with . mere eee Aton * Certain factors made Gandhi different from the other nationalist leaders. Su contributed to ‘ification with the masses, For example: contrib identifi the . Xar ontri his identi ee © While the other leaders wore a Western suit or Indian bandgala, G dhoti or loineloth. © Gandhi spent a part of a nee setter Gandhi to break the prevailing caste boundaries between working on the charkha (spinning wheel) and encouraged other un hi * The act of spinning ese our. ine saviour who would rescue them from high taxes and was a em * Inthe eyes of the peasants ie as te one who could restore dignity and autonomy in Oppression of the officials. the lives ofthe peasants: the base of Indian nationalism was based on careful * Gandhi’s success in Wi Organisation.The obje Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement 273 Joining the unity between t Non- ‘ : Cooperation Movement with the Khilafat Movement + The Non-Cooperation Move he Hindus and the Muslims, Workers went on Strike j 5 in m: am 396 strikes in 192} alone) any towns and cities (according to official figures about There was discontent in th # violated the forest laws € Countryside too, For example, tribes in northern Andhra Farmers in Awadh refused to Pay taxes, © Peasants in Kumaon refused rhe Non-Cox i « The No £ operation Movement shook the foundations of British rule in India for the very first time since the tevolt of 1857. In iis re of 1922, the Movement took a violent tum when a group of peasants attacked and burnt down 4 police station at a village named Chauti Chaura. The incident took the lives of several policemen, + Following the Chauri Chaura incident, the Non-Cooperation Movement was called off. + The Non-Cooperation Moyement also saw repression form the government. © Thousands of Indians were arrested and imprisoned. © Gandhi was arrested in March 1922 and charged with sedition and sentenced to 6 years of imprisonment. + With the Non-Cooperation Movement, Gandhi transformed the face of Indian nationalism. It was no longer a movement of only the intellectuals and professionals, now it also included hundreds of thousands of peasants, workers and artisans. * Gandhi was revered and was known by several names like ‘Gandhi baba’, ‘Gandhi mabaraj’ or just “Mahatma”. Above everything, unlike other leaders, the masses were able to identify themselves with him. His ascetic te dhoti, charkha and love for manual labour allowed Gandhi to empathise with . mere eee Aton * Certain factors made Gandhi different from the other nationalist leaders. Su contributed to ‘ification with the masses, For example: contrib identifi the . Xar ontri his identi ee © While the other leaders wore a Western suit or Indian bandgala, G dhoti or loineloth. © Gandhi spent a part of a nee setter Gandhi to break the prevailing caste boundaries between working on the charkha (spinning wheel) and encouraged other un hi * The act of spinning ese our. ine saviour who would rescue them from high taxes and was a em * Inthe eyes of the peasants ie as te one who could restore dignity and autonomy in Oppression of the officials. the lives ofthe peasants: the base of Indian nationalism was based on careful * Gandhi’s success in Wi Organisation.274 Flying Colours History * A series of ‘Praja Mandals’ were established to promote the nationalist creed in the princely states, Following Gandhi’s arrival, the message of nationalism reached different comets of Indiq and included various sovial groups within its fold. This happened in two ways: e Under Gandhi's encouragement, local languages were used to communicate the message of nationalism. © The Congress provincial committees were based on linguistic regions instead of the artificial divisions of British India, Gandhi’s admirers comprised of both poor peasants and rich industrialists. The growth of Gandhian nationalism no doubt depended on Gandhi’s role. But more than Gandhi, it depended to a large extent on his followers. Between 1917 and 1922, some very talented individuals attached themselves to Gandhi and his work. They were Sarojini Naidu, Subhas Chandra Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru, Govind Ballabh Pant, C Rajagopalachari, Mahadey Desai, JB Kripalani, Abul Kalam Azad and Vallabh Bhai Patel. Upon being released from prison in 1924, Gandhi devoted his attention towards promotion of khadi and abolition of untouchability. For Gandhi, freedom would make sense only when Indians: © are able to get rid of social evils like untouchability and child marriage. © cultivate genuine tolerance for Indians following a different religious faith (emphasising on Hindu-Muslim harmony). © are able to attain self-reliance (where he emphasised on the significance of wearing khadi rather than imported mill-made cloth). THE SALT SATYAGRAHA: A CASE STUDY e In 1928, an all-India campaign had been organised in opposition to the all-white Simon Commission. The Simon Commission had been sent from England to enquire into the conditions of the colony. In December 1929, the Congress held its annual session in Lahore. Two important events took place in this session: o Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as Congress’s President. © The proclamation of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or complete independence was made. 26" January 1930 was observed as Independence Day. The national flag was hoisted and patriotic songs were sung at various venues. The Salt March to Dandi was aimed at breaking one of the most unfavoured laws i) British India. This law granted the state the monopoly to manufacture and sell salt. Gandhi's picking on the issue of salt had a mass appeal since salt was required in every Indian household whether rich or poor. Itw 10 aimed at mobilising a wider discontent against British rule.shits Garth tthe Natoma shrenent am ibited peop| ple to buy the salt at a hj le from maki march began on the 10 Factory workers went on strike i i - Lawyers boycotted British cours 2” 2 Students boycotted emment-r . « The ovens eae eee several thousand Fadians j one repression. Thousands of dissenters were detained and « For Gandhi, in order to achiecs ey nats Mote aested on account ofthe Salt Marc. mace to achieve, all communities irrespective of religion, caste or creed + The Salt March was noteworthy for three particular reasons: 2 Firstly, it brought Mahatma Gandhi to the world’sattention. The Salt March was widely covered by the American and European presses. 2 Secondly, the March was the first nationalist activity in which Indian women participated in large numbers. © Thirdly, the Salt March made the British realise that their rule over India will not last forever and they will have to devolve some power to the Indians. + To meet the needs of the third reason, a series of Round Table Conferences were organised by the British government in London. * The first Round Table Conference was et in November 1930. However, it lacked the Presence of Gandhi, which rendered it futile. a : * Following his release from prison in January 1931, oes had several long meetings with the Viceroy which culminated into the Gandhi-lrwin Pact. * According to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact: © the Civil Disobedience Movement ws 0 Be cole - =, be rel jeased. > all the prisoners ett was to be allowed along the coast. © manufacturing of salt w ‘was unable to secure the Viceroy’s commitment towards * However, the Gandhi-Irwin ce invited criticisms from radical nationalists. India’s political I cecas held in 1931 in London, Gandhi represented the * At the Second Round aims that Congress represented all of India was challenged by Congress. However, the ¢ They were: three other parties at the conferene® the interest of the Muslim minority. a Jaimed to represent s © the Muslim League, It ope Congress had no stake in their territories. . the princes, who clint 4 that Gandhi and the Congress did not actually represent > BR Ambedkar, the lower castes. ae for domesticuse, in a way forcing276 Flying Colours History * The Second Round Table Conference failed to yield any productive results. Gandhi returned to India and resumed civil disobedience. In 1935, a new Government of the India Act was passed, This Act promised some form, of representative government, In 1937, based on the Government of India Act of 1935, provincial elections were held on the basis of restricted franchise, ‘The 1937 elections saw the Congress emerging victorious in 8 out 11 provinces. These provinces would now have a Congress Prime Minister working under the supervision of a British Governor, The Congress Ministries resumed office in September 1939. The year also witnessed the outbreak of the Second World War. Both Nehru and Gandhi were strongly critical of Hitler and the Nazis and assured the British of the Congress’s support in fighting the war only if, the British promised to grant independence to India after the war was over. However, the British government refused the offer. This was followed by resignation of the Congress ministries in October 1939. Between 1940 and 1941, a series ofindividual satyagrahas were organised by the Congress in order to pressurise the government to grant independence once the war ended. The political landscape in the subcontinent was further complicated when in March 1940, the Muslim League passed a resolution in which they demanded autonomy for the Muslim-majority areas of the subcontinent, The Muslim League’s demand made it evident that it was no longer a struggle between the Indians and the British. Rather, now the struggle was between the Congress, Muslim League and the British Back in Britain, the members of the Labour Party were sympathetic towards the aspirations of the Indians. However, the government was headed by a Conservative Prime Minister, Winston Churchill who was a diehard imperialist refusing to liquidate the British Empire. In 1942, Churchill sent Sir Stafford Cripps to strike a compromise with Gandhi and the Congress. However, the Cripps Mission failed when the Congress insisted that if Britain wanted its support in defending India from the Axis Powers, then the Viceroy had to appoint an Indian as the Defence Member in his Executive Council. . QUIT INDIA © With the failure of the Cripps Mission, Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement against British rule in August 1942 e The government reacted quickly by arresting Gandhi # InGandhi’s absence, the movement was led by young activists who organised strikes and acts of sabotage all over the country. Such activists included members like Jayaprakash Narayan of the Congress who was active in underground resistance.Mahatma Gandhi ana fonalist Movement 277 1S Were proclai ai : rhe govern fis the east, 'med in several districts: for ‘example, Satara in the © ae Wed the py + The Quit India Movement oe of repression, ordinary Indians took pam ig, "885 Movement in which hundreds of thousands of « The Quit India Movement in to get arrested for their parti « Onthe other front, the Musti + Gandht vag releaeeg eee Worked patiently towards increasing its influence. tempt at bringing the gap perme nie 1944. Following his release, Gandhi made an series off meetings with Jinnah, ‘ongress and the Muslim League by holding a « In Britain, the Labour Party came to itself to the task of granting indepen + Lord Wavell, the then Viceroy. fresh talks. « The Prov incial elections of 1946 saw the completion of polarisation on the Indian political scene, * Inthe elections, the Congress was ableto winalll seats in the General category. The Muslim League secured an overwhelming majority in the seats specifically reserved for Muslims. + The Cabinet Mission Plan was drawn up in 1946. However, it failed to secure the approval of both the Congress and the Muslim League in favour of it proposed federal system which allowed the provinces a certain degree of autonomy. + With the failure of talks over the Cabinet Mission Plan, Jinnah called for Direct Action Day to be observed in 16! August 1946 insisting upon the League's demand for Pakistan, * On 16" August 1946: © bloody riots broke out in various parts of Caleutta, 6 violence of the riots gradually spread from Calcutta to the other parts of rural Bengal, inspired large i ciation, lumber of students who left their colleges only Power in 1945. The Labour government committed dence to India, brought together the Congress and the League for and eventually to other provinces like Bihar, Punjab and the United Provinces. © both Hindus and Muslims fell victims to the violence of the riots. * In 1947, Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell as the Viceroy. ' Mountbatten called for one last round of talks in order toarrive at a compromise between in the demands of the Muslim League and the Congress. However, the talks failed. lema , i ntbatten annouriced: ee Me from British rule but it will also be divided, 9 ia wil e the formal transfer of power will take on 15" August 1947 IE LAST HEROIC DAYS ata heavy price. The country was divided and Hindu-Muslim * India’s independence came relations were tense. ee camps in an attempt to console the distressed jials and refugee Based * Gandhi went around hosp! People.278 Flying Colours History * He appealed to the people to forget the past and ext each other. © The Congress passed a resolutior Sana and Nehru. Through this resolution, the Congress tried to assure all EHUD Communities in India that it will continue to protect their citizenships rights against aggression, democratic state where all citizens enjoy full rights am end the right hand of fellowship to non ‘the rights of minorities” at the initiative of Gandhi believed that India will become a seculap Despite the partition, the Congress strongly d are equally protected by state irrespective of their religion. A Gandhi believed that despite the partition, sorrows and numerous Woes, Indians would from then onwards work collectively towards ensuring the equality of all classes and creeds. Both the countries needed to respect and befriend one another. He also believed that despite being divided, at heart Indians will continue to remain friends and brothers who help and respect each other and appear as one to the outside world, Ata daily prayer meeting on 30” January 1947, Gandhi was shot dead by Nathuram, Godse, who denounced Gandhi as an appeaser of Muslims. KNOWING GANDHI Gandhi’s political career and the history of ‘the nationalist movement can be reconstructed from a different kind of sources. Some important sources of information on Gandhi are: © Writings and speeches of Gandhi and his contemporaries © Autobiographies @ Government records o Contemporary newspapers Writings and speeches of Gandhi and his contemporaries © These include writings of Gandhi, his associates and adversaries. © While studying such accounts, one needs to distinguish between those that were meat! for the public and those that were not. Speeches give us an idea about the public voice of an individual. Private letters on the other hand give us an idea about an individual's thoughts, ideas beliefs, perspective. etc. ° ° ° Letters may also have the individual’s expression of anxiety, anger, dismay, jo}: Many a times, hopes and frustrations that could sressed in public speect a S t be ex, find their way into private letters. a But in some cases, the private-public distinction : gets dissolved. The language used in the letters may be shaped by the awareness that the letters ™ be published someday. This can act as a drawback since it would prevent the fiom apesise their opinions freely. For example, in his panel Harijan, Gand often published letters written to him by others, Similarly, Nehru edited and publ A Bunch of Old Letters’ which was a collection of letters anivteg to him autina national movement. letters written to him ° 0°oe aa Autobiographie They shatma Gandhi and the National are rich in human details However, caution must be int, USt be taken wr; F 5 {Ken while They are often written ne readin, ) n from m 1 and interpreting a ‘aphies. 1 18 Autobiographies, They reflect the opini aera retrospect. us Jews Of the au ithor and their choice of events. Comprises of letters g S and rey f poli eee “ports of police officials and servicer under Secret tals and servicemen that were kept ) However, these reports t, Were based on the loc: i fc i views of higher cnt mn the local police information and reflected the « Contemporary newspapers Newspaper rs of G is ti neli ° Sandhi 8 time, whether English or native, tracked his movements reported on his activities, ° rey oa act as a source of information on what the ordinary Indians thought of jandhi. o However, they should be seen as prejudiced because the information was influenced by the political opinions and world views of the people who published them and the way events were reported. + There are however, some points to be aware of while reading and studying the reports. They are: > not all statements made in the records can be accepted literally as representing the actual ground reality. . > the statements may also reflect the fears and anxieties of officials who were unable the control of the spread of a movement. Gandhi returns to India from South Africa. '917_| Champaran Satyagraha s i918 ‘© Peasant protests in Gujarat’s Kheda ane hmedabad textile mill © Workers’ strike at A s g 5 | * Rowlatt Act Satyagraha a Ee « Jallianwala Bagh masseere On Non-Cooperation and ee Mo’ ‘|e Chauri Che ra inciden' Beit t : Se eae Movement Is called off. * Non- e = rdoli —— mn ~~ Pasa re as the Congress objective at its Lahore session. Purna Swaraj is acc® se bea. '307|— civil Diabed 5 as Dandi tomanufacturesalt. | © Gandhi undert