ELECTRIC TRACTION

Traction systems
Propulsion of vehicle is called traction.
System of traction involving the use of electricity is called electric traction system.

Various system of traction:

-Steam engine drive
-Internal combustion engine drive
-Diesel electric drive
-Battery electric drive
-Electric drive

System of traction may be classified broadly into two groups namely,

1. System which do not involve the use of electricity at any stage to drive the traction
vehicle are called as non- electric drive.
-Direct steam engine drive
-Direct IC Engine drive
2. Systems which involve the use of electricity at some stage or the other to drive
traction vehicle (necessary propelling torque) are called electric traction system.
- Diesel electric drive,
- Electric drive

System of Electric traction may further be subdivided into two groups namely,

1. Group consisting of vehicles which receive electric power from distributing fed
at suitable points either from a suitable power station all substations suitably placed.

e.g. Tramways, Trolley buses, Electric Railways

2. Group consisting of self-contained locomotives such as diesel electric trains,
ships, petrol electric trucks, lorries, and battery driven road vehicles.
Requirements of an Ideal traction system
Each traction system has got its own merits and fields of applications and no single
traction system fulfils the requirements of an ideal traction system.
The requirements of ideal traction systems are:
1. Ideal traction system should have the capability of developing high tractive
effort in order to have rapid acceleration.
2. The speed control of the traction motors should be easy.
3. Vehicles should be able to run on any route, without interruption.
4. Equipment required for traction system should be minimum with high
efficiency.
5. It must be free from smoke, ash, durt, etc.
6. Regenerative braking should be possible and braking should be in such a way
to cause minimum wear on the brake shoe.
7. Locomotive should be self-contained and it must be capable of withstanding
overloads.
8. Interference to the communication lines should be eliminated while the
locomotive running along the track.

Different systems of traction

1.Steam Engine Drive
Most widely employed for railway work in India in the past. Reciprocating steam
engine is invariably used for getting necessary motive power.

Steam Engine Drive - Advantages

i) Simplicity, simplified maintenance, simplicity of connections between the
cylinders and the driving wheels and easy speed control.
ii) Locomotive and train unit is self-contained and therefore not tied to a route.
iii) Causes no interference to communication lines running along the track.
iv) Larger capacity compared to internal combustion engine drive and battery
electric drive.
v) Initial investment is low compared to electric drives such as overhead structure
distribution system and power generation. Cheap for low density traffic areas.

Steam Engine Drive - Drawbacks

1. Low thermal efficiency 6-8%.
2. Adequate supplies of feed water at regular intervals is required.
3. Overload capacity is limited.
4. Higher repair and maintenance cost. Repair costs are high especially for the
boiler.
5. Requires a greater number of skilled and unskilled staff for maintenance.
6. Not a clean drive due to coal dust, ash.
7. Cannot be put in the service at any moment as time is required for steam
raising.
8. Considerable wear on track due to unbalanced reciprocating parts.
9. Due to the unbalanced reciprocating parts, riding qualities are not good.
10. Due to smoke it cannot be employed in underground Railways.
11. It is available for hauling for about 60% of its working day, the remainder of
the time is spent in coaling, fire cleaning, watering and servicing.

2. Internal combustion engine

Widely used for road transport (buses, cars, trucks). Efficiency is about 25% at
normal speed. Self-contained unit and therefore not tied to any route. Initial
investment is required, cost of maintenance is quite low. Speed control and braking
systems are simple.
Internal combustion engine-Drawbacks
1. Overload capacity is limited. 10% overloading may result in stalling of the
engine.
2. Its operation at any speed (other than normal speed) is uneconomical.
3. Torque exerted by in IC engine is constant. Therefore, an engine capable of
giving high starting torque required is not used to its full capacity when
running at full speed unless some form of gear is used.
4. Speed control possible only by means of gears. Steam electric drive steam
turbines used to drive generator and these supplies electric current to Motors.

3. IC Engine electric drive

Diesel engine is used to drive DC generator couple to it at a constant speed.

Favourable for Railway work.

IC Engine Electric Drive-Advantages

1. No modification of existing track required for conversion from steam

traction to diesel engine electric traction.
2. Initial investment low as no overhead distribution system required.
3. Can accommodate more passengers in steam engine vehicle high
acceleration and Breaking retardation give higher schedule speed over a
given route compared to steam engine.
4. Power loss in speed control is low, it can be done by field control of
generator.
5. Self-contained, not tied to any route.
6. Maintenance cost is higher. Time spent in maintenance cost and overhaul is
 less (5-10% of its working day).
7. Can be put into service at any moment.
8. Overall efficiency is greater than steam locomotive (25%)

IC Engine Electric Drive-Drawbacks

1. Over load capacity Limited as diesel engine cannot be overloaded.
2. Life of diesel engine is comparatively shorter.
3. Running and maintenance cost high.
4. Special cooling system needed for cooling diesel engine in addition to MG set.
5. For the same output, diesel engine locomotive is costlier than steam or electric
locomotive.
6. Dead weight of such locomotives is higher; hence it requires a greater number
of axles.
7. Regeneration braking is not possible (no bar in making use of rheostatic
braking).

4. Electric drive
Most widely used. In this system of traction, the vehicle draws electrical energy
from the distributions system fed at suitable points from either a central power
station or substations.
Electric traction system has many advantages compared to non-electric traction
systems.

Electric Traction system- Advantages:

1. Electric traction system is cleaner and easier to handle.
2. No need of storage of coal and water that in turn reduces the maintenance cost as
well as the saving of high-grade coal.
3. Electric energy drawn from the supply distribution system is sufficient to maintain
the common necessities of locomotives such as fans and lights; therefore, there is
 no need of providing additional generators.
4. The maintenance and running costs are comparatively low.
5. The speed control of the electric motor is easy.
6. Regenerative braking is possible so that the energy can be fed back to the supply
system during the braking period.
7. In electric traction system, in addition to the mechanical braking, electrical
braking can also be used that reduces the wear on the brake shoes, wheels, etc.
8. Electrically operated vehicles can withstand for overloads, as the system is
capable of drawing more energy from the system.

Electric traction system - drawbacks:

1. Electric traction system involves high erection cost of power system.
2. Interference causes to the communication lines due to the overhead distribution
networks.
3. The failure of power supply brings whole traction system to stand still.
4. In an electric traction system, the electrically operated vehicles have to move
only on the electrified routes.
5. Additional equipment should be needed for the provision of regenerative braking;
it will increase the overall cost of installation.

5. Petrol electric traction

This system of traction is used in road vehicles such as heavy lorries and buses.
These vehicles are capable of handling overloads. At the same time, this system
provides fine and smooth control so that they can run along roads without any jerks.
6. Battery drives
In this drive, the locomotive consists of batteries used to supply power to DC motors
employed for driving the vehicle. This type of drives can be preferred for frequently
operated services such as local delivery goods, traction in industrial works and
mines, etc. This is due to the unreliability of supply source to feed the electric
motors.

Electric vehicles fed from distribution network

Vehicles in electrical traction system that receives power from overhead distribution
network fed at suitable points from either a central power station or substations
suitably spaced. Based on the available supply, these groups of vehicles are further
subdivided into:
i). System operating with DC supply. Ex: tramways, trolley buses, and railways.
ii). System operating with AC supply. Ex: railways.

Systems operating with DC supply

In case if the available supply is DC, then the necessary propelling power can be
obtained for the vehicles from DC system such as tram ways, trolley buses, and
railways.
Tramways: Tramways are similar to the ordinary buses and cars but only the
difference is they are able to run only along the track. Operating power supply for
the tramways is 500-V DC. They are fed from single overhead conductor acts as
positive polarity that is fed at suitable points from either power station or substations
and the track rail acts as return conductor.
The equipment used in tramways is similar to that used in railways but with small
output not more than 40–50 kW. Usually, the tramways are provided with two
driving axels to control the speed of the vehicles from either end. The main
drawback of tramways is they have to run along the guided routes only. Rheostatic
and mechanical braking can be applied to tramways. Mechanical brakes can be
applied at low speeds for providing better saturation, whenever electric braking is
ineffective, during the normal service. The erection and maintenance costs of
tramways are high since the cost of overhead distribution structure is costlier and
sometimes, it may cause a source of danger to other road users.
It is the most economical means of transport for very dense traffic in the congested
streets of large cities. It receives power through a bow collector or a grooved wheel
from an overhead conductor at about 600 V dc, the running rail forming the return
conductor. It is provided with at least two driving axles in order to (i) secure
necessary adhesion (ii) start it from either end and (iii) use two motors with series-
parallel control. Two drum-type controllers, one at each end, are used for controlling
the tramcar. Though these controllers are connected in parallel, they have suitable
interlocking arrangement meant to prevent their being used simultaneously.

Tramcars are being replaced by trolley-buses and internal-combustion-engine omni-

buses because of the following reasons:

1. tramcars lack flexibility of operation in congested areas.

2. The track constitutes a source of danger to other road users.
Trolley buses: The main drawback of tramways is, running along the track is
avoided in case of trolley buses. These are electrically operated vehicles, and are fed
usually 600-V DC from two overhead conductors, by means of two collectors. Even
though overhead distribution structure is costlier, the trolley buses are advantageous
because, they eliminate the necessity of track in the roadways. In case of trolley
buses, rheostatic braking is employed, due to high adhesion between roads and
rubber types. A DC compound motor is employed in trolley buses.

SYSTEM OF TRACK ELECTRIFICATION

Track electrification system are categorized into.
I. DC system.
II. Single-phase AC system.
III. Three-phase AC system.
IV. Composite system.

I DC system
In this system of traction, the electric motors employed for getting necessary
propelling torque should be selected in such a way that they should be able to operate
on DC supply. Examples for such vehicles operating based on DC system are
tramways and trolley buses. Usually, DC series motors are preferred for tramways
and trolley buses even though DC compound motors are available where
regenerative braking is desired. The operating voltages of vehicles for DC track
electrification system are 600, 750, 1,500, and 3,000 V. Direct current at 600–750
V is universally employed for tramways in the urban areas and for many suburban
and main line railways, 1,500–3,000 V is used.
Driving motors receive power from the distribution system. Distribution system
consists of one contact wire in case of tramways and two contact wires in case of
trolley buses. Returning rail acts as current returning conductor in case of tramways.
Power is fed from the substations. Short railways can be fed from a dc generating
station. Spacing between the substations depend on the operating voltage and traffic
density of the route.
For sub urban railway, where operating voltage is 600 V, sub stations are spaced
3- 5 km apart. For main line railway, having an operating voltage of 1500-3000 V,
substations may be spaced 15-40 km.
Substations receive ac power from a three-phase high voltage (33 to 132 kV)
transmission lines. Conversion into dc is chieved by thyristor converters with
suitable transformation ratio. These substations are usually unattended type using
supervisory control system. This arrangement reduces the cost of transmission lines
and copper losses in the transmission lines.
Dc motors have better characteristics, low maintenance cost, smaller weight per
kW output, better speed control and efficient regeneration braking. But the cost of
converting machinery required for ac to dc is heavy. Because of the low operating
voltage, conductor of larger cross section is required for the distribution system.
Also, a greater number of substations spaced at shorter distances for feeding the
distribution system required for the given service.
Dc system is preferred for suburban services and road transport where stops are
frequent and distance of run are small.

II Single-phase AC system
In this system of track electrification, usually AC series motors are used for getting
the necessary propelling power. The distribution network employed for such traction
systems is normally 15–25 kV at reduced frequency of 16 ⅔ Hz or 25 Hz. The main
reason of operating at reduced frequencies is that AC series motors are more
efficient and show better performance at low frequency. These high voltages are
stepped down to suitable low voltage of 300–400 V suitable for ac series motor, by
means of step-down transformer placed on the locomotive.
Distribution network may be fed directly at high voltage from a generating station,
when the extent of electrification is within a radius of about 30 km from the
generating station. For longer distances, economic voltage for power transmission
system is higher than that desirable for traction systems. Therefore, transformer
substations are employed for feeding the distribution network. Spacing between the
stations is 50- 80 km because of the low current requirement at high voltage. In the
substation, the voltage is stepped down to the required value and the frequency
changed through a frequency converter. Change of frequency becomes important
because of better performance of ac series motor at low frequency. Low frequency
operation of ac series motor improves commutation properties, power factor and
efficiency.
Low frequency of overhead line reduces line reactance and hence voltage drop
directly. The low frequency power can be directly obtained from a generating station
exclusively meant for traction purpose as the power at low frequency can easily be
generated. If, however, the supply is taken from the industrial frequency network,
which is normally the case, substations in addition to transformers should have
frequency converter to convert three phase 50 Hz ac to single phase at 16 ⅔ Hz or
25 Hz.
Advantages of 25 kV, 50 Hz AC Supply System
The advantages of 25 kV, 50 Hz AC supply system is shown as below.
i). Light overhead catenary
As the system voltage is high, the line current for a given traction demand is very
less. This will result in cross section of overhead conductor is reduced. As the size
of conductor is reduced, line conductor support and foundation are also light. The
high voltage needs higher insulation of overhead equipment this will be
compensated by reduction in the size of conductors.
ii). Lower number of sub stations
As the line current is less in the 25 - kV supply system, this will result in less
voltage drop and improves voltage regulation of the line which makes larger spacing
between sub stations. The distance between two sub stations due to 25 kV is
approximately 50 – 80 km as against 5 – 15 km for 1500 V DC and 15 – 30 km for
3000 V DC system. As the number of sub stations is reduced, the capital cost of
track electrification is also reduced.
iii). Flexibility for location of sub station
The substation can be located near the high voltage grid which is close to main
railway track. These sub stations are fed from high voltage grid which results in
saving in cost of special transmission line for substation.
iv). Low cost of installations
The cost of fixed installation for 25 kV AC system is less compared to DC system.
v). Simplicity of sub-station design
AC substations are simpler in design and layout. No converters needed as in DC.
Requires only transformers and associated switch gear.

III Three-phase AC system

In this system of track electrification, 3-φ induction motors are employed for getting
the necessary propelling power. The operating voltage of induction motors is
normally 3,000–3,600-V AC at either normal supply frequency or 16⅔-Hz
frequency. Usually 3-φ induction motors are preferable because they have simple
and robust construction, high operating efficiency, provision of regenerative braking
without placing any additional equipment, and better performance at both normal
and seduced frequencies. However, the induction motors suffer from few
drawbacks; they are low-starting torque, high-starting current, and the absence of
speed control.
The distribution system consists of two overhead wires and track rail for the third
phase and receives power either directly from the generating station or through
transformer substation. The substations receive power from high voltage
transmission lines at power frequency and step down the voltage and change the
frequency. Voltage is stepped down to 3.3 kV and frequency reduced to 16 ⅔ Hz by
means of a Power Electronic Converter (PEC) at the substation. This power is then,
distributed. Three-phase AC system is mainly adopted in some hilly areas where the
output power required is high and regeneration of electrical energy is possible on a
large scale.
Advantages of three phase system are that three phase induction motors used is
simple and gives trouble free operation, higher efficiency. It operates as an induction
generator at speeds above synchronous speed, so, automatic regenerative braking is
possible while moving down the gradient. However, it suffers the following
disadvantages.
1. Overhead contact wire becomes complicated at crossing and at junctions.
2. Constant speed characteristics of induction motor is not suitable for traction.
3. Parallel operation of induction motors is not satisfactory because of flat speed-
torque characteristics.

IV Composite system
Combines the advantages of dc/ac and three phase/ single phase systems. Single
Phase AC system is preferable in the view of distribution and contact wire system.
In DC system, DC series motors used offer most desirable features and in 3-φ
system, 3-φ induction motor exhibits robustness and good operating characteristics
with the feature of automatic regenerative braking. So, for better performance of the
system, it is necessary to combine the advantages of the DC/AC and 3-φ/1-φ
systems. The above cause leads to the evolution of composite system.
Composite systems are of two types.
A. Single-phase to DC system.
B. Single-phase to three-phase system or kando system.

A. Single-phase to DC system
In this system, the advantages of both single phase and DC systems are combined.
Single phase high voltage ac is used for the distribution purpose at 25 kV, 50 Hz. In
the locomotive, single phase supply is stepped down using transformer and then
converted into dc using a converter. DC series motor is employed for producing the
necessary propelling torque. Single phase AC distribution network results minimum
cost with high transmission efficiency and DC series motor is ideally suited for
traction purpose. This track electrification is employed in India.

B. Single-phase to three phase system or kando system

In this system, single phase AC system is used for distribution network. Since single-
phase overhead distribution system is cheaper compared to three phase. Three phase
induction motors are employed as traction motor because of their simple, robust
construction, and the provision of automatic regenerative braking. The voltage used
for the distribution network is about 15–25 kV at 50 Hz. Within the locomotive,
this single-phase supply is converted to three phase supply through the help of the
phase converters and high voltage is stepped down transformers to feed the three
phase induction motors. Power electronic converters are also employed to reduce
the frequency. At lower frequency induction motors develop high-starting torque
and ask, it is possible to achieve speed control with the variable supply frequency.
 Overhead Equipment (OHE)
The simplest type of OHE consists of a single contact wire of hard drawn copper
or silico-bronze supported either by bracket or an overhead span. To facilitate
connection to the supports, the wire is grooved. Because there is appreciable sag
of the wire between supports, it limits the speed of the traction unit to about 30
km/h. Hence, single contact wire system is suitable for tramways and in
complicated yards and terminal stations where speeds are low and simplicity of
layout is desirable. For collection of current by high-speed trains, the contact (or
trolley) wire has to be kept at certain level without any abrupt changes in its
height between the supporting structures. It can be done by using the single
catenary system which consists of one catenary or messenger wire of steel with
high sag and the trolley (or contact) wire supported from messenger wire by
means of droppers clipped to both wires. To ensure even pressure on OHE, the
gear equipment must, be flexible in order to follow variations in the sag of the
contact wire. Also, reasonable precautions must be taken to prevent the collector
from leaving the overhead wire at junction points and crossings.
 Collector Gear for OHE
The most essential requirement of a collector is that it should keep continuous
contact with trolley wire at all speeds. Three types of gear are in common use:
i). Trolley collector

ii). Bow collector

iii). Pantograph collector

The Trolley Collector

This collector is employed on tramways and trolley buses and is mounted on the
roof of the vehicle. Contact with the OH wire is made by means of either a
grooved wheel or a sliding shoe carried at the end of a light trolley pole attached
to the top of the vehicle and held in contact with OH wire by means of a spring.
The pole is hinged to a swivelling (spinning or pivoting) base so that it may be
reversed for reverse running. This type of collector operates in the trailing
position. trolley collector is suitable for low speeds up to 32 km/h beyond which
there is a risk of jumping off the OH contact wire particularly at points and
crossing.
The Bow Collector
It can be used for higher speeds. It consists of two roof mounted trolley poles at the
ends of which is placed a light metal strip (or bow) about one metre long for current
collection. The collection strip is made of soft material (copper, aluminium or
carbon) in order that most of the wear may occur on it rather than on the trolley wire.
The bow collector also operates in the trailing position. Hence, it requires provision
of either duplicate bows or an arrangement for reversing the bow for running in the
reverse direction. Bow collector is suitable where speeds up to 120 km/h and
currents up to 3000 A are encountered.
The Pantograph Collector
Its function is to maintain link between overhead contact wire and power circuit of
the electric locomotive at different speeds under all wind conditions and stiffness of
OHE. It means that positive pressure has to be maintained at all times to avoid loss
of contact and sparking. but the pressure must be as low as possible in order to
minimize wear of OH contact wire. It consists of a pentagonal framework of high-
tensile alloy-steel tubing. The contact portion consists of a pressed steel pan fitted
with renewable copper wearing strips which are forced against the OH contact wire
by the upward action of pantograph springs. The pantograph can be raised or
lowered from cabin by air cylinders.
Historical Background of Indian Railways
It is impossible to imagine that Indian economy without Railways. We always feel
proud and happy when we think that Indian Railway is Asia’s first and world’s
second largest under the single management. We are also astonished by knowing
that the Indian Railway is world’s largest employment provider organisation.
In India, Railways are the largest and cheapest mode of transport. The country’s
vastness and diversity have been connected and coordinated by the largest and
busiest rail networks in Asia, transporting over 18 million passengers’ and more than
2 million tonnes of freight daily. It is the world's largest commercial or utility
employer, with more than 1.4 million employees.
Indian Railways have become the lifeline of the country. Indian Railways also
known, as IR, is a Department of the Government of India. It is a huge organization
carrying 140 lakh passenger and 14 lakh tonnes of freight daily and employs more
than 15 lakh staff. It is spread over the length and breadth of the country and has
68,000-route km (99,000 running track km) and 7,300 stations. This gigantic task is
achieved through the use of 13,000 locomotives, 74,000 passenger coaches and
2,90,000-freight wagon for which necessary maintenance and manufacturing
facilities also exit.
Electric traction was introduced on Indian Railways in year 1925 on 1.5 KV DC
and the first electric train ran between Bombay's Victoria Terminus and Kurla along
the Harbour Line of CR, on February 3, 1925, a distance of 9.5 miles, flagged off
the then Governor of Bombay Sir Leslie Orme Wilson. Further, research on traction
system by French Railways suggested that AC is advantageous over DC system both
financially and operationally. In the year 1957, Indian Railways decided to adopt 25
kV 50 Hz AC traction based on French Railway (SNCF) technology. First actual
train ran using 25 kV AC in 1959. In 1980 three phase induction motors were
considered for railway work as it requires less maintenance compared to dc drive.
 The first 25 kV AC electrified section was Burdwan-Mughalsarai, completed in
1957, followed by the Tatanagar-Rourkela section on the Howrah-Bombay route.
The first actual train run (apart from trial runs) using 25 kV AC was on Dec. 15,
1959 on the Kendposi-Rajkharswan section (SER). Howrah-Gaya was electrified by
about 1960, electrification till Kanpur on the Howrah-Delhi route was done by about
1972, and the entire Howrah-Delhi route was electrified on Aug. 5, 1976. The
Bombay-Delhi (WR) route was electrified by Feb. 1, 1988. The CR route was fully
electrified by June 1990.
Considering the advantages of 2 x 25kV AC system, it was commissioned
between Bina and Katni (CR) on Jan. 16, 1995 as a pilot project. This was later
extended to Bishrampur. Though this system was not proliferated further earlier, it
is being planned for use on Dedicated Freight Corridors to take up heavier traffic.
After reaching a power level of 5000 Hp, there was no further scope for up-gradation
with minimal inputs in the dc drive locomotives, as the capacity of equipment in the
traction chain was fully utilised. Any further up-gradation needed a total new design.
During late 80’s, development took place in three phase induction motor-based
drives for traction due to the distinct advantages of less maintenance intensiveness
in comparison to dc drives. Induction motor drives are also known for extremely
effective regeneration, thereby reducing the energy cost.