PARAGRAPH Paragraph is a group of sentences with unity of purpose. It usually extends to about fifteen/twenty lines. It is the first step to write an essay. A paragraph is consisted on: 1- Length 2- Unity 3- Coherence 4- Emphasis 1- Length No definite rule can be laid down about the length of paragraphs very long paragraph however make heavy reading and put strain on the reader. It should be in a limited range. 2- Unity of Paragraph Words make a sentence, sentences make up a paragraph, Paragraph should be constructed as to deal with one and only one main topic or theme. Every sentence in the paragraph must be clearly connected with the one topic of the paragraph. 3- Coherence of the Paragraph The thought in a paragraph to be coherent should, be connected and developed in a logical order. If the sentences which should naturally come together are separated, the result "in coherence" and confusion of thought. 4- Emphasis The proper distribution of emphasis, on which the balance of the paragraph depends, is closely connected with the logical development of thought. Emphasis can be secured in the following ways: 1- By summarizing at the end point of the paragraph. 2- By confirming the statement made in the topical sentence. 3- By making several consecutive sentences illustrated the same Jadran Publications, Lahore Scanned with CamScannerNayab Teaching of English (6508) For: M.A/M-Ed re 133 these. ESSAY WRITING Essay is being more and more employed asa test of the ability of the candidate to write clear, simple and correct English. Practice in essay writing is a mean to success in it, Essay is a literary composition on any subject usually in prose, An essay should be divided into a number of paragraphs of varying length in the same manner as a paragraph is divided into sentences of varying length. Following steps are suggested for good essay: Ie Collect or think about sufficient material about topic. 2- Apply the process of shifting and sorting. Retain the most relevant, important and interested points and putting the points ina logical order. : 3- Think out a good beginning so that the essay can be made interesting. 4. Develop the ideas into paragraphs, each containing one idea. 5- The concluding paragraph should gither sum up the whole matter in an interesting manner. CLASSIFICATION OF ESSAYS e 1- Narrative Essay Narrative essays are those that consist of the narration of some event, such event may be: ap Historical or legendary occurrences. b} Stories either true or imaginary. ©} Biographical sketches of well-known persons. 2- Descriptive Essays Descriptive essays are those that consist of the description of Some place or thing. These may be: Countries, Islands, Mountains, Seas, Rivers. Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CemScannerof English (6508) For: MAI) 134 b)- Aspcels and phenomena of nature. c) Towers and buildings. 3- Reflective Essays Reflective essays consist of rellections upon some topic which, is generally of an abstract nature, These may be: a)- Habits, qualities, etc. b)- Social, political and domestic affairs. 4- Expository or Argumentative Essays These consist of the exposition or explanation of a saying ora thesis. "Lam the master of my fate. 1am the captain of my roul" (Henley) @. Explain the Teaching of Written Composition in Classromm Situation. TEACHING OF WRITTEN COMPOSITION IN CLASSROOM SITUATION Lard Bacon Says, "writing makes a man exact". It fixes our vocabulary and sentences patiern. It is the practical side of leaminga | language. But before going to teach written composition in the classroom the teacher should concentrate upon the oral work. Because it is the back-bone of language teaching. It has been rightly said, "The | corer stone of our new language building must be the speech. Though at the beginning of the language learning much stress is laid upon oral | work yet writing is more important than it the middle and higher stage | It is a tool used to enable us to express what is in our mind and for some people is almost important as speech, Therefore every teacher should know the art of teaching written composition at different stages: In the early stage the small children are not able to write correct sentences for express their own ideas in correct form. Then theit NE ee Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CamScannerayab Teaching of English (6508) For: M.AIM-Ed muscles and hands are not properly developed to write the letters by pen and paper. Therefore’ in this stage the teachers should distribute written work into (a) penmanship or simple hand writing, and (b) as a form of exercise in learning the language. He should encourage his students to write controlled composition with the help of key points. The plan of written composition work in all classes should be graded and should be in keeping with the natural interest of the students. At the initial stage the teacher should not give the students hard composition on the objects out of their imagination. He uses pictures and asks them to write accordingly. Even one paragraph stories may be written by the class, oral questions should be well distributed over the class. Loud reading by the students should be done. It provides a good and varied preparation for writing. The start can be made in writing. To start with the students may be encouraged to write letters to their parents, sisters, brothers, relatives, friends, etc., Letter writing encourages spontancous, and natural self-expression. But at the high ‘school stage written composition should be free and unassisted. Therefore, the most important duty of the teacher in this stage is to give selected and planned questions from the text-book and other written materials. He should guide them properly and make correction of the given task. Not only question answer but also other written composition such as translation, paragraph writing, essay, letter, precise, etc., should be given to the students properly at right times. Stress should be laid on quality not quantity. At the time of correction the teacher will discuss the common errors. Written composition develops the originality in the self-expression. The significance of written composition is obvious from the objectives which are proposed to be achieved. : Scanned wth CamScannerQ. Explain the different Parts of Speech. PARTS OF SPEECH | There are ten parts of speech: sentence, noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, articles. 1- Sentence A sentence is a group of words thal express a complete thought. For example: It is a candle stand. 2. He lives in America. 3- My watch has been stolen. 4 All old things are useful. 2- Noun The name of person, a place, thing or an idea, is called noun. Name of the person: Gamil, Ali, Amina, etc.) Name of place: (Lahore, Multan, Kamoki, Raja Bazar, Chitral) Name of Thing: a (Pen, book, chair, table) Idea: (Love, evil, beauty, ete.) 3- Pronoun A word that is used in place of noun is called pronoun. Vadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CamScannerNayab Teaching of English (6508) For: .A/M-Ed 140 For example: Amina is student. She reads in 7th class. She is a good student, They both play and read Raheela is her best friend. She loves to her. together. Noun: Amina, Raheela Pronoun She, Her, They 4- Adjective A word which says something more about a noun or Pronourr is called adjective. For example: Wafa is a beautiful girl. The sky is looking very charming after rain. Adjective: Beautiful, Charming. 5- Verb Action words are called verb. In other words, a word which shows some action is called verb. For example: i Ahmad takes tea, Ali likes mangoes, I go to school etc. Verb: Take, like, go, etc. 6- Adverb : A word which modifies or explains a verb, an adjective or any other part of speech except noun or pronoun is called adverb. For example: I- Amir is a nice man. 2- They shouted loudly. 3- He is very much interested in History of Islam. 4 The sun shines brightly. S- This house is yet roofless. 7- Preposition A word which shows relation between two words or the action of word with another word is called preposition. For example: Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CemScanner‘Nayab Teaching of English (6508) _ For: MA/M-Ed 141 —————— I- He is sitting on the bench. 2- The cat is under the table, 3. The letter was written by him. . ro Put off your coat. §- Conjunction A word which joins two, phrases or sentences together is called conjunction. For example: 1- Zia and Amir are brothers. 2- She cannot come to school because she is ill. 3- I know that you are honest. 4. Some boys were present while other were absent. Conjunction: and, because, that, while, but, etc. 9- Interjection ‘A word or a sound which shows some sudden feeling of joy, sorrow, and regret is called interjection. For example: I- Hurrah! We won the match. 2 Alas! He’again failed. “Interjection: Hurrah, Ala, oh, oho, etc. 10- Article Small words which are used to introduce nouns are called article. For example: 1- He isa boy. 2 She likes an egg. 3- They buy an orange. + The sun ashines brightly. DETAILS ABOUT PARTS OF SPEECH Sentence A group of words that expresses 2 complete thought is called Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CamScannerFor: M.AM Nayab Teaching of English (6508) tence. Fort example: ’ sen Not sentences Sentences j i Charity begins at home. Begins at home. Still water run deep. Still waters. The word groups on the right do not express complete thought. In sentence No.1 group of word does not name who are what begins at home, But the word group on left names who begins at home. It is charity. In sentence No.2 the words groups on right do not tell what still waters do, but the group of word on left express complete thought and tell what still water do, it run deep. So the group of words that are not sentence do not make sense by themselves. PARiS OF SENTENCE Every sentence has two main parts, the subject and predicate. I- The subject Itis the first part. 2- The Predicate The predicate of a sentence is the verb and the related words that tell something about the subject. For example: She has broken the window. Subject ‘auxialiary verb (helping verb) —_ predicate Some naughty children were laughing. Complete subject audialiary verb predicate The subject of sentence is that part about which something, said. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES There are five kinds of sentences:- 1- Declarative sentence (Makes a statement) 2- Interrogative sentence (asks a question) 3 Imperative sentence (gives a command or makes a request) 4- Exclamatory sentence (express strong feelings) 5- . Optative sentence (express some wishes, Prayers) 1- Declarative Sentence . A declarative sentence makes a statement and ends with 8 Tadran Publications, .Nayab Teaching of English (6508). For: period (.) For example: IL ‘The sun always sets in the west. ' 2 Usman Freed the slaves. } I get up carly in the moming. Parts of Declarative sentence In most declarative sentences, the subject is the first part, the predicate is the second part. For example: Back and Forth rolled 1 he captain's ship. 2- Interrogative Sentence An interrogative sentence asks a question and end with question marks (?) For example: Do you speak the truth? Are you feeling well? Where is the nearest fire station? What is your name? exh oe How much does it eat every day? Subjects and predicates in interrogative sentences Some interrogative sentences start with the helping verbs like: has, have, will ete. In some interrogative sentences, the subject is the part and the predicate is the second part. ~ Who solved the mystery? In most interrogative sentences, part of the predicate comes before the subject. 3- Imperative Sentences mperative'sentences are four types 1 Ordered 2. Forbade 3- Requested 4. Advised For example: | Speak clearly into the microphone : Ring the bell. Open the window. ——Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CamScanner144 Subject and predicates in imperative sentences ea Only the predicate of an “imperative sentence is spoken o written. The subject of sentence is understood. (You) Try try again. (you) Please show me how to do it. 4- Exclamatory Sentences An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings and with an exclamation mark (!). For example: * What an incredible view this is! Aha! We have won the match. * Alas! You have ruined. Subjects and predicates in exclamatory sentences. Every exclamatory sentence has a subject and a predicate, In most exclamatory sentences the subject is the first part, the predicate is the second part. In some exclamatory sentences (wonder) part of the predicate comes before the subject like what a lovely place it is! How high the mountain is! 5- Optative Sentences A sentence that expresses some wish, prayer or entreaty is called an optative sentence. For example: 1- May you live long (wish). 2. Make him work hard! (entreaty) 3- Have mercy upon us, O Lord! (prayer). NOUN A noun is word which used for naming anything. Or a noun names a person, place or an idea, (Place, person, quality action, feelings., For example: The swimming of swimmer filled the crowd’ with wonder. In this sentence: Ine Swimming a name of att Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CamScanner( i eyed Teaching of English (6508) For: M.A/M-Ed , Swimmer a person Crowd — aigroup , Wonder feelings . So swimming, swimmer, crowd and wonder are noun. The teaching of a teacher is the best when he selects a suitable method of teaching for his class. ‘ Teaching, name of action Teacher — person Method —- strategy (action) Class ——— a (group of student) CATEGORIES OF NOUN Nouns are divided into two categories. © 1- Countable Nouns Names of these things which are counted. For example: Book, table, people, Star, Animal, etc. FORMS Countable nouns have two forms. i} Singular ii)- Plural i)- Singular The noun which represents one person, place or thing is known as singular noun, ¢.g., flower, fish, etc. ii)- Plural The noun which stands for more than one person, place or thing is known as plural noun, e.g., charts, spoons, etc. Rules for making plurals from singular nouns Commonly following rules should be followed while making Plurals from nouns. ia By adding "S" to the singular number. For example: Singular Plural _ Book Books ¢ Boy Boys Jadran Publications, Lahore ~~ ‘Scanned wih CamScanner3- 5- 8- 149 By adding "es" to those singular noun which ends at s, ng sh, ox, 0. etc. For example: Singular Plural Box. Boxes Hero Heroes . , By changing the "Y" of those singular noun which proceeds by a consonant into"l" and adding "es" at the end. Singular: ' Plural Fly Flies Lady Ladies By adding "S" at at the end-of singular noun proceeded by, vowel, (a, €, i, 0, U) Singular Plural Boy Boys Monkey Monkeys By changing f or "Fe" of singular noun into "ves" Singular Plural “Leaf Leaves Knife Knives By adding "S" at the end of singular noun proceeded by vowels (a, ¢, i,0, u) For example: ‘Singular Plural Chief ° Chiefs Roof Roofs In compound nouns only principal word is pluralized. Singular Plural Brother-in-law Brothers-in-law Maid servant Maid servants Some nouns are used only in singular form Fumiture, Scenery, Offspring, luggage, information, poe" 2- Non countable nouns or un-countable nouns Names of materials or abstract ideas which are count Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned with CemScanner‘Nayab Teaching of English (6508) For: ~ealled uncountable nouns. For example: ra Wood, wool, gold, platinum, silver, honesty, beauty, death, KINDS OF NOUNS Proper, Common, Collective, Material, Abstract, Concrete. | 1- Proper Noun : x Names of particular place or person and it is called proper noun. It is always written with a capital letter. For example: Quaid-e>Azam, Nepolean, Yasir, Jamal-ud-Din ‘A fghani, Banu, Rawalpindi, Pattokio, etc. 2- Common Noun a i A common noun is the general’ name’ of a person, place or thing. For example: ‘ Ali, Ahmad, Amina, Uzma, Chair, Table, Book, River, Canal, Sea, Park, Country, City, Glass, Pen, etc. , | 3- Collective Noun . Name given to a collection of things or a group of people or animals regarded as a whole. It can be used as singular as well as plural. For example: "Class, Army, Group, Flock, Team, Nation, Board, Public; Jury, Press, Assembly, Ground, Family, Club, ete. Use of collective Noun in a sentence | While using collective nouns in a sentence following rules should be followed. oa Rules of Using I Ifa Collective Noun refers to the individuals acting as one unit, . the verb will be singular. For example: i "The assembly has passed the bill: * ii)-."- The Govt. has issued a circular. iii) The cricket team has great responsibility. | iv}. The Pakistan Hockey Team has not won Sydney Olympics. v. The board of directors is holding a meeting. Eg Tea Fy 7 | > TJadran Publications, Lahore loan ‘Scanned wih CemScannerish (6508) For? M.A/M-Ed 148 ‘Nayab Teaching of En; 2 If a Collection Noun indicates that individuals are acting separately, the verb will be plural. For example: i} The jury is taking their seats. ii) The crew, belong to different country: iii The jury are divided into their verdict. iv, Govt. Ministers are opposed by opposition leader. vy All soldiers in army were fit. vi}. , The birds in flock were very beautiful. 4- Material Noun ‘A word used to name those matters or substance which are used in making things. For example: Cotton, wool, silk, gold, silver, platinum, diamond, etc. 5- Abstract or Concrete Noun Abstract noun are those nouns which stands for a concept or an idea which exists in minds only. For example: Beauty, happiness, worry, anger, etc. 7 Concrete nouns are those which stands for those things which can be perceived by the senses like people, girls milk, fruit, etc. 6- Compound Noun Two or more than two words joined together to form the name of one person or one thing. For example: Class-fellow, room-mate, brother-in-law, Grand-father, commander-in-chief, engineer, lady-doctor, etc. PRONOUN Definition:.A word used in place of noun is called pronoun. For example: Azhar works hard. All the teachers like Azia" Azhar's father is a doctor. Azhar's father teaches the Azhar daily. In these sentences repetition of noun make the-whole sentence very strange. So to avoid this repetition of noun the pronoun will be used in place of noun. Azhar works hard. All the teachers like him. His father is a doctor. He teaches him daily. Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CamScannerNayab Teaching of English (6508) For: M.A/M-Ed 149, Causes of Personal Pronouns Nominative Possessive Accusative I My (mine) me We our us You your you He his” |" him She her her ht its its ' They their them One one's one Who whose whom Kinds of Pronoun : Personal, Possessive, Reflexive, Emphasizing, Demonstrative, Interrogative, Relative, Indefinite. 1- 2 3 Personal Pronouns He, she, it, I, we, you, they. (and their objective cases.) Possessive pronouns . Used as possessive adjective. My, your, our, her, its, their. Reflexive Pronouns ‘They repeat the subject when this is also the object of verb or of the preposition, For example: bs + oa She is talking herself. Emphasizing Pronouns ‘The emphasize the action of verb. They are also called intensive verb. For example: They perform duty themselves., . Demonstrative pronouns ee + This, that, these, those. Interrogative Pronouns ' what, where, when. Who, whose, whom, Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CamScanner‘Nayab Teaching of English (6508) _ For: M.A/M-Ed 150 7 Relative pronouns | Anyone, anybody, someoné, somebody, anything, something, non, neither, either, each one. While using pronoun in a sentence following principles must be followed. ADJECTIVES Definition ; "A word that modifies a noun or a pronoun 1s known as adjective." DEGREE OF ADJECTIVES There are three degrees of adjectives. 1- Positive 2- Comparative 3- Superlative. 1- Positive Degree It shows persona} quality or state of a noun or pronoun. For example: A good boy. Beautiful girl. Wise man. Tall tree. Happy man. 2- Comparative Degree It shows comparison between two persons or things. For example: bg Ali is more intelligent than Tahir. ba T have prettier doll than you have, * He is older than his brother. 3- Superlative Degree It shows the highest quality. ‘For example: * She is prettiest girl in his family, * Thave largest balloon. * He is most intelligent student of his college. ‘Scanned wih CemScannernuyod Teaching of English (6508) ~For: M.AM-Ed "484. COMPARISO) OF ADJECTIVES Degree of Comparison Positive Comparative’: 'Supertative'' * Big Bigger » Biggest . auroral 2b Small Smaller Smallest Tall Taller. Tallest Happy Happier ‘Happiest Pretty Prettier °Prettiest’. sees we Poor Poorer Poorest | Weak ‘Weaker Weakest Large Larger Largest - Position of Adjective One beautiful flower was placed in the green vase. She looks smart. | am intelligent. This issue has made me furious. All his friends consider him stupid. I have been made furious this issue. We are glad (happy, sorry, (worried) that you are leaving very x soon. KINDS OF ADJECTIVES . 1- Articles a, an, the. 5 ott 2- Demonstrative Adjectives They point to nouns referring to them by "this, that, these, those” ete. For example: * This book is very interesting. lalso bought the same pen., Those-tables are brown. 3- Distributive Adjectives They show that the nouns. referred to are taken sin’ Jadran “Publicat mS, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CamScannerNayab Teaching of English (6508) For: M.A/M-Ed 159 ‘separate lots. te Each, every, either, neither: x Each body had a ball. * Every one.wants to pass. 4- Interrogative Adjectives They ask which or what thing is meant. Whose books are these? Which way goes to bazar? 5- Possessive Adjectives They show possession. My pen, your pencil, their house, her head, his hand. 6- Numeral Adjectives These describes how many things are referred to or in wha order they are mentioned. Three foreigners met on the way. The 2nd boy won the race. The fourth girl proves blessing. 7- Descriptive Adjectives They describe some quality or attribute, Twinkle stars, singing birds. Beautiful girls, Dark house. 8- Proper Adjectives They show quality of a thing / Person with reference to some proper noun. Pakistani Player, Indian Actor, Islamic Law. : VERB Definition "A word which denotes action is called verb. Or An action of doing work is called verb," For example: My day usually starts at 7.030 a.m. I get up, have @ shower, puton my uniform:and get taxi hor —Fadran Publication 1 ———————— - ‘Jadran Publications, Lahore. ~ i ‘Scanned wih CamScannerNayab Teaching of En; (6508) For: M.A/M-Ed t 153 FORM OF VERBS oa Conjugation of Verb ‘ Present Preset Past Past Tense Participle Tense Participle Do Doing, Did Done Come Coming Came Come Go Going, Went Gone KINDS OF VERBS 1- Action Verb Action verb is a word that say something about the subject. For example: ve x ~~ Boys play yx Mother cooks + Girl writes vx Man walks 2- Linking verb ‘A verb which simply links the subject to its predicate. For example: bd She is pretty girl. bod She is eating mangoes. * lam a student. * You are a worker. 3- Transitive Verb A verb which requires an object after it to complete a sentence, is called a Transitive Verb. For example: : * Tate a cake * He comes to school. 3 Aliboughtabook, © ~—-You play football. 4- Intransitive Verb A verb which does not require an object after it to complete the sense of a sentence is called intransitive verb. For example: . % The sun Shines. te Iwalkslowly. * She smile bd They were lavghing. —Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CamScanner‘Nayab Teaching of English (6508) _ For: M.A/M-Ed 184 5- Auxiliary verb A helping verb shows the tense, is called auxiliary verb. jy helps the, main verb and tells the time (Present, Past, Future) of action, For example: te he is going to college. (Present) * He was going to college. (Past) * He will go to college. | (Future) ADVERB Definition . A word which modifies a verb, an adjective or an other adverb, For example: 1- He drives car carefully. 2- They ran slowly. 3- You should not eat quickly. . For example: l- , Your case is totally hopeless case. 2- He was listening very attentively. IDENTIFICATION OF AN ADVERB Adverb There are four aid in identifying adverbs. I- Meaning, 2 Position in the sentence. 3- Signal words. 4- Endings. 1- Meaning An adverb tells "how, when, where, how, manytime, how much" the action "is, Was, will be" performed, For example: : How politely, slowly, patiently, carefully. Wheri S00, Now, then, after words, Where here, there, inside, everywhere, * How much ~~ 100. Very, extremely, nearly, Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CemScanner | / | |en pei Tesi of English (6508) ~ For: M.A/M-Ed -—--~- 185 ~ How often daily, rarely, seldom, once. ‘ »- Position in Sentence Some adverbs can be pated i in different ,Positioris within a 2 sentence. ees She often says,.she reads. enanlh te arr7ba ‘Adverbs of frequency like “ever; never" ali are used before verb. For example: Talways say them. Inever go to bazaar. She is ever read to do home. ox hot sentence. But usually at end. For example: Coming tomorrow. Leaving now. Coming yesterday, etc. Initial position of adverb in a sentence is of greatest emphasis. Po x For example: Now you shut up. Always do your job honestly. 3- Signal Words A word like very, quite or rather may signal that are adjective or an adverb follows. They are placed in front of words they modify. x For example: . ul Very happy, very sorry, Quite intelligent | rather boring. 4 Ending Many adverbs are formed Ly adding 'ly' to adjectives. For example: Adjective Adverb Calm ‘Scanned with CamScanner Adverb of times are either used before or at the end ofen pei Tesi of English (6508) ~ For: M.A/M-Ed -—--~- 185 ~ How often daily, rarely, seldom, once. ‘ »- Position in Sentence Some adverbs can be pated i in different ,Positioris within a 2 sentence. ees She often says,.she reads. enanlh te arr7ba ‘Adverbs of frequency like “ever; never" ali are used before verb. For example: Talways say them. Inever go to bazaar. She is ever read to do home. ox hot sentence. But usually at end. For example: Coming tomorrow. Leaving now. Coming yesterday, etc. Initial position of adverb in a sentence is of greatest emphasis. Po x For example: Now you shut up. Always do your job honestly. 3- Signal Words A word like very, quite or rather may signal that are adjective or an adverb follows. They are placed in front of words they modify. x For example: . ul Very happy, very sorry, Quite intelligent | rather boring. 4 Ending Many adverbs are formed Ly adding 'ly' to adjectives. For example: Adjective Adverb Calm ‘Scanned with CamScanner Adverb of times are either used before or at the end ofNayab Teaching of English (6508) For: ‘ M.AM-Ed 158 | ~ Clever Cleverly Hopeful Hopefully | Brave Bravely | KINDS OF ADVERB | Adverb of Manner oo | It shows how, the manner in which, the action "is 1 was, | wil be" performed. : 1- Slowly, Carefully, Quickly. 1- He closed the door slowly. 2- Doctor carefully examine the patient. “3- _ She smiles sweetly, 4- He quickly came back. 2- Adverb of Place Here, up, down, there, everywhere. 1- He came here. 2- She came up. 3- He has not reached there. 4- I searched my purse every where. 3- Adverb of Time It shows when the action took/will take / takes' place. Soon, later, now, yet, Still, etc. : l- He comes here today, 2- The ball is till in the air. 3- Ishall go to Lahore tomorrow. 4- He is yet ill. 4- Adverbs of Degree - These indicates to What extent the action Rather, extremely, failry, n is performed. leribly, quite, almost, etc. 1- Jam extremely very sorry, 2- She was almost dead. 3- He is quite right. - Jadra Publications, Lah ore : * ‘Scanned wih CamScannery _Nayab Teaching of English (6508) For: MA/M-Ed .' 157. 5. Relative Adverbs (Adverbs of Adverbial of cause) Jt shows why the action is/was/will be performed Why, when, where. 1. Show me house where you brother lived. 2 That is why I failed. 6- Adverbs of Frequency They indicate how often the action is performed. ‘Often, always, usually, seldom, generally, never again. I- He usually comes late in the classroom. 2 Tryagain and again. 3. l always say prayer. 4- He never went to Karachi. 7- Adverb of Interrogation It asks question such as when, where, why and how the action was/is/done. . I- Where are you going? 2- Why was he punished? Position of Adverbs 1. If an adverb modifies an intransitive verb, it is placed after the “verb. i)- She smiled sweetly. ii)- The sun shines brightly. 2. If an adverbs modifies an transitive verb, it is placed before the verb or after the object of verb. i} I carefut’y closed the door ii} He received her happily. 3 If an.adverb modifies a whole sentence / clause. Then it usually takes front position. For example: i} Fortunately we were passed. ii Kindly wait for me. i 4% Adverbs of frequency are mostly placed between the ‘subject and verb. They called Mid Position Adverbs. For example: Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CemScanner, Subject + You again ‘Fhey never Ali seldom Amina often | ‘ 1 generally Children hardly played *cricket Girls ss always played cricket * 5- If an adverb modifies an adjective, itis placed before it. For example: i} He is very nice man. ii} hes quite right. iii). This is a fairly large room. 6- If it is modifies another adverb it is placed before it. For example: i} You look rather ill. (simple - degree) ii He has not reached as yet. — (simple - degree) iii) How are you? ._ (interrogative - state) PREPOSITION Definition A word which is placed before a noun or pronoun to show its relation with some other words. For example: 1- The book is on the table. 2- The cat is under the chair. 3- The book is beside the table. 4- The cat jumped on the floor, In these examples on, under, beside, are prepositions. KINDS OF, PREPOSITION: There are six forms of preposition 1- Simple Prepositions These are! “at, by, with, on, i; to, for, off, from, through. YP a a = ~~ Jadran Publications, Lahore - ‘Scanned wih CamScannerNayab Teaching of English (6508) For: M.A/M-Ed 159 —oo—————— ee _ till, over, under, ler, etc. 2- Double Prepositions They are: “into onto, from among, from under, over against, from within. In this type of prepositions two or more words are written as one word. It is used when a single preposition is not sufficient to express the idea. 3- Compounds Prepositions It is compound of a preposition plus verb or objectives For example: Across (on + cross) beneath (by + neath) 4-Participle prepositions Present or past participle are used. For example: Pending conceming, considering, regarding, during, saving, etc. 5- Phrase Prepositions These prepositions are made when two or more words are thrown together ending with simple prepositions. For example: In accordance with, in course of, by virtue of. CONJUNCTION Definition A conjunction is'a word ‘which joins together words, Phrases, clauses or sentences: For example: 1 Ahmed and Akram are two brother. 2. He wants to pass by hook or by crook. + I know that you my are well wisher. In these examples and, but, that are conjunctions. KINDS 1- Co-ordinative Conjunctions These are the conjunction which either join those parts of a —Tadran Publications; Lahore a ‘Scanned wih CamScanner(6508) For: M.A/M-E¢ 180 rank or words that stand in th, sentence which are equal coordinating the sentence. . same relation to some other words in | still, else, neither-nor. And, but, or, for, either-or, also, 2- Correlative Conjunctions These are conjunctions which used in pairs. Either = or Not only - but also No sooner - than Neither _ nor Both - and Though — yet . Whether _ or Such - as 3- Compound conjunctions as well as, as soon as, so that, even if. 4- Sub Ordinative Conjunctions These are conjunction which join principle caluse to sub ordinate clause. As, after, though, because, before, if, that, unless, while, where, when, since, how, why, until. INTERJECTION A word or sound which expresses some sudden feelings of the mind is called interjection. Hurrah, Ahha Thanks God Oh, Alas What a country How Hello Ah Hush Good Gracious, Bravo, well done, ARTICLE * Word Artciles has been derived from Latin word "Articulls” Tadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CamScannerxo Nayab Teaching of English (6508) For: M.A/M-Ed 161 ipeans a litle joint: In Urdu there is no article. In English article is.used 0 introduce Nouns. Kinds of articles Indefinite Articles Definite Articles (A, An) (for particular noun (The) (for no particular noun) Use of Indefinite Articles (A, An) a Used for common, singular, countable noun. A 2: (an is used before nouns which begins with a vowels sounds. A boy, a bat, a book, a country, a glag. a table, a university, a one rupee note, an idea, an egg, an inkpot, an organge, an apple. an honest man. 2 Used before a singular, countable common noun which is used as example of a class of thing.s A fly is an insect. ‘A man is a mortal being. Anclephant is a large animal. An ox is useful animal. A lion is dangerous animal. A dog is faithful animal. A cat is pet animal. 3 Idiomatically with little and few a little money. A few books. 4 In expression of price; ratio, speed. Do miles an hour. Ten rupees adozen. 5 In exclamation before singular nouns. 6. What a lovely scent! What a raining day! Omission of indefinite Articles. Not to be used before. i} Plural Nouns ii)» Un Countable Nouns iii). Material and Abstract Nouns. “Une Of Definite Articles (The ) Th used before:- Tadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned with CamScanner) For: 162 Nayab Teaching of English (6508 . 1 Nouns of which there is only one. | The sun, the earth, the moon, the East, the West, the Sou Pole, the North Pole. 2. Nouns mentioned for second time. ‘A cat mun after a rat. The rate entered a hole. The cat sat Nearby the hole. 3- 4- Noun made by definite with the addition of modifying phrase of clause. The book which | want. The boy who won the match. Superlative degree of adjectives. ‘The most beautiful girl the best boy, the highest mountain, the deepest river, the largest room. s 6-i)- ii)- iii)- iv)- Coordinating degrees coordinating each other. The cooler it is. The more we want. Names of rivers, seas, mountain, islands, oceans, (The Indus, TheTames, The Himaliya, The Indian Sea) ‘Names of Sacred Places and books. (The Holy Kaba, The Church, The Holy Quran, The Bible) Names of Nations and Nationalities and Religions. (The Pakistan, The China, The Pakistani, The Chineeese, Th Muslims. The Christians.) The name of Newspapers and Magazines. The News, The Dawn, The Jang, The Family Magazine. Names of Families The Araiyans, The Jadrans, etc. A proper noun used as Common noun. tei Jadran Publications, Lahore ‘Scanned wih CamScanner454 P, ‘AMOUS TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TEFL) o ae Passage. A careful choice of title will enable you in your Precis to stick to the point and preserve unity. | Step II. Second Reading of the Passage and underline the main points. Keeping the title in mind, give a second and careful reading to the passage in order to discover how it is constructed, Note and mark in pencil (1, 2, 3, 4 ete.) in the margin, where the main divisions fall - where a new incident or series of incidents, or a new topic or a new stage begins and ends. You may also care to indicate the important points in each division (la, Tb, etc.) or underline the significant words which give clues to these points. Step III. Third Reading and Bringing out the points. Give another rending but always concentrate on the main points which you have already underlined or noted in the margin of the passage. Immediately after, bring out the main points on a separate sheet of paper. Your notes should be comprehensive enough to enable you to write a rough draft of your precis from them without reference to the original passage. Be careful that you do not copy down chunks of the original word for word. Step IV. Preparing a Rough Draft of the Precis. With the help of outline points and grasp of the original passage, prepare a rough draft of the precis. The rough draft generally exceeds the desirable length. It may also be a sum total of a number of disunited sentences. But a draft of this type is an essential pre-requisite for a good precis. Step V. Selection, Arrangement and Final Draft of Precis. Now you are ready for the final draft of the precis. It will not be out of procedure to give fresh reading to the original passage, before we begin writing the final draft of the precis. The precis should be in your own language and it should present 4 coherent look. It should speak of freshness, unity of thought and continuity of main ideas in the original passage. Remember not to insert any cuttings in the final draft of the precis. Step VI. Revision of the Final Draft of the precis is most there are certain omissions, do not forget to supply e number of words in the original passage is in the precis and heading of the precis. essential. If them. Give th number of word: ‘Scanned wih CamScannerENS LISH ne in the ‘s Ex. 3. There is no o; World who j. thout him, *S SO important the world cannot run wi not that ‘No one is indispensable in this World," Ex. 4. Whatever it 7 God has Written in o; altered in any way, nes fate can never be "God's decree is irrevocable." Ex. 5. His handwritin is 5 any one else to read what 7 et he writes, “His handwriting is illegible.” hat it is not Possible for Ex. 6. He is Teadily excited to anger, impatie + nce annoyance and as such he has never been bale to make a “His irritable nature has made him unsociable," Ex. 7. God is a Superhuman power which Prevails everywhere but which cannot be seen by human beings. “God is Omnipresent and invisible." Ex. 8. He acted in such a manner as made him liable to prosecution for a breach of law. “He acted illegally." Ex. 9. His father has never been to school and therefore, cannot read or write any language. “His father is illiterate." Ex. 10. My father and Mr. Sipra are working in the same institution. My father and Mr. Sipra are colleagues. STEPS OF PROCEDURE FOR WRITING A PRECIS . rough the passage Step I. Reading d th of the Passage. Rea ter has discussed «e whit writ in order to get at Per ibe me ig is simple : to get thereil: Thee 7 Tinattet to main thought of the given js completed, You sked for one oF eneral purpose acquainted with the subjec passage. Immediately this should be ready with the te pte not. The title itself should be first reading ether you are @ of the g' ‘Scanned wih CamScanner45: 2 FAMOUS, TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGH trum, (2) Generalisation ; The second way of being brief is to give only the genera} impression of various details given in the original pass example: g ginal passage, Por (1) In the room dust lay thickly upon everything. Spiders had made their webs undisturbed in the comers for months, and on the unswept carpet at our feet were ancient stains of food and drink. Every thing in the room was covered with dust, (2) Nothing in the room was in its place, Books were piled on chairs, on tables, on the floor everywhere except on the shelves. Some sheets of old newspapers were blowing about the floor. Cushions were off the chairs, clothes off the tables and even the carpets were wrinkled and twisted. Everything in the room was in complete disorder. 3. One-Word Substitution: Finding out a single word for a number of words is a key to being brief. This can help make a good precis. Ex. 1. The Prime Minister vowed that he would ban in the country the use of alcohol and other intoxicants. . “The Prime Minister vowed to introduce prohibition.” Ex. 2. He wasted all his money and was not in a position to pay money. “pe wasted his mo back the debts of all these from whom he had borrowed ney and become bankrupt.” ‘Scanned wih CamScanner ?enBRAL AWARENESS OF SOME ASPECTS op pny GLISH e piece appears a connected whole, Ke “ snort aS possible. ewe Sentences ag 4, Title, Give your Precis a sui es uitable couched the theme of the original passage in in which js and self-explanatory. - It should be short More about the ‘Title’: A suitable title should always be pre-fj what is name to a person, a suitable tile eves ine a examiner may Or may not ask you to give a suitable aie always make it a point to add a suitable title to your reek Moreover, an appropriate title is indicative of the fact that oi have understood the subject matter of the given passage. The tile may sometimes be found in the first or last line of the passage, but it is not always so. It may be only hinted at or suggested. There may be no one definite sentence putting it forth. Or, it may occur in the middle of the passage. So, do not be hasty in coming to a conclusion on this point. USEFUL WAYS OF BEING BRIEF So far we have only considered getting rid of useless words. A well-written passage, does not contain many useless words. For such a passage, two useful ways of being brief are - putting ideas together that are separate, and generalisation. (1) Putting Ideas together: This can be done by subordinating the | important ideas, reducing sentences to clauses, Phrases, phrases to single words, etc. For example : n had set an hour before and he thief carefully opened the about his business.” clauses. It is possible For example ¢ crept out of less to the more clauses to “It was quite dark ; for the su the moon had not yet risen when ¢ ‘ 100g of his cottage and prepared to go In the above sentence, there the five tum many of them into words or phrases. nt, the thief * e dark nig! fe ‘An hour after sunset on! business". hi : is cottage and prepared to go about his (23 wort) ‘Scanned with CamScanner a450 Fam OUS TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TEFL) 4. A good Precis is complete, coherent and self. Contained. In other words, a good precis conveys its message fully, exactly and clearly, without requiring any reference to the original to complete its meaning. Clear Well-connected Whole Complete and Sell-contained < A GOOD PRECIS True to the Original Passage In short, a good precis is the original Piece of language set in its miniature form. Students, Mind Your Precis Students, mind your Precis in respect of the following essential requirements:- 1. Length 2. Language aspects i.e., tense, form of speech, personal pronouns, punctuation, etc. 3. Style, including language. 4. Title. 1, Length of the Precis. There is no rigid rule for the so called proper length of the precis. We must adhere to the specified length. However, when no limit is given, the precis should be one-third of the original length. 2, Language aspects. It is customary to write the Precis in the past tense, a universal truth or habitual truth being an exception. The whole Precis should be Teported in the indirect manner of narration, and the pronouns of first person should be changed into pronouns of third person. Special care should be garding the use of punctuation marks. recis should be written in the straight- a way that taken ret 3. Style. The Pi / forward oe and the idea should be developed in ‘Scanned wih CamScannerGENE SOME ASP) ECTS OR ENGLISH ssible. In fact, a precis is j 449 i JUSt @ straj the pure facts without any unnecessary, tim statement of ings", —Colli Introduction las ‘Precis'(pronounced asprese +f i ; - Preisi:) ii derived from the Latin root . The word Peder word language also means something cu in the Latin ngi ; it short. The Oxf i Dictionary defines the word a concise or abridged caer summary : an abstract. In The Groundwork of Precis, Stanley ¢. Glassey states : Precis writing is virtually summarising made systematic, the art of expressing in brief the purport of a document, a speech, letter, newspaper article, or a series of documents. R. W. Jepson has defined Precis as a concise and clear statement embodying in a connected and readable shape the substance of a longer passage. (A New Guide to Precis- Writing). This means, Precis is a condensed piece of composition in which the narration of original facts is continuous, consecutive, distinct, definite clear and exact. Qualities of a Good Precis The art of perfect Precis writing is difficult to acquire in a short span of time. However, with interest and practice, one can learn to make a good or a standard Precis. The qualities ofa good Precis are : 1. A good Precis is straightforward, clear and conti The main ideas should not lie hidden in the heap examples, illustrations and repetition of unne ee ed whole in which f freshness tree that 2. A good Precis is a well-connertet ae ideas find logical development. aa apt akin to the original What is wan! A ee has been trimmed, buta miniature it Precis is true to the original passagh guage a ae re in which the original Pe oT water's vans completely reflected. It does no! digressions or remarks. ‘Scanned wih CamScannerIWiduayury wucews VI PRECIS WRITING “To make a precis of given passage is to extract its points, and to express them as clearly and in as few words as main ‘Scanned wih CamScanner428 FAMOUS TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TEFL) better ways of Starting the essay. Abrupt beginning is a modem way Of starting the essay. One simply plunges straight into the Subject, arousing the curiosity of the reader. But whatever the way, the beginning should make the reader feel interested in the essay, The Development of the subject matter is the real body of the essay. This is the most important part of the essay. It is its life. The subject-matter should be clearly understood, classified into different parts and then dealt with in stages, in different Paragraphs. It should be logical, coherent and informative. It Should have balance. The treatment of a particular point should be in accordance with its importance in relation to other points in the essay. The different paragraphs should be linked together logically. In the Conclusion, the writer should try to clinch the matter in hand. He should give an appealing and convincing conclusion. He should give concrete and definite suggestions Sometimes, a striking quotation from some great man forms an impressive ending. 1. The Role of Films in Life The cinema is one of the most striking inventions of the twentieth century. It rouses different reactions in different person. Some people-especially the young-readily fall in love with it, while others, mostly the elder generation, condemn it as one of the greatest evils of the day. Both are partially justified: for, on the one hand the cinema has its uses while on the other, it can be a source of serious evils. The usefulness of films can be seen from two points of view- that of amusement and that of education. Films provide the cheapest source of entertainment to the people. Life today is a perpetual tension. It is full of doubt and disappointments. People have always to fight with their back to the wall. Even then they get the worst of it. Films provide them a temporary relief. They take them to a dreamland where they can identify themselves with the hero and heroine of the life on the celluloid. For some tim, they forget the tension of their real life. The m‘asic and humour of a film adds to.the pleasure of the moment. ‘Scanned with CamScannerSS ENGLISH iii) Reflective and gina 427 a on some ima ne ative, in which o Savy subject of philosophies eet Felec (iv) Argumentative, in whic] eee theme, the pros and cons of ides of the picture h the two si the m . certain conclusion is drawn Atter, are discussed and Though the above division js t generally i can do well to avoid any rigid line of demarceaey ee forms. Many a time, some of them then fe Tun into the other. for the purpose of our young writers the above aeons be most suited. ion would The two things most important in essay-writing are firs the acquisition of a certain style of writing and second} , getting thoughts about the subjects of essays. The style is the man. Good readings help in making the style as well as the man. It is also helpful, as Nesfield, the celebrated grammarian suggests, to practise making summaries of paragraphs and passages from some interesting and lively piece of writing, or even of essays of famous essayists. In this way, one acquires a style of one's own, and also acquires the art of clear and coherent thinking and writing. Regarding the second problem, the advice of celebrated poet, is worth nothing, Behind every subject there is the ever present subjectman or humanity or human society. The subject of the essay can be tackled, and thoughts and ideas will start coming as soon as we begin to see the connection and the relationship of the subject to human life and human society.And, he further says : The relationships between an essay subject and human life are so various name lwo essays on the same subject are alike. In A ae ich relationship between essay-subjects and human life cee very Promises and possibilities of the essay-There are 'Mportant part of the essay : (a) Origin. (b) Development. (c) Conclusion. It should ction. : The Origin is often called the Tat Oot give a brief always be brief, striking and attractive. hand. ‘There are still definition or the meaning of the subject ‘Scanned with CamScannerIV ESSAY WRITING Introduction True ease in writing comes from art, not chance 7 As those move easiest who have learnt to dance. -Pope ; Essay-writing is an art which very few cultivate. This delicate art was pioneered by Montaign in France and Bacon in England, thus adding a new literary form to the otherwise rich domain of literature in both the countries. Bacons essays are a marvel of brevity and lucid style and never leave their reader with any regrets. The essay in modem English literature owes much to such luminaries as R.L. Stevenson, A.G. Gardiner, Robert Lynd and a host of others. Reading through their essays is a treat as well as a source of wise thought couched in beautiful language and easy-to-grasp style. The word essay means ‘an attempt’. As a verb it means "to make an allempt." So, an essay is an attempt to express ones thoughts on the given subject. An essay subject and the writer's personality are closely linked through the language in the social perspective. It has been rightly said by A.C. Benson ; “An essay is a think which some one does himself; and the first of the essay is not the subject, for any subject will suffice, but the charm of personality”. It is experience with the subject in hand, in the context of social background, that would infuse spirit into the attempt and surround the essay with charm and beauty. The essay proper may assume any of the following forms : ; eniniié (i) Narrative, in which one may express ones one and viewpoints, narrate experiences and encoun with men and matters. scriptive, which one i jace, (ii) Descriptive, in i ne may describe some pl il) scene oF object of interest. ‘Scanned wih CamScanner422 ? FAMOUS TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Ten; QULITIES OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH The following may be designated as the qualities of Paragraph, Ig. q @ goog 1. Unity: Unity or unity of thought and sequence js the hallmark of a good paragraph. The sentences in a paragraph should not stand in the air like loose ends ; each new sentence should bear a sensible link with the previous sentence. In this way the overall impression will be one thought, one theme, 2. Clarity: The second quality of a good paragraph is Clarity of thought. This is possible only when all the sentences is the paragraph are logically linked with one another, There Should be well-ordered rendering of the thought. This is possible only when the writer does not go off the track or the main theme stated is the topic sentence. 3. Coherence: The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged according to some pattern so as to give the thought a natural flow. 4. Force and Vigour: The sentences in a paragraph should cany force and vigour in support of the main theme. The writer should focus his attention on the main topic and give it an air of authenticity. 5. Variety: Variety, it is said, is the spice of life. In the context of a paragraph variety does not mean different ideas or themes. Here it means variety is presentation of language so as to avoid the paragraph from becoming dull or monotonous. The sentences may vary in length and tone and there should be some touch of humour if possible. 6. Conclusion: The paragraph should not be lacking in conclusion. All the sentences should deal with the key-idea and should lead to logical conclusion. ‘Scanned wih CamScannerP GENERAL AwaseneoS OF SOME ASPECTS of = NGLISH, Main Clause Dependent Claus, “ 2. You may leave/ when I tel) Me be yous 3. When you grow up/ you will be freey pec Mc . 4,1 threw away the eggs/ because they were bad/ MC although they were DC Tl PARAGRAPH WRITING A sentence is an orderly arrangement of words carrying a lete sense. i oan ement of te oe eile round ace eel ordered arrang' sent ences built round a central idea or topic, The central idea or topic or theme is stated is the topic sentence, reinforced by other sentences that follow. In simple words, a paragraph is a short piece of writing that deals with one single idea or one single theme In the words of Alexander Bain, A paragraph is a collection, or series, of sentences with unity of purpose. The Parts of a Paragraph : A readable paragraph may be divided into three parts: 1. The opening sentence. 2. Middle sentences. 3. The ending sentence. 1, The beginning or the ope sentence. It is in this sentence that t theme or idea. This is the topic sentence. " 7 arouses the readersinterest and compels him which entences 2, Middle sentences are 4 func, ot the paragraP Contribute to the exposition of the idea ce! a to maturity. These sentences, progressively, that some 3. The ending sentence d. It is the thougin on some fies or some theme has ol 7 final link which validates the semiences 9 up Sentence may be something like @ aummmice Personal comment. ning sentence is the kernel he writer states the central It is this sentence that 0 read further. bring the ide e reader n state ing before: of details oF 7 satisfies th ‘Scanned wih ComScanner420 FAMOUS TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TEFL) Examples: 1. Mohsan is a good boy. 2. Cats play. 3, Cows drink water. 4. Boys and Girls do social work. 5, The little boy gave his mother a red rose. 2. A compound sentence is the one which is made up of an independent clause and one or more than one co-ordinate Clauses of the same order or rank. Each clause is independent of the other. (i) A compound sentence which consists of two coordinate clauses is called a double sentence. (ii) A compound sentence which consists of more than two coordinate clauses is called a multiple sentence. Example: 1. Cats sleep during the day and wake up at night. 2. Boys play while girls work. 3. The story was true but nobody believed it. 4, The police came and the robbers ran away. 5. I went out, met the stranger and brought him in. 6. I came, I saw, I conquered. 7. They came, ale their food and went away. Note: Sentences 1, 2, 3 and 4 are double sentences (compound); sentences 5, 6 and 7 are multiple sentences (compound). 3. A Complex sentence is the one which consists of an independent or main clause and one or more subordinate oF dependent clauses. Examples: 1. I like students/ who work hard,/ ‘Scanned wih CamScannerental AWARENESS OF SOME ASPECTS OF EN SH (i) Here is the book which you need, ae (ii) ‘This is the boy whose note-book ; T borrowe; (iv) You are the person whom I want as d yesterday, my se wwe found no reason why he should be pul —— nished, (a) Adverbial Clauses come before, i main clauses. ‘They usually modify vere mi or in the middle of adverbs OF adjectives. They are often a may also modify subordinate conjunction, as, introduced by the Examples: a eer wisi i) looking. (Place) (iii) ca as fast as the whether would permit. (iv) They write as if they know everything. (Manner) {v) He will not give his talk unless we pay his expenses. (Condition) (vi) 1 agreed to go with him although I was very tired. (Concession) (vii) She quit school because her mother was ill. (Cause) (viii) He got so late that he missed the train. (Result) THE SENTENCE What is a sentence? A sentence is a basic unit of language. It is a portion of written form between one full stop and another one. In strict terms of grammatical entity, 4 sentence is a communication in words, having at its core at least one indepe With its subject." A reader oF “a hearer would ! telatively complete unit, capable of standing © Making complete sense. regard it as 4 independently: Simple, Compound and Complex Sentences : : e which has one subject an 1, A Simple sentence is the on yerb limited PY 4 ; a me Predicate, It has only one finite ver» mber and person. ‘Scanned wih CamScanner4 7 18 FAMOUS TEACHINS OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (TEFL) 2. He was given a warm welcome/ when he retumed from abroad Independent Dependent 3. It is not certain/ when he will arrive? Independent Dependent 4. No one can foretell when he will die? Independent Dependent More about the Dependent Clause: A dependent clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb, For example, 1. I must confess/ that I stole the book. Independent Clause (Dependent) Noun Clause 2. [should like to own the house/ that he lives in/ Independent Clause (Dependent) Adjective Clause 3. He was given a hearty when he returned from . welcome/ abroad/ Independent Clause (Dependent) Adverb Clause Note, please: (a) Noun Clauses are introduced by that, what, how, why, whether. Examples : (i) What he told us is very reasonable. {ii) 1 do not know why he is absent today (iii) He believes that hardwork brings success. (iv) | am not sure whether he will vote for me. (v) I want to know how you solved this riddle. (b) Adjective Clauses modify or point out nouns O° with the help of certain introductory words called pronouns a The most common relatives are : relative: Who, which, that, whose, whom, where, whe! why Examples : (i) This is the man who helped me. ‘Scanned wih CemScannerGENERAL AWARENESS OF SOME ASPECTS gp ENGU ISH 417 THE PHRASE In its simple meaning, a Phrase r ; is any gr its strict grammatical sense, a phrase i 9 agit, of Words, In words which acts as a single element in « si P of two or more nave a subject and verb of its own. A few canietie It does not are ; 1, in the market. (I met him in the market) 2. singing pop songs. (He likes singing pop songs) 3. agroup of foreign students, (I had also invited a group of foreign students) 4, hunting wild animals. (Huntin wild ani is qui expensive) Ig ‘imals is quite 5, vote as you please, (you have the freedom to vote as you please) THE CLAUSE A Clause is a sentence-group of words which is enclosed in a longer sentence. Like a sentence, the clause must have a subject and a predicate of its own. A few examples of clauses are: 1. This is the book which I purchased yesterday. 2, Make hay while the sun shines. 3. Ishall remember the day when you left us. 4, Everyone praises the student who works hard. 5. The stranger who came late addressed the meeting. Two Types of Clauses : Clauses are of two types : (a) Independent Clause (b) Dependent or Subordinate Clause sails An Independent Clause can stand alone by itself. Main clause. A Dependent or Subordinate Clause ¢ Examples: 1.1 warned her/ Independent annot stand alone. but she didn't care/ Dependent ‘Scanned with CamScanner4 . 16 FAMOUS TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN: LANGUAGE (TERY boenstaver. 3. Rousseau believed in God but he did nop : eve in church. 4. Rousseau decided to cross the Alps o; 00t. S. The lion is the king of the forest. " UL. Pick out the pronouns from the following sentences; 1. At my office, I dictate letters to a shorthand writer who types them by means of his typewriter. 2. You must love your neighbours. 3. They are afraid of their enemies. 4. You shoulg enjoy yourself at Murree. 5. He did not notice me when I fired. IV. Find out the verbs in the following sentences : 1. I send telegrams to people and speak to them over the telephone. 2. The way to receive is to give. 3. Activity is life and inactivity means death. 4. Love and be loved, that is the goal of life. 5. The hand in order to live must love all the members of the body. 6. If you are thinking, become thought itself. 7. The seed in order to become a tree must perish itself. 8. The sun had just risen when I left in search of the tiger. 9. In this glade, ‘T first saw The Bachleor of Bahawalnagar.' 10. The jungle fold told me where the tiger was seen. V. Pick out the adverbs from the following sentences : 1. The doctor immediately gave him the certificate of health. 2. Proceeding very slowly, | saw the pub marks of the tiger. 3. Daily it killed one or two persons who happened to pass that way. 4. Trip attacks his enemy secretly. 5. Blossom descends on the choicest company fearlessly VI. Find the conjunctions in the following sentences : 1. Hence, order and safety, although they are not themselves civilization, are things without which civilization would be impossible. 2. Co-operation is nothing but superficial manifestation of love. 3. The first always said “Go, go” while the second said “Come, come”. 4. Nothing is impossible provided you work with determination. 5. Both he and his sister attended the marriage ceremony. I THE PHRASE, THE CLAUSE, THE SENTENCE i y bine to ‘he parts of speech are important because they com! make a group which has meaning and which can be i alled Phrases: stood, Such groups in a language are c " Oiaases and Sentences. A brief study of these is given below ‘Scanned wih CemScanner