Moisture Equilibrium Curves – Use and Misuse

T. V. Oommen
Consultant

INTRODUCTION

Throughout the development and operational history of power transformers, considerable interest has
been shown on the presence and effects of moisture. As everyone knows, moisture is considered Enemy
Number One because it plays a significant role in the deterioration of insulation and may cause premature
dielectric breakdown of transformers. Since paper insulation dominates the insulation in power
transformers (and distribution types), rigorous drying out is carried out before the units are placed in
service. In addition to paper, the units also contain insulating oil, which is dried out. However, if the
paper is wet, no amount of drying the oil would help: the paper holds more than 99 percent of the total
water, and only a trivial amount of water from the paper is needed to make the oil wet (in terms of ppm
moisture levels or relative saturation).

The dielectric strength of oil starts to fall slowly at first with moisture, then steeply as Figure 1
shows. Depending on the rating of the transformer, the limit of allowed moisture content in new oil
placed in a unit can vary considerably from 10 ppm to 25 ppm. The term relative saturation better defines
wetness, and is independent of temperature. Dry oil can be 10 to 15% wet. Service aged oil may have as
much as 50 percent wet oil and may still function.

FIGURE 1

Dry paper insulation typically has 0.5 percent moisture (or less), but even at one percent moisture level
the insulation is considered dry. Aged transformers have 2 to 3 percent moisture in the insulation.

How can dry oil sometimes get wet when the paper insulation is dry? To understand this, we need to
look at what is known as Moisture Equilibrium Curves and Moisture Dynamics in transformers. These are
discussed below.

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Moisture Equilibrium Curves

Fabre-Pichon Curves, 1960

The most frequently mentioned set of moisture equilibrium curves for paper-oil systems is the Fabre-
Pichon curves published in CIGRE Proceedings, 1960 [1]. These should actually be called Fabre curves
because it was first published by J. Fabre in 1959 in a less accessible French publication which was
featured in an English language publication the same year [2]. The Fabre-Pichon curves (re-drawn) are
shown in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2

Later researchers such as Norris have used these curves in their papers [3], and some people have referred
to it as Norris Curves and so on.

It is not clear how the above set of curves were generated. Most likely some experimental data was
used. The curvature of the plots will be understood from the discussions later. What is significant about
these curves is that when the paper and oil in the transformer are in stable equilibrium conditions (usually
implies stable temperature for long periods), the amount of water in oil is dependent on the temperature.
Since one per cent is 10,000 ppm, the moisture in the paper would not show discernable change when the
ppm in oil shows wide variation. Increase in temperature makes the paper less hygroscopic, but the
reverse is true for oil. The paper reservoir in a large transformer may be considered an infinite source of
water, so to use the above curves we may just go horizontally for any moisture content in paper to
determine the moisture content of oil. Since the moisture values are given in ppm, we do not have an idea
of the relative saturation when the moisture in oil changes. The truth is, the relative saturation should
remain the same. This is because as the temperature increases, the moisture saturation value increases
exponentially. For example, for new oil, one relationship expressed by an Arrhenius equation [4]:

Log S = - (1670/T) + 7.42 where S is the solubility in ppm, T is temperature in Kelvin

.

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Based on this the solubility limits in the temperature range 0 – 100o C would be:

Temperature, o C Solubility, ppm

0 20
10 33
20 53
30 81
40 121
50 178
60 254
70 356
80 489
90 660
100 877

Since even new oils differ in solubility slightly, an appropriate Arrhenius formula may be used. Old
oils usually have higher solubility, and this should be taken into consideration into the construction of
equilibrium curves for old transformers. However, the paper as it ages also becomes more hygroscopic, so
the mater is not so straightforward. We shall consider these factors later.

Oommen Curves, 1983

A new set of equilibrium curves were constructed forpaper-oil systems from basic data and was
published in 1983 [4]. A different approach was used in constructing these curves. It is known that
equilibration is very slow at lower temperatures, so any experimental effort to get reliable data would
result in unreliable data. Only at elevated temperatures the moisture in paper and oil would come to
equilibrium in a reasonable time such as hours.

The new approach involved the combining the moisture absorption curves of non-impregnated paper
and of transformer oil . Fortunately, the literature contains some data on the moisture absorption of Kraft
wood pulp as a function of relative humidity. Such data can be generated by equilibrating non-
impregnated paper in a constant humidity environment at different temperatures. This my require
precision RH ovens or the use of salt solutions [5]. RH ovens do not generally go below 30% humidity, so
for lower RH values, one may have to use extrapolation methods. For the purpose of the 1983 work, the
moisture data by Jeffries was used [6], and even here some extrapolation and interpolation were required
to get the absorption data at 10o C intervals. Jeffries’ data gives both adsorption and desorption values
which are slightly different due to the hysteresis effect in moisture sorption. For the purpose of the curves,
only adsorption data were used.

The adsorption data at 10o C intervals for the 0 – 100% RH range is shown in Figure 3. It must be
pointed out that precise adsorption data is not possible to get as we approach 100% RH due to
multimolecular layer adsorption. The initial rise conforms to moisture adsorption as a monomolecular
layer, but thereafter more and more layers are built up, giving the S shaped curve.

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 FIGURE 3

The moisture absorption of oil as a function of RH is linear at each temperature, and therefore
constructing a family of absorption plots is straightforward. The percent humidity should be equated to
the percent saturation. Therefore, 100% saturation is the same as the solubility limit, which is given by the
Arrhenius relationship shown above. The set of plots for oil based on oil solubility data is shown in
Figure 4.

FIGURE 4

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 To construct the equilibrium curves, all we need to do is to pick a point from Fig. 3 for a given RH
and temperature, pick a point from Fig. 4 for the same RH and the same temperature, and obtain one data
point for the equilibrium curve.

The moisture equilibrium curves so constructed are shown in Figure 5. The original 1983 publication
showed plots covering only up to 5 percent moisture in paper and 50 ppm moisture in oil. Figure 5
expands this range to 10 percent and 200 ppm respectively.

FIGURE 5

It will be noticed that the curved lines result from the S- shaped curves for moisture adsorption by paper.
They become almost linear at higher temperatures in the observed range.

Due to the method of constructing these curves, their reliability is high. Non-impregnated paper
comes to equilibrium with the atmosphere fairly quickly at any temperature. This is not true for oily paper
due to the slow diffusion of water, especially at low temperatures. The accuracy of these curves was
verified experimentally by MIT researchers [7].

How does the present set of curves compare with the Fabre-Pichon curves? Figure 6 shows the two
sets of curves.

FIGURE 6

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 It may be seen that the two sets of curves have similar shapes, yet do not merge. The Fabre-Pichon
curves shift to the left temperature-wise by as much as 10o C. This could lead to a considerable difference
in moisture estimations. For example, at 60o C oil temperature and 20 ppm moisture in oil, the Oommen
curves would indicate the paper has ca. 1.4% water; using the Fabre-Pichon curves we get ca. 2.3% water
in paper.

Pitfalls in Using the Equilibrium Curves

The proper use of the equilibrium curves needs much caution. The following are the main reasons:

1. Equilibrium is seldom achieved in real transformers due to continuous changes in load and
ambient temperature.

2. The temperature of the insulation is different in different regions. Paper wraps near the conductor
are at a higher temperature than paper in bulk insulation. The oil near the conductor would also be
at a higher temperature than in bulk oil. The temperature would be highest at the hottest spots on
the conductor and the paper near it.

3. The paper and oil in operating transformers have aged, and the equilibrium curves may not apply
strictly.

More clarification of each point is given below.

1. Non-equilibrium conditions and moisture dynamics

It is a matter of common knowledge that the load on a transformer is never a static value. During the
startup the temperature increases exponentially with time, usually several hours. Thereafter, a steady state
temperature is possible but due to ambient temperature variations this is not the case. The load is changed
intentionally to meet demands. On shutdown the temperature decreases exponentially, and it may take
weeks before the bulk oil reaches ambient temperature unless forced cooling is used.

Figure 7 illustrates, during the thermal rise initially, the paper would drive out some moisture into the
oil thereby increasing its ppm value. However, the moisture saturation should remain virtually constant
due to the increased solubility of water in oil at higher temperatures. During the shutdown the reverse
happens. Here the return of water from oil to the paper does not take place rapidly due to the lowering of
temperature, and hence there could result in a moisture saturation hump which may be high enough to
affect the dielectric strength of oil. A cold start under those conditions would be hazardous. The data in
Figure 7 were generated using an on-line moisture sensor in oil [8]. The bulk oil moisture could be
abnormally high during cold weather, which affects the oil temperature. As a result, the equilibrium
curves would give moisture values in the insulation

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 FIGURE 7

2. Temperature Differences in a Transformer

This is best illustrated in Table 1 [Ref. 9].

TABLE 1

Equilibrium Moisture Content of Insulation

In Different Regions

Water in Oil Water in Oil

Location Temperature
10 ppm 30 ppm

Bottom of Non-conductor 60C 1.4%

2.4%
Bottom oil Wrapped conductor 75 0.9
1.6
Top oil Non-conductor 75 0.9
1.6
Top oil Wrapped conductor 90 0.5
1.0

Hottest spot 98 0.4 0.7

The paper will be drier at the hotter regions which should slow down aging and bubble
generation. However, substantial moisture migration between paper and oil occurs in the thin
insulation due to faster transfer rates.

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What this clearly shows is that for the same ppm of water in bulk oil, the water content of insulation could
be different in different regions.

Aging of oil/paper could change moisture absorption, and hence equilibrium curves

Researchers at Monash University have observed that the oil in an aged transformer could absorb as
much as twice the amount of water as in new oil [10]. However, since the paper also ages and become
more hygroscopic, the net result could be that the equilibrium curves are not significantly affected. On the
other hand, if we replace old oil with new oil, the paper insulation is aged, and hence the equilibrium
curves could shift to the left in a manner similar to what is shown in Figure 6, the shifted curves would be
comparable to the Fabre-Pichon curves. Unless such systems are studied for moisture absorption, exact
curves could not be made.

Proper Use of Moisture Equilibrium Curves

From the above discussions it may seem difficult to use the equilibrium curves to determine the
moisture in paper. However, there are some ways to use it as described below.

1. Assuming steady state conditions with regard to temperature (with temperatures on the higher side),
we may take an oil sample from a known location and note its temperature. The ppm moisture content
will be measured in the lab or by an on-line sensor. The equilibrium curves could be consulted to find
out the corresponding moisture in paper. However, the moisture of interest should be where the
hottest spot is because that is where the degradation is highest. Knowing the hottest spot temperature,
we may move down vertically until it hits the isotherm corresponding to this temperature, and then
read the corresponding moisture in the hottest spot are of insulation. Let us assume the oil sampled
was at 50o C, and showed 20 ppm water in oil. Consulting Figure 5 we see that the corresponding
moisture level in paper would be ca. 1.9%. Assuming the hottest spot temperature is 90o C, we find the
corresponding moisture is ca 1.0%.

Since bubble evolution usually occurs from paper from the hottest region first, and is dependent on
the moisture content of paper, we may determine the bubble evolution temperature from overload
from published equation [11], and for 1.0% moisture in paper this turns out to be 170 o C assuming a
gas free system.

2. It is possible to get uniform oil temperature in a transformer if the normal operations are suspended
and an intentional coil heating is done to elevate the temperature and maintain it for some time. Under
such conditions we may use the equilibrium curves directly. It should be noted that this would give
the average moisture content of the insulation, disregarding any hot spots. This moisture content
should stay the same for long periods except under aging conditions.

CONCLUSION
The application of moisture equilibrium curves to obtain moisture in insulation needs an
understanding of moisture dynamics in transformers, and the temperature differences in different regions.
The use of the curves require either a uniform temperature or a steady state equilibrium with different
temperature regions. Improper use of the curves can result in erroneous readings of the moisture content
of the insulation. The equilibrium curves themselves could vary for different paper-oil combinations,
especially for aged-unaged paper-oil combinations.

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REFERENCES

[1] Fabre J. and Pichon A., “Deteriorating Processes and Products of Paper in Oil Application
to Transformers”, CIGRE, 1860, Paper No. 137

[2] Fabre J., “Degradation of Oil-Impregnated Paper in Transformers”, Engineers Digest,

October 1959, p. 401 (based on J. Fabre’s original article in Bulletin de la Societe des
Electriciens, 7th Series, Vol. 9, No. 103, July 1959)

[3] Norris E. T., “High-voltage Power-transformer Insulation”, Proc. IEE, Vol. 110, No. 2, pp. 428-440,
1963

[4] Oommen T. V., “Moisture Equilibrium in Paper-Oil Systems”, Proceedings of the 16th Electrical/
Electronics Insulation Conference, Chicago, October 3-6, 1983

[5] Wink W. J., “The Effects of Relative Humidity and Temperature on Paper Properties”,
TAPPI, Vol. 44, No. 6, 1966, pp. 171-80

[6] Jeffries R., “The Sorption of Water by Cellulose and Eight Other Textile Polymers”,
J. Inst. of the Textile Institute Transactions, Vol. 51, No. 9, 1860, pp. 339-74

[7] Du Y., et.al, “Moisture Equilibrium in Transformer Paper – Oil Systems”,

IEEE/DEIS Electrical Insulation Magazine, Jan/Feb 1999, pp. 11-20

[8] Oommen T. V., “On-line Moisture Monitoring in Transformers and Oil Processing Systems”,
CIGRE Berlin Symposium, 1993, Paper 110-03

[9] Sokolov, V. and Vanin, B. “Considerations on Moisture Contribution in Transformers”,

Doble Conf. paper 66PAIC99, Insulating Fluids Section, 1999.

[10] Johnson L., Roizman Oleg, Davidov Valery, “ Moisture Monitoring in Power Transformers”, EPRI
Substation Equipment Monitoring Conference, New Orleans, 2002

[11] Oommen, T. V. and Lindgren, S. R., “Bubble Evolution from Transformer Overload”,
IEEE T&D Conf. October 28-Nov. 2, 2001, Atlanta, Ga

Dr. T. V. Oommen is a consultant on electrical insulation applicable to transformers and related power
equipment. He spent 25 years in R & D in these areas before his retirement in October 2000. He has
published numerous technical papers on transformer insulation life, gas and bubble generation, moisture
effects, static electrification, biodegradable fluids and other topics. His original contributions include on-
line moisture sensor, the BIOTEMP® fluid, the mini-static tester for transformer oil screening, moisture
equilibrium curves, and mathematical formula to predict bubble evolution temperature.