TECTONICS, VOL. 5, NO.
2, PAGES 227-245, APRIL 1986
EXTENSION IN THE TYRRHENIAN SEA
AND SHORTENING IN THE APENNINES
AS RESULT OF ARC MIGRATION
DRIVEN BY SINKING OF THE LITHOSPHERE
Alberto Malinverno andWilliam B. F. Ryan
Lamont-DohertyGeologicalObservatoryandDepartmentof
GeologicalSciencesof ColumbiaUniversity,Palisades,New
York
Abstract.Previouslyproposedmodelsfor theevolutionof
the Tyrrhenianbasin-Apenninicarc systemdo not seemto
satisfactorilyexplain the dynamicrelationshipbetweenex-
tensionin theTyrrhenianandcompression in theApennines.
The mostimportantregionalplate kinematicconstraintsthat
any modelhas to satisfyin this caseare: (1) the timing of
extensionin the Tyrrhenianandcompression in the Apen-
nines,(2) the amountof shortening in theApennines,(3) the
amountof extensionin theTyrrhenian,and(4) Africa-Europe
relativemotion.The estimated contemporaneous (post-middle
Miocene) amountsof extensionin the Tyrrhenianand of
shorteningin the Apenninesappearto be very similar.The
extension in the TyrrhenianSeais mostlyaccomplished in an
E-W direction,andcannotbe straightforwardly relatedto the
calculatedN-S Africa-Europeconvergence. A modelof out-
ward arcmigrationfits all theseconstraints.
In a subducting
system,•the
subduction
zoneisexpected
tomigrate
outward
dueto thesinkingof theunderthrusting
plateinto themantle.
The formation of a back-arcor internal basin, i.e. of a basin
internalto the surrounding
beltof compression,
(in thiscase
the TyrrhenianSea) is then expectedto take place if the
motionof theoverridingplatedoesnotcompensate for there-
treat of the subduction zone. The sediment cover will be
strippedfromtheunderthrusting plateby theoutwardmigrat-
ing arcof the over-tidingplate,andwill accumulate to form
an accretionarywedge.This accretionary bodywill growout-
wardin time,andwill eventuallybecomean orogenicbelt,(in
thiscasethepresentApennines)whenthe migratingarccol-
lideswith the stablecontinentalforelandon the subducting
Copyright1986
by theAmericanGeophysical
Union.
Papernumber5T0861.
0278-7407/86/005T-0861510.00
plate. An arc migrationmodelsatisfactotilyaccountsfor the
basicfeaturesof the Tyrrhenian-Apennine systemandfor its
evolutionfrom 17 Ma to the present,and appearsto be
analogous to thetectonicevolutionof otherback-arcsettings
bothinsideandoutsidethe Mediterranean region.An inter-
estingimplicationof the proposedaccretionary otiginof the
Apennines is thattheproblematic"ArgilleScagliose" (scaly
clays)melangeunitsmighthavebeenemplaced asoverpres-
suredmuddiapirs,asobserved
in otheraccretionary
prisms,
andnot by gravityslidesfrom the internalzones.
INTRODUCTION
A puzzlingcharactetisticof the westernAlpinesystemis
the tightcurvatureof a numberof segments of the orogenic
belt, suchas the Carpathians, the Hellenides,the Apen-
nines-Maghrebides, the Betic-Rif-Tell system(Figure 1).
These curved segmentsare often referredto as "arcs"in the
literature.On the concavesideof thesearcuatemountainbelts,
areasof recent(Mioceneto present)subsidence arefound,such
as the Pannonian,Aegean,TyrrhenianandAlboranbasins.In
the pastthesebasinshavebeendefinedin turn as marginal
basins[Boccaletti
andGuazzone,1974],Pannonian-type or
WesternMediterranean-type basins[BallyandSnelson,1980],
and Mediterraneanback-arcbasins[Horv,Sthet al., 1981].
These terms suggesteither an analogywith the Western
Pacificback-arcbasins[Karig,1971]or somekindof peculiar
character
relatedto theirgeographic
location.
Followinga classicalterminology,"external"is the di-
rectionof vergence
of thrusting,
and"internal"
is theopposite.
Analogously,"foreland"is the undeformeddomainontowhich
thrustsheets
appearto havebeentransported
and"hinterland"
theareafromwhichthrustsheetsseemto haveoriginated.
In
plate-tectonicsvocabulary,forelandand hinterlandare the
stableareasof thesubducting
plateandof theoverriding
plate
respectively.The externaldirectionpointstowardthe sub-
228 MalinvemoandRyan:TyrrhenianExtensionby Arc Migration

BBBn
MalinvernoandRyan:TyrrhenianExtensionby Arc Migration
ductingplate and the internaldirectiontowardthe overriding
plate. Using this terminology,the mentionedMediterranean
basinsare in an internal position(i.e., in the hinterland)re-
spect to the surroundingorogenicbelts. We thereforepro-
pose to call them "internal basins",which is a purely de-
scripfivetermandemphasizes thepresenceof an orogenicbelt
surrounding the areaof subsidence.
In the region of the TyrrhenianSea, the hinterlandcor-
respondsto the basinitself and to the Corsica-Sardinia micro-
continent,which rotatedaway from the southernmargin of
Europeleavingin its wake theBalearicbasin[De Jonget al.,
1973; Channell et al., 1979; Rehault et al., 1984]. The bulk
of the Apennines-Maghrebides orogenicbelt is composedby
the formercoverof the southernmarginof the Tethyanocean
thatformedbetweenAfrica andEuropein theJurassicandwas
later subducted(Figure 1; Dewey et al. [1973]; Scandoneet al.
[1974]; Channell et al. [1979]). An importantexceptionis
representedby the crystallineand metamorphicunits of the
Calabriannappes.On the baseof geologicalsimilaritieswith
Alpine units in Corsica and in the westernAlps, they have
beeninterpretedasbelongingto a formerlycontinuous Alpine
belt thatencompassed alsotheKabylienappesandwaslocated
on the southernmargin of Europe [Alvarez et al., 1974;
Alvarez, 1976; Amodio-Morelli et al., 1976]. Finally, the
forelandis representedby the Ibleanregionin southernSicily
andby the Apulianplatformin southeastern Italy (seeFigure
1; Scandoneet a1.[1974];Channellet al. [1979]).
Surficialearthquakesoccuralongthe Italian peninsulaand
in Sicily, whereasintermediateand deep-focusearthquakes
occur only in the southeasterncomer of the Tyrrhenian Sea
beneathCalabria (Figure 1) aligned along a funnel-shaped
Benioff plane [McKenzie, 1972; Gaspadniet al., 1982]. The
seismiczone is overlaid by the recent(Quaternary)calc-alk-
aline volcanic arc of the Aeolian islands [Barberi et al., 1973],
part of a larger arc of submergedcalc-alkalineseamounts
[Colantoniet al., 1981]. Oldercalc-alkalinevolcanics,of ages
rangingbetween29 and 13 Ma, are foundin westernSardinia
[Savelliet al., 1979]. Seamountson thecontinentalslopeand
abyssalplain of the Tyrrhenian Sea are both tholeiitic vol-
canoesandblocksof crystallineandmeta-morphicbasement
[Heezen et al., 1971; Selli, 1974; Colantoni et al., 1981].
The Moho discontinuity is about30 km deepbeneaththe
coastlinesurroundingthe TyrrhenianSea and it shallowsto
about10 km in the centralpart of thebasin,wherethe water
depthexceeds3000 m and the Bouguergravity anomalies
reach +250 mgal [Finetti and Morelli, 1973; Giese and
Morelli, 1973].Seismicrefractionresultsindicatethepresence
of two small(about 100 km wide) regionsof oceaniccrust,
one in the centerof the Tyrrhenianbasinandonein its south-
easterncomer, separatedby a saddleof thicker, probably
continental, crust [Steinmetz et al., 1983]. Heat flow values
exceeding
200mW/m
2 havebeenmeasured
in these
areas
[dellaVedovaet al., 1984],whereasa regionalheatflow esti-
matefor thecentralTyrrhenianbasedon theaverageof detailed
measurements
isabout150mW/m
2 [Hutchison
etal.,1985].
Thesegeologicalandgeophysical characteristics
areshared
by the other internal basins in the Mediterranean. Besides
beingencircledby orogenicbelts,they are surrounded by
zonesof intermediate
anddeepearthquakes [McKenzie,1972;
Papazachos, 1973;Fuchset al., 1979]andarecharacterized
by
22 9
a calc-alkalinevolcanic belt [Ninkovich and Hays, 1972;
Bleahu et al., 1973; Arafia and Vegas, 1974], a thin crust
[Fahlquistand Hersey, 1969; Stegenaet al., 1975; Makris,
1977] and abnormallyhigh heat flow [Ericksonet al., 1977;
Stegenaet al., 1975]. Since this paper is mainly concerned
with the developmentof the TyrrhenianSea, the following
summary of previous interpretations will be focused on
modelsproposedfor its evolution, althoughanalogieswith
the other internal basins of the Mediterranean will be also
drawn.
PREVIOUS MODELS
Becausethe presentorogenicbeltsalmostwrap around
thesebasins,the first explanationsfor the creationof the
internalbasinsemphasizedverticalmovements.The internal
areaswere thoughtto havebeenaffectedby stronguplift, so
that their sedimentarycover slid toward the external arc
producing a stackof nappesoftenwithhinterlandunitsontop
of foreland units [Aubouin, 1965; Van Bemmelen, 1969;
Morelli, 1970;Wezel, 1978]. The emergenceanderosionof
theinternalareaswasfollowedby a majorcollapse,brought
aboutby coolingof thehotmantleupwelledduringthe uplift
phaseor by isostaticreadjustement of the crustthinnedby
erosion and/or "oceanized", i.e. transformed in a thinner and
densercrust[Van Bemmelen,1969;Selli, 1974].Foundering
thereforefollows orogeny;hencethe TyrrhenianSea is con-
sideredby theseinvestigatorsto be a very youngbasinthat
reacheddepthscomparableto thepresentin thePliocene(less
than5 Ma; Aubouin[1965]; Selli andFabbri[1971]).
Theseclassicmodels,thatemphasizeverticalmovements,
createa numberof spaceand time problems.The thin crust
present in the Tyrrhenian Sea cannot be satisfactorily
explainedby in situ"oceanization"
processes of a formercon-
tinentalcrustabout30 km thick or by erosionof the upper
crustthroughweatheringand/orgravityglidingof the sedi-
mentarycover. For instance,there is no traceof the huge
amountof clasticsthatshouldhavebeenoriginated fromsuch
an extensiveerosion [Smith and Woodcock, 1982]. The alti-
tudedifferencesnecessary to causegravityglidingof sedi-
mentary units for hundredsof kilometersfrom the Tyr-
rheniandomainto the Apenninesare unrealistic,and in this
caseit is alsonot clear why the glidingprocessshouldnot
have proceededin all directions,but only to the east and
south.However,themostfatal flaw in thepurelyverticalistic
modelsis timing.If theTyrrhenianis a post-orogenic feature,
thesubsidence ratesrequired(2 mm/yearaccording to Selliand
Fabbri [1971]) are one order of magnitudelarger than those
dueto coolingof theheatedlithosphere observedin theoceans
and continentalmargins[Ryan, 1973]. Moreover,drilling in
the internal basins [Ryan, Hsti et al., 1973; Royden et al.,
1983] showsthatthesebasinsweredepocenters for marinede-
positsat timescoincidentwith nappeemplacement in the pe-
ripheralorogenicbelts.
These spaceand time problemsled otherresearchers to
emphasizethe importanceof horizontalmotionsand of plate
interactionsin the formationof sedimentarybasinsandmoun-
tain belts.On the basisof similargeologicalandgeophysical
characteristics,
the Tyrrhenianbasinwas comparedto the
WesternPacificmarginalbasins,whereoceaniccrusthasbeen
230
createdby seafloor spreadingprocessessomehowconnected to
the subductionof oceaniclithosphere[Boccalettiet al., 1971;
Bousquet,1973; Barbeftet al., 1973, 1978; Ryan et al., 1973;
Boccaletti and Guazzone, 1974; Hsti, 1977]. The tectonic
historyof the Alpine systemwasrelatedto the historyof the
relativemotionbetweenAfrica andEurope,derivedfor thelast
180 Ma usingthe Atlantic Oceanmagneticanomalies,andin-
terpretedasthe interactionof a mosaicof microplatescrushed
betweenthe two continentalmasses[Dewey et al., 1973]. It
later became evident that some aspectsof continentaltec-
tonics,particularlythe formationof tightly curvedorogenic
belts,were difficult to explainsolelythroughthe motionof a
numberof rigid plates.In theTyrrheniancasefor instance,the
lithosphere of the Ionianbasincannotbe presentlysubducting
beneaththe Calabrianarc in an approximateW-WNW di-
rectionand beneaththe Aegeanarc in a N-NE directionwith-
out any internaldisturbance[Ritsema,1972] andthat the over-
all northwardmotion of the African plate with respectto
Europe is not compatiblewith westwardsubductionin the
Calabrianarc [McKenzie, 1972].
It was thereforesuggested that thecontinentalplateswere
not absolutelyrigid bodies,but thattheydeformedplastically
[Molnar and Tapponnier,1975]. The tectonicsof the western
Alpine systemwere thusinterpretedas the resultof the im-
pingementof an Africanpromontory,the Adriaticblock,into
the Europeancontinentalmass [Tapponnier,1977]. As a
result,thesouthernmarginof Europeshouldhavedeformedin
a plasticfashion,so that its edgemigratedto the southand
east. In fact, a set of tectoniclineationsexpectedfor this
patternof deformationwere recognizedin the westernMedi-
terraneanby Boccalettiet al. [1982]. On theotherhand,sucha
processposessomedynamicalpuzzles.It doesnot coninc-
ingly explain the formation of the whole western Medi-
terraneansea, becausethe area createdby extensionin the
BalearicandTyrrhenianbasinsappears to be muchlargerthan
theareadestroyed by compression in theAlpsduringthecon-
tinent-continent collision between the Adriatic block and
Europe.It is alsonot clearhow theCalabrianblockmigrated
to thesoutheast severalhundreds of kilometers
beforereaching
its presentposition.If it waspushedby the rear, then com-
pressivestresseshad to be transmittedfrom the site of col-
lision in the Alps throughareaswhereextensionwas active,
suchas the Tyrrhenianbasin,or throughthe Apenninicarc,
whose length was increasingwhile the Calabrianblock mi-
gratedto the southeast.
A straightforward comparison of theTyrrhenianbasinwith
the WesternPacificmarginalbasinsdoesnot alsoseemcom-
patible with someevidence, such as the lack of the calc-alk-
aline volcanicscontemporaryto the extension(the oldestvol-
canicsof the Aeolian Arc are far too young, about 1 Ma;
Barberi et al. [1974]) and the discontinuityof the Benioff
plane beneaththe Calabrian arc (which displaysa gap of
earthquakesin the depthintervals100-200 km and 350-450
km accordingto Papazachos[1973]). It has been thuspro-
posedthat the Tyrrhenianbasinformedby rifting in a pre-
existingAlpine chaincausedby a counterclockwise rotationof
the Italian peninsula. The rotation was unrelated to sub-
duction,that was insteadreactivatedin recenttimes [Scandone,
1979; Mantovani, 1982]. It appearsdifficult to conciliatethe
rifting model with the observationthat compressionin the
MalinvernoandRyan:Tyrrhenian
Extension
byArcMigration
Apennines-Maghrebides followsa radialpattern,i.e., it is ori-
ented SW-NE in peninsular Italy and N-S in Sicily. This
patternis differentfrom that expectedfrom a simplerotation
of Italy. In fact, the rifting model impliesthe existenceof a
transcurrentline somewherebetweenSardiniaandSicily, that
hasnot beenrecognized[Scandone,1979].
Other investigatorshave suggestedthat the formationof
the Mediterranean internal basins is somewhat unique.
Horvfith et al. [1981] remark that in the Mediterraneancasethe
onsetof extensionin the basinpostdatesthe first orogenic
eventsin the surrounding arc,i.e. whattheyconsidertheonset
of continent-continent collision.Accordingto theseauthors,
at this time the internalarea shouldbe anomalouslyelevated
because of a rise of the isotherms related to subduction and
becauseof crustalthickeningcausedby the collision.Because
of its greatergravitypotential,the elevatedarc thenspreads
toward the thinner crust foreland, causingextensionin the
internalzone[Berckhemer, 1977].Sucha processwouldhand-
somely explain the radial pattern of compressionin the
Mediterraneanorogenicbelts that possessan internalbasin.
However,it doesnot seemconvincingthat gravityalonecan
eventually lead to the formation of an internal basinwhose
seaflooris deeperand whose crustis thinner than that of the
foreland,as in the caseof the Tyrrhenian.McKenzie [1978b]
remarksthat althoughcrustalthicknessinhomogeneities are
widespread,associatedgravitationalextensionhasyet to be
convincinglydemonstrated.It is also controversialthat the
first folding andthrustingeventsin the orogenicbelt coincide
with a substantialthickeningof the crust.It seemsmore1/ke-
ly that most of the crustal thickeningis accomplishednot
when collision is initiated, i.e., when an active and a passive
continentalmargin come in contact,but insteadwhen col-
lisionis closeto beingcompletedanda sutureis developing.
If this is the case,the internalbasinwouldbe post-orogenic
and one would have to cope with the sametime problems
mentioned for the verficalistic models.
As a conclusion to this review, we feel that there is no
existing model that satisfactorilyexplains the observed
featuresof the Tyrrhenianbasin-Apenninicarc system.Hence
we will suggesta new model by consideringfirst some
geologicalconstraintsthathaveto be met.
CONSTRAINTS
1. Theformationof the Tyrrhenianbasinis synchronous
with orogenic eventsin the surroundingApenninic chain.
Compressionalmovementsin the chainhave beendetected
starting in the most internal parts from the lowermost
Miocenein Sicily [CatalanoandD'Argenio,1978], Calabria
[Amodio-Morelli et al., 1976] and southern Apennines
[D'Argenioet al., 1975], andfrom theLower Oligocenein the
northernApennines[Carmignaniet al., 1978; Boccalettiet
al., 1980]. The deformationthen proceededto the external
zones, where it continueduntil the Plio-Pleistocene.
It is widely arguedthat extensionin the Tyrrhenianbasin
startedin middle to late Miocene times [Ryan et al., 1973;
Hsti, 1977; Scandone, 1979; Fabbri et al., 1980], as shown
by the recognition in seismicreflection profiles of pre-
evaporitic,i.e. pre-Messinian(latestMiocene) sedimentsin
the westernTyrrhenian[FinettiandMorelli, 1973] andby age
MalinvemoandRyan:TyrrhenianExtensionby Arc Migration 231

TECTONIC EVENTS • ferred from angular unconformities in seismic reflection

profiles [Selli andFabbri, 1971; Fabbri andCurzi, 1979], but
TIME
this interpretationhas been questioned[Malinvemo et al.,
Ma SCALE
1981]. It seemsanyhowlikely that the southeastern comerof
o-
PI EISTOC ....... I .... I .... I .... I .............. I ......... 0 the Tyrrhenian basin is the youngestand that it might be
I I I I younger than Messinian time, as suggestedby the lack of
LATE
TI •: clear evidenceof Messinian salt and evaporiteson seismic
• EARLY
Messlnlon reflectionprofiles[FabbriandCurzi, 1979;Malinvemo et al.,
1981]. An upper limit to the extensionin the Tyrrhenian
IO--
Tortoman
basincannotbeplacedexactly.
Figure 2 shows an overall schemefor the sequenceof
• Serravallmn
• Langhmn
......
.l.,- ß
_........ 12.5
eventsin the Apennines,the Tyrrhenianand the surrounding
regions.It is apparentthat the inferred age bracketfor the
extensionaltectonicactivityin the Tyrrhenianbasincoincides
Burd•gal•an with major thrustingeventsin the Apennines.
20--
2. A significantamount of crustal shorteningcan be
Aqultaman inferredfrom the stratigraphicand structuralrecordin the
Apennines. It is now widely acceptedthat the presentstruc-
ture of orogenicbeltscan be generallyexplainedby folding
• LATE and thrustingof the sedimentmycoverof formercontinental
30-- margins [Dewey and Bird, 1970]. Substantial amounts of
shortening,of the order of hundredsof kilometers,can be
estimatedby restoringthe original settingof the units in-
EARLY volved in the orogeny [Hsii, 1979] or by consideringthe
thickeningin the orogenicbelt of the crustformerlythinned
40--
œOCEIVœ duringthe formationof the margin[Helwig, 1976]. Scandone
et al. [1974] remarkfrompaleogeographic considerationsthat
Fig. 2. Time diagramof tectoniceventsin the Apennines, the averagewidth of the undeformedcontinentalmarginof
extension and calc-alkaline volcanism in the western Africa, wheremostof the Apenninicunitsweredeposited, had
Mediterranean.
Time scaleafterLa Brecqueet al. [1977].Ages to be about300 km, with a maximumexceeding400 km in
of compressionaleventsafterCatalanoandD'Argenio[1978] the southernApennines.This paleogeographic realm is now
for Sicily, Amodio-Morelli et al. [1976] for Calabria, packedinto an orogenicbelt about130 km wide, so thatthe
D'Argenioet al. [1975] for the S-Apennines,Carmignaniet averageshortening rangedfrom 170km to a maximumof 270
al. [1978] and Boccalettiet al. [1980] for the N-Apennines. km.
The thick bars depict time intervalsduring which discrete D'Argenio et al. [1975] publishedtwo palinspasticsect-
foldingandthrustingeventsoccurred,andthe trianglesat the ions acrossthe southernApennines,showingtheir evolution
bottommark the beginningof the compressional events.The from the Oligocene- Miocene boundaryto the present.The
age bracketfor the extensionin the Balearic basinis after curvesA and B of Figure 3 representthe lengthof thesetwo
Burrus[1984], andthatfor the Tyrrhenianis discussed in the sectionsversustime. The amountsof shortening,i.e. of radial
text. The agesof calc-alkalinevolcanicsin Sardiniaare after movementsperpendicular to the strikeof the chain,are 250
Savelli et al. [ 1979] and in the Aeolian arc after Barberi et al. km in the northern section and 320 km in the southern one.
[1974]. The best estimate for the age of the end of the Most of the shorteningtakesplacebetweenthe Langhianand
anticlockwise rotation of the Corsica-Sardinia block is after the Tortonianstagesof the Miocene(seetime scalein Figure
Montignyet al. [1981]. The dottedlines are the agesof the 2). Pescatoreand Slaczka [1984] show a comparableamount
reconstructions
in Figures9 and 10. of shortening(about 200 km) in a section through the
southernApennines.
3. The characteristics and the magnitude of crustal
estimatesbased on the overall lithosphericthickness,base- thinningin the Tyrrhenianbasinare consistentwith an E-W
ment relief and heat flow [Panza and Calcagnile, 1979; maximumextensionof about 350 kin. Two crustalsections
Malinverno, 1981]. Hutchison et al. [1985] used detailed drawnusingseismicdata,one acrossthe Arianticcontinental
measurements to calculatea regionalvalue for heat flow and marginof theBay of Biscay[afterMontadertet al., 1979] and
estimated thattheoceaniclithosphere in thecentralandeastem one alonga multichannelprofile that crossesthe Tyrrhenian
Tyrrhenianis in fact 8 Ma old, about4 Ma youngerthan in continentalmargineastof Sardinia(profile MS-1 of Finetti
the westempart of the basin.Their age estimateis in agree- and Morelli [1972]; locationin Figure 3) are illustratedin
ment with an earlier beginningof extensionin the margins Figure 4. Thesecrosssectionsshowa remarkableagreement
and with the K/Ar datesof oceanicbasaltsdrilledin the Tyr- in the crustalthinningpatternandin the overalltectonicstyle
rhenian at DSDP site 373 (7.3 + 1.3 Ma; Barberi et al. of surfacedeformation.In the uppercrustallayer, basement
[19781). blocksrotated along listric faults [Montadertet al., 1979]
The existenceandimportanceof laterextensional eventsis generatinghalf-grabensfilled by syn- andpost-riftingsedi-
still debated.A middlePlioceneextensionphasehasbeenin- ments.This style of deformationcan be bestexplainedby
23 2
I00 2OO
2o _
30
Ma
-
Fig. 3. Lengthof two sectionsversustime in the southernApennines(curvesA and B; valuestakenfrom
D'Argenioet al. [1975])comparedto aninferredTyrrhenianexpansion
The locationof thetwo sections
in theApennines, of themultichannel
Morelli, 1972]alongwhichtheextension figurefor theTyrrhenian
of the crustalsectionof Figure4 are shownbelow.
horizontal extension and stretchingof continental crust
[Montadertet al., 1979; Malinverno et al., 1981].
The existence of continental crust in the Tyrrhenian
sectionis substantiated by the dredgingof continentalbase-
ment from the crest of one of the tilted blocks, the Baronie
seamount
[Selli, 1974]andalongtheeast-facing
CentralFault
escarpment
(Fabbri et al. [1980]; locationin Figure 4).
P-wave velocitiesmeasuredin seismicexperimentsalsosug-
gestthatthecrustis continental in thevicinityof theprofile
illustrated
[Recqet al., 1984].Thebasin-and-rangetopography
created by theextension in theSardinia
marginhasanoverall
N-S to NNE-SSW strike. The Central Fault escarpment
follows the sametrend, and the centralTyrrhenianbasaltic
seamounts are alsoclearlyelongatedin a NNE-SSW direction
[Selli, 1974]. This alignmentand the elliptic shapeof the
basinitself suggestthatthepreferreddirectionof extensionin
the Tyrrhenianbasinwasmoreor lessE-W.
If onerestoresthe stretchedcontinentalmarginof the Tyr-
rhenian, which is about 185 km wide in Figure 4, to an
assumedprestretching crustalthicknessof 30 km, the margin
shrinksto a width of 85 km. If extensionproducedsymmet-
rical marginsand the rest of the crustin the Tyrrhenianis
oceanic,thenthe prestretching width of the Tyrrhenianalong
this approximatelyE-W sectionwas 170 km. The present
lengthof the sectionis 500 km, and the total extensionwas
therefore330 km. Analogouskinematicreconstructions pro-
posea similar value of 350 km for the total amountof ex-
tensionin the Tyrrhenian[Malinverno,1981;Moussatet al.,
1986]. The extensionfactorg of McKenzie [1978a],whichis
the ratio betweenthe presentand the original width of the
extendedsection,is about3.3, comparedto valuesof 1.5 to 2
estimatedby McKenzie[1978b]andLe PichonandAngelier
[1979] for the AegeanSeaandby Sclateret al. [1980]for the
MalinvemoandRyan:Tyrrhenian
Extension
by Arc Migration
3OO 4OO 500Km
of 350km between 17 and5 Ma (curveC).
seismicreflectionprofileMS-1 [Finettiand
hasbeenestimated by Malinverno[1981],and
Pannonianbasin.Curve C of Figure 3 depictsa hypothetical
extensionof the Tyrrhenianarea of 350 km takingplace be-
tween 17 Ma (Burdigalian)and 5 Ma (earliestPliocene),i.e.
duringthe peak of the orogenicactivityin the southernApen-
nines.Althoughone mustkeep in mind that thesefiguresof
shorteningandextensionare only approximateandcontainan
uncertainness probablyamountingto tensof kilometers,it is
apparentthat while the Tyrrhenianwas openinga comparable
amountof shorteningwas taking placein the Apennines.
4. In the Tyrrhenian area, the relative motion of the
European and African plates as calculatedfrom seafloor
spreadingratesand directionin theAtlanticoceanresultsin
approximateN-S convergenceduring theformation of the
Tyrrhenianbasin. Figure5 showsthedisplacements for finite
rotationsof Africa towardstableEuropeaccordingto thepoles
of Dewey et al. [1973] (Figure 5a) and of Bju-Duval et al.
[1977] (Figure5b) for thelast9 Ma andaccording to thepoles
of Chase[1978a] (Figure5c) andMinsterandJordan[1978]
(Figure5d) for thepresent-day platemotions(in factdepicting
the plate motionsin the last 5 Ma approximately;Chase
[1978a]).The availablereconstructions for timesearlierthan9
Ma give averageconvergencerates on very long and non-
comparable time spans(9-53 Ma in Deweyet al., [1973] and
9-35 Ma in Biju-Duvalet al. [1977]) andthereforewill not be
considered. Thesepolesalsogenerateapproximate N-S con-
vergence in thecentralMediterranean (see,for instance,Figure
10 of Channell et al. [1979]).
The displacementvectorsin Figure 5 for the Tyrrhenian
area are oriented in an overall northward direction, with a
slightbendto the NNW in the last few Ma (Figures5c and
5d). The overallconvergence rateappears to havedecreasedby
a factorof 2 in the last few Ma (the displacements in Figures
5a and5b correspond to a rotationlasting5 Ma, andthosein
MalinvernoandRyan:TyrrhenianExtensionby Arc Migration
NE
-.. / x / / / /
•l / x / • //
30
ow BS__
.. .•L• :::T'.
:. .•.. --•
c J •x Cønhnen.
tal • x •-/-'-/,,'"/
• ]'" . crust x / / -. L.---"'v'
? km 59
Fig. 4. Crustal sectionsacrossthe Bay of Biscay Atlantic
continentalmargin (above;after Montadertet al., 1978) and
acrosstheTyrrhenianSardiniamarginalongthemultichannel
profile MS-1 of Finetti and Morelli [1972; see location in
Figure 3; modified afterMalinvernoet al., 1981]. The Moho
depthin theTyrrheniansectionis projectedfromtheprofileof
Steinmetzet al. [1983] takingan averageP-wavevelocityof 6
km/sec in the crust;the maximum distanceof projectionis
about 25 km. The black cross shows the Moho depth
determinedby Recq et al. [1984] in their refractionprofile
R4A, located about 15 km to the south of the section shown.
The continental-oceanic crust transition is after Fabbri et al.
[1980]. The dottedline in the Tyrrheniansectionis the top of
the Messinian evaporites.M = Moho discontinuity;BS =
Baronieseamount;CF = CentralFault. Vertical exaggeration
1/2.5.
Figures5c and 5d to a rotationof 10 Ma). To apply the rela-
tive motionof the African andEuropeanplatesto the Tyr-
rhenian- Apenninesystem,the motionof its boundaries with
respectto the two main plates,i.e., of the Sardiniahinterland
respect to Europe and of the Adriatic, Ionian and Iblean
forelandsrespectto Africa (Figure 1), have to be considered.
Counterclockwise rotation of the Corsica-Sardinia
companying the formation of the Balearic basin was
completedin the early Miocene (19 + 1 Ma accordingto
Montignyet al. [1981]; seealsothereview by Channellet al.
[1979]). Since that time the Corsica-Sardiniablock can be
consideredas a rigid part of the Europeanplate. The litho-
sphericblockwheretheextensionleadingto the formationof
theTyrrhenianSeatookplacewill thereforebe treatedaspart
of theEuropeanplate.
The Iblean foreland and the Ionian basin are considered to
be the northernrim of the African plate [Dewey et al., 1973;
Biju-Duval et al., 1977; Channellet al., 1979]. The Adriatic
block insteadhas beeneither thoughtto be a promontoryof
the Africanplate [Tapponnier,1977; Channellet al., 1979] or
an independentmicroplate[Dewey et al., 1973] that possibly
rotated counterclockwiseduring the formation of the Tyr-
rhenianbasin [Mantovani, 1982; Manzoni and Vandenberg,
1982]. In any case,as shownby extensivedeformationin the
Dinarides [Dewey et al., 1973; Channell et al., 1979], the
Adriaticblock had to be collidingwith the Europeanmargin
233
SW duringthe Miocene andits motionthenhad to havea NE-ward
componentwith respectto Europe. Therefore, during the
periodof extensionin the Tyrrhenianarea,therewasindeedno
E-W or NW-SE convergence betweenthe subductingAfrican
andAdriaticlithosphere andtheoverridingEuropeanplate.
crust
AN ARC MIGRATION MODEL
CF _E We believe that this assemblageof quite puzzling ob-
. .•
servations,that has led some investigatorsto either discard
• Oce•mc any connectionbetweensubductionand the developmentof
crust the Tyrrhenianbasin[Scandone,1979] or to hypothesize that
someuniqueprocessis responsible for its formation[Horvfith
et al., 1981], canbe betterunderstood in a basicplate tectonic
framework. In plate tectonics,extensionbehindsubduction
zones is thoughtto be either causedby convectioninduced
beneaththe overthrustingplate by the subductionprocess
[McKenzie, 1969; Sleep and ToksOz, 1971; Andrews and
Sleep,1974; ToksOzandBird, 1977; ToksOzandHsui, 1978]
or by outward trench migration due to the sinking of the
underthrusting plate into the asthenosphere [Elsasser,1971;
Moberly, 1972; Molnar and Atwater, 1978; Chase, 1978b;
Dewey, 1980].
Figure 6a (modified after Dewey [1980]) illustratesthe
latter mechanism.In a frame of referencefixed respectto the
asthenosphere, the underthrusting plate will move througha
combination of vertical sinking (with velocity Vg)and
insertionalongits length(with velocityVu). The trenchline
will retreat with velocity Vr. The balance between the
absolutevelocity of the overridingplate (Vo) and the "roll-
back" velocityof the trenchline (Vr) will determinethe tec-
tonicstyleof the arc;in particular,if Vo<Vr, extensionin the
overridingplate to keep pace with the trenchretreat is ex-
pected[Dewey, 1980]. Vo, Vu andVr aregenerallyunknown
and difficult to estimate. In a frame of reference that instead is
fixed respectto the underthrusting plate (Figure6b), the vel-
ocities that control the tectonicstyle of the arc will be the
convergence rateof thetwo plates(Vc) andtherateof decrease
in areadueto subduction of theunderthrusting plate(V'r). V'r
is unknown,but it hasto be positiveandhavea component
block ac- directedtowardtheunderthrusting plate.In thecaseof no con-
vergence(i.e. Vc=0; Figure 6c), thenthe amountof extension
in theoverridingplatehasto be equalto thetrenchretreat.
During trench retreat, sedimentsand oceanic basement
rocks would be scrapedoff the uppersurfaceof the under-
thrustingplate, would accumulateas imbricatethrustsheetsin
the innertrenchwall andwouldform a progressively outward
accreting wedge, as observedin present-daysubduction
systems [Seely et al., 1974; Karig and Sharman, 1975;
Dickinson and Seely, 1979]. When a continentalmargin
eventually approachesthe subductionzone, its thick sedi-
mentmy cover would be accretedin progressivelymore and
moreexternalpartsof the wedge.The oceaniccrustsediment
cover and someoceanicbasementslicespreviouslyaccreted
would becomethe internalophiolite-bearingunitsof the em-
bryonic orogenic belt. The subduction process will be
completedwhenthe migratingarc collideswith the thick con-
tinentalcrustof theunderthrusting plate(i.e. the foreland),and
a suture is formed.
Let us apply this model to a very simple hypothetical
234 Malinvemo
andRyan:Tyrrhenian
Extension
byArcMigration

oJ
MalinvernoandRyan:TyrrhenianExtensionby Arc Migration 23 5

the overridingplate and progressivebendingof the orogenic

gu arc. The length of the arc would also continuouslyincrease,
leading to a correspondingdispersionof its formerly con-
tinuous internal parts. This model is supportedby the
• vr: Vgcot0 observationthat, althoughthe African and Europeancon-
A tinentalmasseswere likely to possessirregularbordersthat
did not match with each other at the time of the collision, no
After Dewey (1980)
obvious unsubductedrelic of old oceaniclithospherethat
VO>Vr: arc compression wouldbe expectedto be trappedbetweenthe two continents in
Vo =Vr: neutralarc a rigid plateconvergence picture[DeweyandBird, 1970] can
be foundin the Alpine system.
Vo<Vr: back-arcextension
THE ARC MIGRATION MODEL AND THE
Vc=Vo-Vu v--v-vu I v'=vl TYRRHENIAN-APENNINE SYSTEM

We proposethatthisarc migrationprocessis responsible

for back-arcextensionin the TyrrhenianSea.A similarityin
fact existsbetweenthe picturedepictedin Figure7 and the
Tyrrhenian-Apenninesystem.Continent-continentcollision
tookplacealongtheAdriaticforelandin theItalianpeninsula
andalongthe Ibleanforelandin Sicily,whereassubduction is
still activein the Calabrianarc. The arc migrationmodelfits
all the constraintsabovementioned,since(1) shorteningin

Fig. 6. (a) In a frame of reference fixed respect to the

asthenosphere, two plateswill convergeat velocitiesVo and
V u, and the underthrusting plate will have a vertical
componentof motion Vg into the asthenosphere. The trench
line will move toward the underthrusting plate at a velocity
Vr=Vgcot0. If Vo=Vr (as in the figure), the arc is neutral;
otherwise, the tectonic style will be characterized by
compressionalong the arc (if Vo>Vr) or extensionin the
back-arc area (if Vo<Vr; Dewey [1980]). (b) If one takes a
frame of referencefixed respectto the underthrusting plate,
thenthe velocitiesgoverningthe tectonicstylewill be Vc (the
convergencerate) and V'r (the trenchretreatin the overriding
plate). (c) In the case of no convergence(Vc=0), then the
amountof extensionin the overridingplate hasto balancethe
trench retreat.

case, that is likely to be common when two continental

massescollide.Supposethat the underthrusting plateis com-
posed of two continentalblocks separatedby an oceanic
seaway(as in Figure 7), and that at a first stagethe arc is
neutral (i.e., Vo=Vr in Figure 6a or Vc=V'r in Figure 6b).
After a while the two continentalpromontorieswill collide
with the overridingplate, and the convergencebetweenthe
two plates should stop. At this time, in a classicplate-
tectonicmodel,an orogenicbelt shouldbe formedalongthe
collision zone and a remnant of old unsubducted oceanic Fig. 7. Simple model of developmentof a basin due to
lithosphere shouldbe trappedbetweenthe two promontories outwardarcmigration.1 = continent; 2 = continental
margin;
[Dewey andBird, 1970]. But if the two platesdo not behave 3 = oceanicseaway;4 = activesubductionzone;5 = inactive
in an absolutelyrigid fashionand the oceanicportionof the subduction zone,i.e. line of suture.Extensiontakesplacein
underthrustingplatecontinues to sinkinto the asthenosphere the overridingplate whenthe convergence betweenthe two
becauseof its negativebuoyancy,the rim of the overriding plates stops because of the collision of the continental
plate will haveto migrateoutward,sincethe two platesare promontorieswhile subductionof the interveningseaway
now locked.The outwardmigrationwill causeextensionin continues.
23 6
the arc, i.e. building of the accretionaryorogen, is con-
temporaneouswith extensionin the internal basin; (2) the
sedimentary coverof the subductingplatecontinental
margin,
once hundreds of kilometers wide, is now imbricated in the
orogenicbelt accomplishinga significantamountof short-
ening' (3) a substantialamountof extensionoccursin the
overridingplatebecausethe trenchline hasmigratedoutward;
(4) the amountof this extensionshouldbe aboutequalto the
trenchretreat (i.e., to the contemporaneousamountof short-
ening in the Apennines)if there is no convergencebetween
theoverridingandunderthrusting plates.
It has alreadybeen proposedthat the Calabrian•block
migratedto the E-ESE [Alvarez et al., 1974; Alvarez, 1976]
toward areaswhere the subductionprocesscontinuedto be
active [Gorler and Giese, 1978; Boccalettiet al., 1982, 1984;
Moussatet al., 1986]. Moussat[1983] in fact suggested that
the sinking of the subductingAfrican lithospherewas the
driving force of extension in the Tyrrhenian Sea. An
accretionary originhasbeenrecentlyproposed for thenorthern
Apenninesby Boccalettiet al [1980] and by Reutter[1981],
and for the southernApenninesby Pescatoreand Slaczka
[1984]. The accretionarymodel is supportedby the com-
parisonbetweentheOligoceneinferredpaleogeography of the
Apenninesandan arc-forearc-trench system[Reutter,1981]
andby the observation thatthrustingandfoldingproceeded
from the internalto the externalpartsof the orogenicbelt
[Elter et al., 1975; Catalanoand D'Argenio, 1978; Pescatore
andSlaczka,1984].The CalabrianRidge,a fan-shaped swell
in the Ionian Sea SE of Calabria that connects the Al•enninic
chain in southernmost
peninsularItaly to Sicily (Figure 1),
shouldthus be the submergedanalog of the Apennines,a
submarineaccretionarywedge [Kastens,1981' Rossi and
Sartori, 1981].
The arc migrationmodelcanexplaina numberof features
of the Tyrrhenian-Apenninesystem,suchas the increasing
shorteningtowardsCalabria observedboth in the southern
Apenninesand in Sicily [D'Argenioet al., 1980], the paleo-
magneticevidencefor the rotationof thrustsheetsclockwise
with respectto the forelandin Sicily [Channellet al., 1980]
and counterclockwise in the southernApennines[Catalanoet
al., 1976],andthedevelopment in Calabriaof radially-oriented
grabens that widen toward the Ionian Sea [Ghisetti and
Vezzani, 1981]. The progressiveoutwarddis- persionof the
formerlycontinuous internalpartsof thearc,now foundin the
Alpineelementsof theKabylieandCalabriannappes[Alvarez
et al., 1974; Alvarez, 1976; Amodio-Morelli et al., 1976] and
in some of the innermostunits of the northernApennines
[Boccalettiet al., 1982],is predictedby thismodel.
It has also been observed that the flexure of the Adriatic
lithospherebeneaththeApenninicforedeepcannotbe account-
ed for by the surfaceload of the thrustbelt, but that some
additional subsurface force has to mantain the deflection
[RoydenandKamer, 1984].Theseauthorsproposed asoneof
the possibleexplanationsthe negative buoyancyof the
subductedslab, and the arc migrationmodelin fact predicts
thatin the Tyrrheniancasethe subducting lithosphere should
mostly sink into the asthenosphere. If this is the situation,
thenit is likely thatthe couplingbetweenthe overridingand
underthrusting plateswill be lower thanin the caseof active
convergence (i..e. whenVo>Vr andthearcis compressional).
MalinvernoandRyan:TyrrhenianExtensionby Arc Migration
Ruff and Kanamori [1980] proposedthat the maximum
magnitudeof earthquakesin a subducting
systemis a measure
of this couplingandfound in a worldwideanalysisthat the
magnitudeswhereback-arcspreadingis activeare lower (be-
tween 7.0 and 8.3) than where there is no back-arcextension
(magnitudes between7.9 and9.5). The largestmagnitudeever
recorded for a seismic event in the Calabrian arc is 7.3
[Gaspariniet al., 1982].
THE ARC MIGRATION MODEL IN OTHER
SETTINGS
Models analogous to the arc migration model here
describedhave beenpreviouslyproposedfor other internal
basinsin the westernAlpine system.Le PichonandAngelier
[1979] suggestedthat extensionin the Aegean basin was
causedby southward advanceof theHellenicarc(seeFigure1)
since the collision of the African plate with the European
continentbotharoundthe Adriaticpromontoryto thewestand
in Turkey to the east inhibitedany significantconvergence
between the two plates. Extensionin the Aegean basin re-
•,ulted from the retreat toward Africa of the subduction zone
and from the gravitationalspreadingof the Aegeanblock to
the south due to its elevation above the adjacent Ionian
sea-floor[Berckhemer,1977].Le PichonandAngelier[1979]
in fact suggestthat this mechanismis probablyresponsible
for theformationof thewholewesternMediterranean. Royden
et al. [1982, 1983] proposeda similar picture for the late
evolutionof thePannonianbasin-Carpathian arc system.Late
Miocene E-W shorteningin the east Carpathianmountains
continuedeven when convergencebetweenEuropeand the
Pannonianblock had ceasedin the Eastern Alps and west
Carpathiansto the west, and in the southCarpathiansto the
south.The continuedE-W shortening in the eastCarpathians
was thusaccomodated by a comparableamountof extension
(about 100 km; Royden et al. [1982]) inducedin the over-
riding Pannonianblock to fill the spaceformerlyoccupiedby
the subducting Europeanplate(seeFigure10 of Roydenet al.
[1983]).
Thereis no reasonwhy theoutwardmigrationmechanism
should not be applied to other settingsoutside the Medi-
terraneanarea.In Figure 8 bathymetricmapsof the western
Mediterranean, the Caribbean Sea, the Scotia Sea and the
BandaSea are shownfor comparison.The threenon- Medi-
terraneanexamplesdisplaysomeinterestingsimilaritieswith
the Tyrrhenian basin. Speed [1985] remarksthat the age of
overridingof tectonicunitsbelongingto the southernLesser
Antilles arc on the South American foreland (Figure 8) is
older in the west and becomesprogressivelyyoungerto the
east.The orogenicarc thencontinuesto the eastin the pre-
sentlyactiveBarbadosaccretionary prism.Speed[1985]sug-
geststhat thispictureis bestexplainedby hypothesizing a
southward to eastwardmigrationof thearcfromtheendof the
Eoceneto thepresent.In the ScotiaSea,Dalziel et al. [1975]
proposeon thebaseof geological
similarities
thattheSouth
Georgiaislandwasformerlyattachedto the southerntip of
SouthAmerica(seeFigure8), andthatit wascarriedeastward
by about1500km afterthemiddleCretaceous.
BarkerandHill
[1981] show that the evolutionof the Scotia Sea in the last
10 Ma canbeexplained
by eastward
migrationof thearcwith
MalinvemoandRyan:Tyrrhenian
Extension
byArcMigration 237
238 MalinvernoandRyan:TyrrhenianExtension
by Arc Migration

w E
• C-L A-C Ad

17
--\\•-,-•.•\
••.•/.•.•\-•-•.•-•\
• I¸ Km
5O

12.5

s AA

OMa

I I 1
•v.•
5
0 Km I00

Fig. 9. Hypotheticalevolutionof the Tyrrhenian-Apennines systemalongan E-W sectionthroughthe southern

Apenninesfrom the Burdigalian(17 Ma) throughthe Serravallian (12.5 Ma) and the Tortonian(9 Ma) to the
present.1 = Continentalcrust;2 = oceaniccrust;3 = Alpine unitsof Calabria;4 = innermostoceanicunitsof the
Apennines;5 - Apenninicaccretionarywedge;6 = activecalc-alkalinevolcanoes.C-L = Campania-Lucania
carbonate platform;A-C = Abruzzi-Campania carbonateplatform;Ad = Adriaticblock;S = Sardinia;AA = Aeolian
arc.Thepaleogeography of theApenninicdomainis fromScandone et al. [1974],D'Argenioet al. [1975,1980]and
Pescatore andSlaczka[1984].Note the lackof convergence betweentheunderthrusting andoverridingplate,the
progressive buildupof theApenninicaccretionary bodycontemporaneous to theextension
in theTyrrhenianbasin,
andthedisplacement of thesiteof andesitic
volcanismfromSardiniain theBurdigalianto theAeolianarcin recent
times.

respectto SouthAmericaat a velocityof 2-3 crn/year.In the BandaSearegionthatthe subducting lithosphere

wasmostly
BandaSea the arc is formedby a melangewedgecontaining sinkingintothemantle,ratherthanbeinginserted intoit.
sedimentsoriginally depositedon the Australia and New In a first approximation,the arc migrationmodel can
Guinea continentalmarginsand it appearsto have migrated explainthebasicfeaturesof thesesystems.In particular,out-
outward toward the surrounding continental foreland ward arc migrationis mostprobablygoingto happenwhen
[Hamilton, 1979]. two continentswith non-matchingboundaries approachand
In the arc migrationmodel,if a subducting plate cannot collide,asin theMediterranean
case.If anywhere,
hereliesthe
properlyadvancebecause of conflictinginteractions
withother uniquenessof the westernAlpine system,wherethe inter-
plates,the edgeof the overridingplate is pulledaway and a actionbetweenAfricaandEuropeat thepresenttimeranges
back-arcbasinopens[Chase,1978b].This mightbe the case between the two extremes of inactive suture and active sub-
in the Scotia Sea, where the subductingAtlantic Ocean duction.
lithosphere and SouthAmericabelongto the sameplate,and
thereforethe subduction zonehasto migrateeastwardrespect EVOLUTION OF THE TYRRHENIAN-APENNINE
to SouthAmerica.Molnar and Atwater [1978] suggestthat SYSTEM
thesubducting Atlanticlithosphere sankalmostverticallyinto
the asthenosphere beneaththe SouthSandwicharcduringthe Figures9 and10 showthearcmigrationmodelappliedto
lastfew Ma, sincethe lengthof the subduction zoneis similar an approximatelyE-W trendingsectionthroughthesouthern
to the amountof newly createdseafloorin the ScotiaSea. In Apennines,theTyrrhenian andSardiniaandto a planviewof
the CaribbeanSea,the migrationof theLesserAntillesarc to the Tyrrhenian-Apennine systemrespectively.
Thesehypo-
the eastand southmight havebeendrivenby the sinkingof theticalquantitativereconstructions
rest on the following
the South American-Atlanticlithosphere.Hamilton [1979] assumptions:
arguesfrom the arcuateshapeof the subduction zonein the 1. Thereis norelativemotionbetweentheoverriding
Euro-
Malinverno
andRyan:Tyrrhenian
Extension
byArcMigration 23 9

0 Km 500
I,, I I I t I

Fig. 10.Hypothetical
evolutionof theTyrrhenian areafromtheBurdigalian (17 Ma; topleft) to thepresenttime.1
= Sardinia-Tyrrhenian-Calabria
block;2 = stretched portionof theTyrrhenian
domain;3 = formerAlpinebelt;4 =
new-formed oceaniccrust;5 = Apenninicaccretionary wedge;6 = subductionzoneoutcrop; 7 = deepbasinsin the
African-Adriatic
domain;8 = carbonate platformsin theAfrican-Adriaticdomain;9 = AfricanandAdriaticforeland;
10 = active calc-alkalinevolcanoes.The paleogeography of the Apenninicdomainis modified after the
reconstructions
of Scandone et al. [1974]andD'Argenioet al. [1980].

peanlithosphere andtheunderthrusting
African-Adriatic
litho-
sphere.We take this as a first approximation,since the
motionof the Adriatic blockis poorlydefinedin the time
spanconsidered.The consequences of somerelative motion
betweenAfricaandEuropewill beconsidered later.
2. The extensionin the Tyrrheniandomainstartsat 17 Ma,
thatis earlierthanthecommonly acceptedageestimates. On
theotherhand,sinceit is hereproposedthattheformationof
the whole western Mediterranean was linked to the retreat of
thesubductionzoneof theAfrican-Adriatic
lithosphere,
we are
forcedto placethe beginningof the extensionin the Tyr-
rhenian domain right after the end of the rotation of the
Corsica-Sardiniablock, which has beenestimatedat 19 + 1
Ma [Montigny et al., 1981].
3. The velocityof subductionzoneretreatis takenconstant
between17 Ma and the present.For the estimatedtotal ex-
tensionof 350km in theTyrrhenian,
thisleadsto anaverage
openingrateof about2 cm/year.Thisis alsoa firstapprox-
imation,sincethisprocess
wasprobablydiscontinuous (being
relatedto theabsolute
convergence
of thetwoplates)andthe
velocity of retreat possibly decreasedin the last few Ma (since
collision has been taking place on both sidesof the sub-
ductionzone).
In thesereconstructions,
beforetheBurdigalian
(17 Ma), a
slab of Europeancontinentallithospherecomposedof the
Corsica-Sardinia
block,thefutureTyrrhenian
domainandthe
alreadyexistingAlpine chainrifted from the southernrim of
Europebecause of thesouthwardandeastward migrationof the
subductionzone, leaving behindthe Balearic basin.In the
Burdigalian,theCalabriannappesandtheApenninicaccretion-
ary bodywerethusalreadydefiningan arcthatwasgoingto
be furtherbentandelongated.Alongthearca smallaccretion-
ary bodycomposedof oceaniccrustsliversandsedimentcover
formed, later to become the the most internal unit of the
Apennineorogenicbelt. After the end of the rotationof the
Sardinia-Tyrrhenian-Calabriablock,the siteof extensionshift-
ed from the Balearicto the Tyrrheniandomain.At this time,
all of thepre-existing
westernpartof theTethyanoceanthat
2 5,0
existedbetweenAfrica andEuropein theMesozoic[Deweyet
al., 1973; Biju-Duval et al., 1977] had beensubducted, the
first unitsof the Apenniniccontinentalmarginwere entering
the subductionzone, andcalc-alkalinevolcanicswere erupted
in westernSardinia[Savelli et al., 1979]. Subsequently,
sink-
ingof theAfrican-Adriatic
lithosphere ledto theretreatof the
subductionzone,to extensionin the Tyrrheniandomainand
eventuallyto thedevelopment of the accretionary
bodyof the
Apennines.
We here suggestthat the drivingforceof deformationin
the orogenicbelt is the arc migrationitself. While moving
outwardkeepingpacewith thetrenchretreat,theoverridingarc
lithospherestripsthe downgoinglithosphereof its sedimen-
tary cover and of part of its igneousuppercrust,froming a
stackof crustalwedges[Hsti, 1979]. This mechanismcan
explainthe otherwisepuzzlingcoincidence of extensionand
compression in the Apennine-Tyrrheniansystem[Elter et al.,
1975]. For simplicity,the thin continentalcrustunderlying
the Apenninecontinentalmarginis being completelysub-
ductedin Figure 9. Molnar and Gray [1979] showedthat
continentallithospherecan theoreticallybe subducted if it is
pulledintotheasthenosphere by subductedoceaniclithosphere
coupledto it, and/orif the continentalcrustis thin enough,
i.e., its upperpart is detachedandnot subducted.Subduction
of continentalcrusthasbeenhypothesized in the Apennines
[Scandoneet al., 1974], althoughothersproposedthat the
igneouscrustwas accretedto form a thickenedcrustallayer
[Boccalettiet al., 1980]. Our basicpicturewould not be ap-
preciablyaffectedby eitherof thesealternatives.
The arc migrationmodel illustratedin Figure 7 seemsto
requirethe existenceof an oceanicseawayseparatingthe
Apenninesfrom Sicily, as proposedby Biju-Duval et al.
[1977]. Because of the similar post-Triassic geologic
evolutionof the southernTethyancontinentalmarginin the
Apenninesand in Sicily-North Africa, D'Argenio et al.
[1980] rule out the existenceof this oceanicrealm. On the
otherhand,thecrustunderlyingtheIonianSeais thinnerthan
thatof the ApulianandAfricanforeland[Channellet al.,
1979]. Resultsof seismicrefractionexperiments
showthat
the crustalcolumnin the centralIonian Sea is composedby
about4 km of water, 6 km of sediments,and an igneouscrust
8-10 km thick[Hinz, 1974;Weigel,1974].Theexistenceof a
thincrustallayerin theIonianSeais alsosupported
by small
amplitude(+_50mgal)free-airgravityanomalies
in areaswhere
thewaterdepthis about4000 m [FinettiandMorelli, 1973].
Deep earthquakes beneaththe Calabrianarc imply that
lithospherewas subductedduring the formationof the
Apenninicchain[Gaspariniet al., 1982].Theseevidences
suggestthatan areaof crustthatwasthinenoughto be sub-
ducted(possiblyoceanic) separated
thecontinental
margins
of
Africa andof theAdriaticblockduringtheApennineorogeny,
i.e., from the Mioceneto the present.The width of this area
hadto be at least200 km, assuggested
in Figure10; it might
have beenlarger,if one admitssometranslationbetween
Africa and the Adriatic block. The continuedsinkingof the
lithosphere
in thisnarrowseawaycaused
a corresponding
re-
treatof the subductionzonethat had to be largerthan along
the suturingApenninicandSiciliancontinental margins,thus
formingthepresentdistortedarc.
Finally, it can be estimatedthat Africa moved in an
MalinvernoandRyan:TyrrhenianExtensionby Arc Migration
approximatelynorthward direction
respect
toEuropesincethe
Burdigalian.The total amountof thismotionrangesbetween
220 km (accordingto the polesand ramsof Dewey et al.
[1973]) and 340 km (accordingto Biju-Duvalet al. [1977]).
As far as our reconstructionis concerned,the amount of rel-
ative motionwould imply that the width of the continental
marginnorthof Africawasmuchmorethantheabout100km
shownin Figure 10, as in fact lookslikely from paleo-geo-
graphicconsiderations[Scandone et al., 1974].On the other
hand, the positionof the Adriatic block and its possible
motionwith respectto Africa is uncertainand a matterof
debate [Channell et al., 1979; Manzoni and Vandenberg,
1982]. Furtherresearchwill betterconstrainthe Africa-Europe
convergence history,the motionof the Adriaticblock,the
timingandratesof theextensionin theTyrrhenianbasinand
of shortening
in the Apennines.Our modelis notdependent
on thementionedassumptions, sothatthesimplestoneshave
beenchosento avoidarbitrarychoicesandunnecessary
com-
plications.Betterconstraints
on the assumptions
wouldof
course allow a better test of the model.
IMPLICATIONS AND SPECULATIONS
The proposed accretionaryoriginof the Apenninicoro-
genicbelt couldhavesomeinteresting implicationson the
originof the"ArgilleScagliose"
units,allochtonous
bodies of
claycontainingheterogeneousfragments andblocksof under-
lying units [Merla, 1951]. They are usually intercalatedin
normalmarinesequences of agescomparableto thetimingof
orogenic events, and are commonly interpreted as olisto-
stromes, i.e. submarine slides [Elter and Trevisan, 1973].
Similaritieswith the Franciscancomplexin California sug-
gestthat they are alsoconnectedwith the subduction process
[Hsti, 1965; Page, 1978].
Duringrecentdrillingon theBarbados Ridge,a present-day
accretionary prism,waterpressures approximately equalto the
lithostaticload were measuredin the borehole,anddisrupted
andfoliatedclayswere recoveredalongd6collementsurfaces
[Moore and Biju-Duval, 1984]. Mud volcanoeshave been
recognizedon side-scansonarrecordsin the southernpart of
the BarbadosRidge [Strideet al., 1982]. A mud volcanohas
been also found on a seismicreflection profile about8 km
seawardof (i.e. externalto) the deformationfront andthe mud
emplacement hasbeenattributedto highporepressures in the
subductingsedimentsdue to the load of the accretingwedge
[Westbrook and Smith, 1983].
Scaly clays most similar to the Apenninic "Argille
Scagliose" containing
Cretaceous clastshavebeenrecovered in
piston coreson the MediterraneanRidge (Figure 1) sub-
croppingin an inferreddiapiricstructure[Ryanet al., 1982].
The MediterraneanRidge has also been interpretedas an
accretionarywedge by Rabinowitz and Ryan [1970] and
Kastens[1981]. It can thereforebe suggested thatthe alloch-
tonousbodiesof "ArgilleScagliose" wereemplacedin theem-
bryonicApenninic chainby diapiric-like
processesdueto fluid
overpressures ratherthan by gravitysliding,as in the con-
ventionalhypothesis.Theoverpressured mudcouldeventually
be extrudedon the seafloor,whereits final appearancewould
be thatof a submarinedebrisflow deposit.
Anotherinterestingspeculativeimplicationconcernsthe
MalinvernoandRyan:TyrrhenianExtensionby Arc Migration
fact that the site of extensionappearsto have migrated
eastwardduringthedevelopment of thewesternMediterranean,
from the Balearic basin throughthe western,central, and
southeastern
Tyrrhenian[Steinmetzet al., 1983; Boccalettiet
al., 1984;Hutchisonet al., 1985]. If the site of rifting re-
mainsfixedovera certaindepthof thesubducting plate,then
theprogressive outward accretionmightcausea corresponding
outwardshiftof thesiteof rifting,possiblyin theforearc(arc
is here the volcanicarc) region.In fact, areasof remarkable
recentsubsidence
are foundin theGioia andPaolabasins,lo-
catedbetweenthe Aeolianvolcanicarc andthe Tyrrhenian
coastof Calabria[Baroneet al., 1982]. If thisis the case,then
the saddle of thicker crust between the central and the south-
easternTyrrhenian[Steinmetzet al., 1983]mightrepresent
a Barone,A., A. Fabbri,S. Rossi,andR. Sartori,Geological
formervolcanic
arc.Calc-alkaline
volcanics havebeendredged
from the Glauco seamount, which is above the saddle
[Colantoni et al., 1981].
Acknowledgments.
The presentworkhad_great
benefit
from discussionswith Maria B. Cita, Bruno Della Vedova,
JohnLaBrecque,Paolo Scandoneand Tony Watts. Walter
Alvarez, Jim Channell, Dan Davis, Ken Hsii, Kim Kastens,
JohnLaBrecque,SteveLewis andCharlotteSchreiberreviewed
severalversionsof the manuscript.JeanMasclekindly pro-
videda manuscript by Eric Moussatandothersin press.We
thank C. Broglia for her patienceand her assistancein the
draftingandM.B. Cita for hersupportin developingtheideas
presentedhere.This work wassupported by NSF grantOCE
81-18069, by Office of Naval ResearchcontractN00014-84-
C-0132RK, by a grant from Curtis, Mallet-Prevost,Colt &
Mosle, and by grant78.01033.88of P. F. Oceanografia of
CNR, Italy. Thisis Lamont-Doherty GeologicalObservatory
contribution 3927.
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