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Journal of Earth Science, Vol. 34, No. 6, p. 1951-1956, December 2023 ISSN 1674-487X
Printed in China
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-023-2004-2

Perspective
Biological and Pollution Aerosols on Snow and Ice—Interplay
between the Atmosphere and the Cryosphere
Zhiwen Dong *1, Hongchen Jiang 2, Giovanni Baccolo 3
, Biagio Di Mauro 4
,
Krzysztof Zawierucha 5
1. State Key Laboratory of Cryosphere Sciences, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
2. State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430078, China
3. Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen 5234, Switzerland
4. Institute of Polar Sciences, National Research Council of Italy, Milan 20121, Italy
5. Department of Animal Taxonomy and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań 61-614, Poland
Zhiwen Dong: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4871-219X; Hongchen Jiang: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1271-7028;
Giovanni Baccolo: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1246-8968; Biagio Di Mauro: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8161-3962;
Krzysztof Zawierucha: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0754-1411

1 BACKGROUND ological properties such as potential increase or decrease of bi‐

The cryosphere covers a relevant portion of the Earth’s
surface, playing a major role for terrestrial and marine biomes
(Bosson et al., 2023; Sands et al., 2023; Anesio et al., 2017).
Glacierets, glaciers and ice sheets represent together 10% of
the global land surface, while the annual average maximum of
snow cover during the winter accounts for up to 49% of the
Northern Hemisphere’s surface (Qin, 2017). Aerosols are an‐
other major component of the Earth system, playing pivotal
roles in the biogeochemical cycles and in the Earth radiative
mass balance (Bellouin et al., 2020; Carslaw et al., 2010). A
complex network of interactions links aerosols and glaciers.
On one side, glaciers are repositories of atmospheric precipita‐
tion and they act as temporary reservoirs for aerosols, gather‐
ing temporal and spatial information about their environmental
occurrence and distribution (Erhardt et al., 2022). On the other
one, aerosols can influence the chemical properties, evolution
and biological processes occurring on the surface or interior of
glaciers (Di Mauro, 2020; Hotaling et al., 2017). Although the
relationship between aerosols and glaciers is currently a hot
topic in earth science, the relevant understanding is still incom‐
plete (Gevers et al., 2023; Lewandowski et al., 2020). In partic‐
ular, some specific components of aerosols like pollutants and
biological materials (including viable microorganisms, spores,
pollen and particles such as viruses) are poorly recognized and
the knowledge about their interactions with the cryosphere is
scarce. The impact of pollutants and bioaerosols settling on the
surface of glaciers and snow includes changes in optical radia‐
tion such as albedo (Di Mauro, 2020; Hotaling et al., 2017), bi‐
∗Corresponding author: dongzhiwen@lzb.ac.cn
© China University of Geosciences (Wuhan) and Springer-Verlag
GmbH Germany, Part of Springer Nature 2023
Manuscript received November 4, 2023.
Manuscript accepted November 8, 2023.
ological diversity and productivity (Schmidt et al., 2022; Hotal‐
ing et al., 2017), quality of the melting water (Pawlak et al.,
2021; Rizzi et al., 2019), and release of legacy species, both or‐
ganic and inorganic, natural and artificial, in the proglacial area
(Owens et al., 2019; Ferrario et al., 2017). Thus, glaciers act as
source and sink for various biological material and atmospher‐
ic-derived pollutants, making glacier ice an ideal environmen‐
tal matrix for the investigation of concentration, distribution
and transport of material and harmful substances to high lati‐
tude and alitude regions and making them natural laboratory
for studies on the interaction between psychrophiles and pollut‐
ants (Pittino et al., 2023).
Light-absorbing aerosols found on glaciers, such as miner‐
al dust, black carbon and organic matter, can be produced in-si‐
tu by cryophilic photoautotrophs and delivered from ex-situ
sources like mountain slopes and atmospheric transport (Grewl‐
ing et al., 2023; Rozwalak et al., 2022; Di Mauro et al., 2021;
Kang et al., 2020). When such substances are accumulated on
the surface of glaciers, owing their radiative features, they
strongly enhance the ability of the glacier-system to absorb so‐
lar radiation, introducing an additional source of energy that is
available for ice melting (Naegeli and Huss, 2017). Glacier ice
darkening is therefore strongly affecting the mass balance of
glaciers, accelerating their retreat in the context of the current
climate change (Di Mauro and Fugazza, 2022). Additionally
anthropic activity contributes to the glacier albedo by produc‐
ing black carbon (only a small part of which is from natural
wild fire), half-product of the biomass combustion, which im‐
pact the albedo of snow and glaciers worldwide (Kang et al.,
2020). Indeed the IPCC AR5 (IPCC, 2014) assessment high‐
lighted the role of various aerosols on atmospheric radiative
forcing. However, the radiative forcing of aerosols deposited
on glaciers and snow strongly depends on the composition, col‐
or, size and morphology of light absorbing particles (Skiles et
al., 2018). Interactions between a warming climate and glacier

Dong Zhiwen, Jiang Hongchen, Baccolo Giovanni, Di Mauro Biagio, Zawierucha Krzysztof, 2023. Biological and Pollution Aero‐
sols on Snow and Ice—Interplay between the Atmosphere and the Cryosphere. Journal of Earth Science, 34(6): 1951–1956. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s12583-023-2004-2. http://en.earth-science.net
1952 Zhiwen Dong, Hongchen Jiang, Giovanni Baccolo, Biagio Di Mauro and Krzysztof Zawierucha
dynamics are very complex (Bolibar et al., 2022). In fact, a fu‐
ture increase in spring and summer air temperature is expected
to trigger more surface melting in seasonal snow and glaciers
worldwide. This process would further expose darker surface
layers and induce more melting (Kang et al., 2020; Dong et al.,
2018). In this sense, the presence of mineral and organic impu‐
rities on snow and ice will exacerbate the impact of climate
change on the cryosphere. The full understanding of such pro‐
cess requires fully interdisciplinary approaches.
2 CURRENT UNDERSTANDING
Glaciers and snow can influence the functioning of ecosys‐
tems, biodiversity patterns, the productivity of terrestrial, fresh‐
water and marine systems, local carbon budgets, and nutrient re‐
cycling (Bosson et al., 2023; Zawierucha et al., 2023; Szeli‐
gowska et al., 2021). Additionally, mountain glaciers directly
and indirectly support many ecosystem services for the commu‐
nities located in their downstream areas, including the supply of
water, food and energy (Clason et al., 2023). Glaciers and snow
worldwide, which have been considered lifeless for years, form
a complex ecosystems characterized by extreme conditions and
unique biological communities adapted to harsh environments
(Remias and Procházková, 2023; Zawierucha et al., 2023; Ono
et al., 2021). Snow and glacier surfaces are the most diverse
and biologically productive ecosystems within terrestrial cryo‐
sphere, and they undoubtedly interact with the atmosphere.
However, this interaction process is almost unknown (Grewling
et al., 2023; Hotaling et al., 2021; Franzetti et al., 2017).
Pollutants and bioaerosols found in glacial environments
may have remote and local sources. Tracking the pathways of
organic and inorganic pollutants is crucial for accurately inter‐
preting the occurrence of specific pollutants in glacial areas,
thereby better constraining the relationship between emissions,
atmospheric transportation, and deposition (Monteiro et al.,
2022). However, assessing the provenance of aerosols found in
glacier ice and snow is not immediate. Therefore, specialized
development and improvement of analysis and interpretation
tools are needed. In the past years, a great number of proxies
were discussed and proposed to trace aerosol sources in glacial
environments. They include applications of isotopic systems
for fingerprint recognition (Yu et al., 2013), element ratios or
suites(Dong et al., 2023, 2016; Du et al., 2017), or combination
of experimental (Di Mauro et al., 2019; Gabrielli et al., 2010;
Zhang et al., 2009) and modeling data (Nagatsuka et al., 2021;
Kaspari et al., 2009). Due to the preservation of aerosols in gla‐
cier ice, it is possible to obtain records related to natural and ar‐
tificial aerosols, thereby better understanding global processes
such as atmospheric pollution (Gabrielli and Vallelonga, 2015),
volcanic activity (Sigl et al., 2013), wildfires (Sierra-Hernández
et al., 2022), sandstorms (Chuvochina et al., 2011) as well as
human social and economic evolution (McConnell et al., 2018).
The role of glaciers as archives for gathering information
on past aerosols is undeniable, but it is not exhaustive. Glaciers
can preserve information from the past because they serve as
temporary repositories for past atmospheric precipitation. The
term temporary is needed as the mass of a glacier is always sub‐
ject to a specific turnover period, depending on its nature. Ac‐
cording to this, what is stored in a glacier will be released in the
downstream environment sooner or later. Climate change is
deeply influencing such processes, enhancing melting and lega‐
cy aerosol remobilization with meltwater. Glaciers are thus turn‐
ing from temporary sinks to secondary sources for many pollut‐
ants emitted decades ago and since then preserved among ice lay‐
ers (Makowska-Zawierucha et al., 2022; Pawlak et al., 2021).
Recent studies showed that cryoconite on the melting surface of
glaciers plays an important role in these processes. Cryoconite is
a dark-colored sediment found at the surface of melting glaciers,
it consists in a dominant mineral fraction and in an organic one
(Rozwalak et al., 2022; Takeuchi et al., 2001). The formation of
cryoconite involves the interaction between mineral and biolog‐
ic matter. When meltwater is available at the surface of glaciers,
microorganisms use mineral grains as a physical and chemical
substrate to flourish, sitcking to mineral grains and forming bio‐
genic aggregates (Wejnerowski et al., 2023), water filled reser‐
voirs in glacial ice. As a light-absorbing material, cryoconite
can significantly reduce the albedo of the glacier surface
(Takeuchi et al., 2001), but also interplay with black carbon and
organic pollutant sediments on the glacier and snowpack sur‐
face (Dong et al., 2020; Baccolo et al., 2017). The interaction of
meltwater, ice, atmospheric deposition and organic impurities
on the surface of glaciers leads to the extreme accumulation of
pollutants in cryoconite aggregates before they are washed out
from the glacier to enter the hydrologic network (Baccolo et al.,
2020; Łokas et al., 2016).
Despite the fact that biodiversity and the role of organ‐
isms on biogeochemical cycles on snow and ice has been inves‐
tigated since decades (in particular attention for the last 20
years), only scarce attention has been given to the impact of
bioaerosols. Prokaryotic communities on glacier surface, espe‐
cially heterotrophic bacteria, change in space and time, suggest‐
ing their atmospheric origin and the related role of natural se‐
lection at low temperature (Onuma et al., 2022; Poniecka and
Bagshaw, 2021; Pittino et al., 2018). Wind transport is respon‐
sible for the distribution of many cryophilic taxa in glacial en‐
vironments, including pigmented algae which reach high bio‐
mass and reduce albedo after setting on the snow (e.g., Sangui‐
na sp.) or ice (e. g., Ancylonema sp.) (Di Mauro et al., 2020;
Ganey et al., 2017; Stibal et al., 2012). Hotaling et al. (2021)
suggested that biological particles could be transported to the
surface of glaciers, which has an impact on the functionality of
supraglacial ecosystem. Indeed Grewling et al. (2023) recently
discovered pollen grains from local and remote (LRT) sources
on the glacier surface in the High Arctic. Pollen and mineral
dusts, as extra sources of nutrients, can trigger the production
of organic matter in snow and supraglacial environments,
while also darkening the glacier surface (McCutcheon et al.,
2021; Dong et al., 2020). The average content of organic mat‐
ter on glacier cryoconite ranges from 3% to 29% (Rozwalak et
al., 2022; Cook et al., 2016).
At present, extensive research has been carried out on pol‐
lutants in snow and cryoconite, and their spatial and temporal
distribution and basic climate-environmental effects have been
revealed. Almost all the substances released into the atmo‐
sphere over the last few centuries can be found in snowpack
and glaciers. The input of these pollutants likely has important
impact on the microbiome and micro-ecosystem in the cryo‐
Biological and Pollution Aerosols on Snow and Ice—Interplay between the Atmosphere and the Cryosphere
sphere region, which has not been studied ao far. Dong et al.
(2018) showed that changes in salt-coating state resulted in a
decrease of 16.7%–33.9% in albedo of glacier snow in differ‐
ent regions compared to snow ice composed of single particles
similar to aerosols in the atmosphere. The radiative forcing
changes of snow and ice in different regions are estimated to
be 1.6–26.3 W/m2 (Dong et al., 2020; Zhang and Kang, 2017;
China et al., 2015; Cappa et al., 2012; Martins et al., 1998).
This change leads to stronger endothermic effects and climate
impacts of light-absorbing pollutants in snow and ice than pre‐
viously thought. Besides, the research on the source analysis,
transport deposition process and radiative forcing of various
aerosols in snow and ice are helpful to provide scientific sup‐
port and basis for the mitigation measures of cryosphere
change in future. The feedbacks between aerosols-organisms-
albedo must be acquired for understanding of fragile glacial
ecosystems.
3 FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION
The integration of the knowledge on the biological and
pollutant aerosols on snow and ice is an important step towards
building a holistic scheme of the atmosphere-biosphere-
cryosphere interaction. The organisms on glaciers can interact
with pollutants through decomposition and acquire resistance
to heavy metals or antibiotics. However, there is still a com‐
plete lack of understanding about the impact of newly discov‐
ered pollutants, such as microplastic or artificial radionuclides
on glacial biota (Pittino et al., 2023). For example, black car‐
bon reduce albedo by up to 28%, but the impact of widespread,
light absorbing black carbon particles on cryoconite organisms
has not been recognized (Hadley and Kirchstetter, 2012). The
increasing temperature and the impact of light-absorbing pol‐
lutants may trigger the biological productivity on glaciers, just
as it has a positive impact on the growth and biomass accumu‐
lation of pigmented organisms, which in turn determines a posi‐
tive feedback loop and accelerates glacier melting. The bio‐
aerosols and atmospheric pollutants deposited on glaciers are
finally transported downstream with glacier water likely consti‐
tuting hazard (Beard et al., 2022). Without considering these as‐
pects it would be impossible to correctly understand the future
trends of the cryosphere, in particular in mountain areas. Be‐
cause of the crucial knowledge gaps, future studies on biologi‐
cal and pollutant aerosols should focus on the aeolian transport
to glacier surfaces, interactions between organisms and pollut‐
ants, effects of pollutants on biological productivity and albedo
reduction, as well as legacy and fate of atmospheric deposition
of aerosols on glaciers and their transport in downstream sys‐
tems. In particular, the relationship between microbial activity
and the accumulation of pollutants on the surface of glaciers
still needs to be investigated. Bioaerosols, such as pollen
grains, fungi and even viable or death invertebrates, may con‐
stitute a significant allochthonous source of organic matter for
other ecosystems. Indeed wind-blown insects and insects’ car‐
casses were observed on glaciers (Zawierucha et al., 2019), as
well as small mammals (Łokas et al., 2022).
Most recent research focusing on biogeochemical process‐
es occurring in glacial environments are increasingly showing
that the degree of interaction between different components of
1953
environmental systems is extremely high on the surface of gla‐
ciers, partly due to the effects of climate change (Dong et al.,
2023; Di Mauro et al., 2019; Bagshaw, 2018). On the surface
of glacier meltwater, micro- and macroorganisms,organic mat‐
ter, mineral debris, glacier ice, and windblown materials are
strongly interacting with each other, leading to high microbial
activity rates and likely to the dynamic cycling of many atmo‐
spheric-related contaminants, both natural and human-related.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the National Natural Sci‐
ence Foundation of China (Nos. 42022002, 42201152,
42371139, 41941005), the State Key Laboratory of Cryosphere
Sciences (No. SKLCS-ZZ-2023), the Gansu Province Natural
Science Foundation Key Project (No. 23JRRA858), and the
Excellent Doctoral Program of Gansu Province (No. 23JR‐
RA626). The final publication is available at Springer via
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-023-2004-2.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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