KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF GEOMATIC ENGINEERING

DEVELOPING A GNSS PROCESSING SOFTWARE FOR

SURVEY AND MAPPING DIVISION (SMD) GHANA

BY

GAMETI CHARLES, BSc (Hons) Geomatic Engineering

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree

of

MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (ENG) DEGREE

NOVEMBER, 2019
 Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to my parents

Mr. Nelson Gameti and Mrs. Eugenia Gbe

Who have been the motivation to my existence and the backbone for my education, enabling this
study to take place today.

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 Declaration
I hereby declare that except for references to other people’s works, which have been duly
acknowledged, this dissertation submitted to the Geomatic Engineering Department Board,
College of Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, is the
result of my own investigations and has not been presented for any other degree.

Signed: ………………………………………………… Date: …………………………….

Gameti Charles

PG7257516

(MPhil. Candidate)

I hereby declare that I have supervised this student in the undertaking of this project and confirm
that these students have my permission to present it for assessment.

Signed: ………………………………………………… Date: …………………………….

Dr. Akwasi Afrifa Acheampong

(Supervisor)

Signed: ………………………………………………… Date: …………………………….

Dr. Jonathan Arthur Quaye-Ballard

(Head of Department)

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 Acknowledgment
In primo loco, I am grateful to God Almighty for the excellent health and wellbeing that were
necessary to complete this thesis.

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Akwasi Afrifa Acheampong and Prof. Dr. Collins
Fosu, my supervisors, Rev. Dr. John Ayer, and Dr. Anthony Arko-Adjei, lecturers in the
Department of Geomatic Engineering. I am incredibly thankful and indebted to them for sharing
with me their expertise and sincere and valuable guidance and encouragement.

I take this opportunity to express gratitude to all of the Department faculty members for their help
and support.

Last but not least, I would like to extend my sincerest thanks to my family, all my friends
especially Mr. Fiifi O. Turkson, Esther Opoku Agyemang, Theophilus Amponsah, Muhammad M.
Appiah, my MSc. and MPhil. colleagues for their love, friendship, support, attention, patience, and
encouragement in times of need and all who contributed one way or the other towards the
successful completion of this study. I also place on record, my sense of gratitude to one and all,
who directly or indirectly, have lent their hand in this venture, God richly bless you all.

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 Abstracts
The last two decades have witnessed an explosive growth of the Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS). Since its inception in the world, it has grown to provide worldwide, all-weather
navigation, and precise position determination capabilities for many purposes, especially for
surveying and geodetic applications. The expanse of GNSS is vast: from data acquisitions and
processing to an exhaustive computational algorithm in precise position estimations. Processing
of data from receivers forms the basis of the use of differential systems as a method of deriving
the spatial info from logged data. Numerous processing software or applications, both open-source
and commercial have been developed for GNSS post-processing. These processing systems give
specific details in the processing reports generated because of their design for a general or specific
purpose. This means, depending on the post-processing software used, the accuracy of a GNS
receiver can be improved or worsened while the most complex, strict configurations are required
to achieve the desired results. The authorities in charge of Surveying and Mapping Division (SMD)
for most countries have specifications for report formats submitted upon completion of survey
projects, applied to avoid misunderstanding and conflicts in data reports. In this regard, “GNSS
Ghana” Software (GGS), a GNSS standalone Windows-based application with a modern, user-
friendly interface has been developed for GNSS data post-processing of RINEX files as input
GNSS data. The software suite generates reports using the 3, 7 and 10-transformation parameters,
published by Ghana SMD to suit Ghana SMD reporting format. It also handles cadastral
computations for submission, projection, and datum transformation. The suite was tested on field
measurements and existing coordinates, and from the results, the accuracy of GGS at 99%
confidence level on the 21 geodetic control points in Ghana with the 7-transformation parameters
for Eastings was [0.1016ft. ± 0.9850 ft.], and for Northings [0.0155 ft. ± 1.6104 ft.].

Keywords: GNSS, PPP, online processing, positioning accuracy, RTKLib, Visual Studio,
Programming, Projection, Transformation

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Table of Contents
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... ii
Declaration.................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgment .......................................................................................................................... iv
Abstracts ........................................................................................................................................ v
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures............................................................................................................................... ix
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xi
List of Abbreviations and Notations ......................................................................................... xii
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Research Aim and Objectives .......................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Research Questions .......................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Justification for Research ................................................................................................................. 4
1.6 Scope of Project ............................................................................................................................... 5
1.7 Organization of this Thesis .............................................................................................................. 5
2 GNSS Overview, Positioning Standards, and Reporting .................................................... 7
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Applications of GNSS.................................................................................................................... 12
2.3 GNSS Signal Components ............................................................................................................. 13
2.3.1 Electro-Magnetic Waves ......................................................................................................... 13
2.3.2 GPS Ranging Codes and Carriers ........................................................................................... 14
2.3.3 GNSS Modernization .............................................................................................................. 15
2.3.4 Navigation message ................................................................................................................ 15
2.4 Sources of Errors in GNSS Observables........................................................................................ 16
2.5 GNSS Positioning Methods ........................................................................................................... 18
2.5.1 Fundamentals GNSS Measurements ....................................................................................... 18
2.5.1.1 Pseudorange or Code Measurements ................................................................. 18
2.5.1.2 Carrier Phase Measurements.............................................................................. 20
2.5.1.3 Measurement Combinations .............................................................................. 20

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 2.5.2 GNSS Position Methods ......................................................................................................... 21
2.5.2.1 Precise Point Positioning (PPP)/Single Point Positioning (SPP)....................... 21
2.5.2.2 Relative Positioning ........................................................................................... 22
2.5.2.2.1 Single Differences ....................................................................................... 23
2.5.2.2.2 Double Differences ..................................................................................... 24
2.5.2.2.3 Triple Differences ....................................................................................... 25
2.6 Processing of GNSS Observables/Models ..................................................................................... 27
2.6.1 RINEX files ............................................................................................................................ 27
2.6.1.1 RINEX Observation file (O-file) ....................................................................... 29
2.6.1.2 RINEX Navigation file (N-file) ......................................................................... 30
2.6.1.3 RINEX Meteorological file (M-file).................................................................. 31
2.6.2 Time Scales ............................................................................................................................. 31
2.6.3 Coordinate System .................................................................................................................. 32
2.6.3.1 Geographic, Cartesian and Projected Coordinate System ................................. 33
2.6.3.2 Datum Transformation ....................................................................................... 35
2.6.3.3 Conversions........................................................................................................ 36
2.7 Cadastre.......................................................................................................................................... 38
2.7.1 Cadastre in Ghana ................................................................................................................... 38
2.7.2 Survey and Mapping Division (SMD) .................................................................................... 39
2.7.3 Cadastre Template................................................................................................................... 41
2.7.4 Cadastral Computation ............................................................................................................ 42
2.7.4.1 Beacon Index ..................................................................................................... 42
2.7.4.2 Area Computation .............................................................................................. 43
2.7.4.3 Bearing and Distance Computation ................................................................... 43
2.7.4.4 Plan Data ............................................................................................................ 43
3 Research Materials and Methods ........................................................................................ 44
3.1 Materials and Method .................................................................................................................... 44
3.2 Software Development................................................................................................................... 46
3.2.1 Script Writing.......................................................................................................................... 46
3.2.2 Database Design...................................................................................................................... 48
3.3.2 GUI Design ............................................................................................................................. 51
3.3 GNSS Data ..................................................................................................................................... 55
3.4 Services, Tools and Experiments ................................................................................................... 56
3.4 Generating Report .......................................................................................................................... 58

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4 Processing with “GNSS Ghana Software” ......................................................................... 59
4.1 Creating A New Project ................................................................................................................. 60
4.1.1 DGNSS processing ................................................................................................................. 62
4.1.2 Cadastral processing ............................................................................................................... 66
4.1.3 Renaming and organizing ....................................................................................................... 69
4.1.4 Processed Solution .................................................................................................................. 72
4.2 Coordinate Projection and Datum Transformation ........................................................................ 75
4.2.1 Forward and Inverse Projection .............................................................................................. 77
4.2.2 Datum Transformation ............................................................................................................ 78
5 Results and Discussions ........................................................................................................ 80
5.1 Average Values from Services ....................................................................................................... 80
5.1.1 Position Tracking and Time .................................................................................................... 81
5.1.2 Scoring and Ranking ............................................................................................................... 83
5.2 Comparing the Developed Software .............................................................................................. 84
5.2.1 GGS vs Commercial DGNSS post-processing Softwares ...................................................... 85
5.2.2 Datum transformation and Projection ..................................................................................... 86
5.2.2.1 Software Projected and existing coordinates ..................................................... 87
5.2.2.2 Software Datum transformed and existing coordinates ..................................... 88
5.2.3 Reports for cadastral submission ............................................................................................ 89
6 Conclusion and Recommendation ....................................................................................... 90
6.1 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 90
6.2 Recommendation ........................................................................................................................... 92
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 93
A Results from GNSS post-processing services and cadastral demo file.......................... 103
B Results from Forward and Inverse projection, and Transformation ........................... 107
C Results from GNSS Ghana DGNSS and Cadastral process .......................................... 111

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List of Figures
Figure 2.1: GNSS Major Segment and EGNOS ............................................................................. 8
Figure 2.2: GNSS Signals ............................................................................................................. 13
Figure 2.3: GNSS Error Source .................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2.4: Satellite and receiver position with signal propagation error ..................................... 19
Figure 2.5: Overview of Precise Point Positioning Concept ....................................................... 22
Figure 2.6: Overview of Relative Positioning Concept ................................................................ 23
Figure 2.7: Single difference geometry ........................................................................................ 24
Figure 2.8: Double difference geometry ....................................................................................... 25
Figure 2.9: Triple difference geometry ......................................................................................... 26
Figure 2.10: The structure of a RINEX file ................................................................................. 28
Figure 2.11: The structure of a RINEX observation file .............................................................. 30
Figure 2.12: ECEF coordinates in relation to latitude and longitude ........................................... 34
Figure 2.13: ECEF coordinates in relation to East, North, and Up ............................................. 35
Figure 2.14: Projection, Re-projection, Datum Transformation ................................................... 37
Figure 2.15: A template of cadastre prepared in the Ashanti Region of Ghana for submission .. 41
Figure 3.1: General flowchart ....................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3.2: Sample C# class - CoordinateSystemConversion.cs .................................................. 47
Figure 3.3: General flow of data in the database .......................................................................... 49
Figure 3.4: Entity Relational Diagram (ERD) .............................................................................. 50
Figure 3.5: Creating a New Project for GNSSGhana in C# ......................................................... 52
Figure 3.6: Microsoft Visual Studio general workspace interface ............................................... 53
Figure 3.7: General flowchart of software design ........................................................................ 54
Figure 3.8: Station location, setup and Sokkia GSR 2600 used for data logging ....................... 55
Figure 4.1: GNSS Ghana home screen ......................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.2: Creating a New Project with GGS for GNSS Processing .......................................... 61
Figure 4.3: Creating a New Project with GGS for Cadastral Report Processing ......................... 62
Figure 4.4: GGS Ghana DGNSS Data import page ...................................................................... 63
Figure 4.5: Using Custom File Browser ....................................................................................... 64
Figure 4.6: Setting the base station coordinates............................................................................ 65

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Figure 4.7: GGS imported RINEX data ready for processing ...................................................... 66
Figure 4.8: GGS Cadastral Report Data source ............................................................................ 67
Figure 4.9: GGS File to Table interface........................................................................................ 68
Figure 4.10: GNSS Processing - Point Connections..................................................................... 69
Figure 4.11: Cadastral - Point Connections before ordering ........................................................ 70
Figure 4.12: Cadastral - Point Connections after ordering and renaming .................................... 71
Figure 4.13: Cadastral – Creating a traverse path ......................................................................... 72
Figure 4.14: Cadastral – Processed Solution interface ................................................................. 73
Figure 4.15: GNSS Processing – Processed Solution interface .................................................... 74
Figure 4.16: Export dialog ............................................................................................................ 74
Figure 4.17: Typical CRS Conversion Interface........................................................................... 75
Figure 4.18: Dialog for the list of Coordinate Reference Systems (CRS) .................................... 76
Figure 4.19: Projection with GGS ................................................................................................ 77
Figure 4.20: Datum transformation with GGS ............................................................................. 78
Figure 4.21: GGS plot of the converted point on the map ............................................................ 79
Figure 5.1: Variations from each service. .................................................................................... 81
Figure 5.2: Services X values verse Time .................................................................................... 82
Figure 5.3: Services Y values verse Time .................................................................................... 82
Figure 5.4: Services Z values verse Time ..................................................................................... 83
Figure 5.5: Residuals in Easting and Northing Coordinates ......................................................... 89
Figure A.1: Data used in the Cadastral File to Table demo ........................................................ 106
Figure C.1: GGS Point List......................................................................................................... 111
Figure C.2: GGS Point Summary ............................................................................................... 112
Figure C.3: GGS Beacon ............................................................................................................ 112
Figure C.4: GGS Area Computation........................................................................................... 113
Figure C.5: GGS Area Computation........................................................................................... 114
Figure C.6: GGS Plan Data......................................................................................................... 114

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List of Tables
Table 2.1: Summary of errors and their effects ............................................................................ 17
Table 3.1: Database tables and design purpose ............................................................................ 50
Table 3.2: Software packages used in this study. ......................................................................... 57
Table 5.1: Difference of the average solutions from the known coordinate. ................................ 80
Table 5.2: Score for ranking. ........................................................................................................ 83
Table 5.3: Baseline results from software processed results in WGS84 ...................................... 85
Table 5.4: Comparison of processed results against the known ................................................... 85
Table 5.5: Difference in results from software to another ............................................................ 86
Table 5.6: Projected vs Existing UTM coordinates ...................................................................... 87
Table 5.7: Transformed vs Existing Ghana War Office coordinates ............................................ 88
Table A.1: Known Control Point used for comparison (Afrifa, 2015) ....................................... 103
Table A.2: Data from GNSS processing services ....................................................................... 104
Table A.3: Average results from services ................................................................................... 105
Table B.1: Existing WGS 84 coordinates (WGS 84 ellipsoid) ................................................... 107
Table B.2: Existing Ghana coordinates (War Office ellipsoid) .................................................. 108
Table B.3: Projected WGS 84 geographic using GGS ............................................................... 109
Table B.4: Transformed geographic WGS 84 into War office coordinates – TM using GGS ... 110

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List of Abbreviations and Notations
APPS Automatic Precise Positioning Service
C/A Coarse/Acquisition
CORS Continuous Operation Reference Station
CSRS Canadian Spatial Reference System
CSR Coordinate Reference Systems
DGPS Differential GPS
DGNSS Differential GNSS
DLL Dynamic-Link Libraries
DMD Double Meridian Distance
DPD Double Parallel Distance
ECEF Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed Coordinates
EGNOS European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
FORIG Forestry Research Institute of Ghana
GAGAN India’s GPS-Aided GEO-Augmented Navigation System
GGS GNSS Ghana Software – the developed software
GIS Geographic Information System
GPS_DoY GPS Day of the Year
GPS Global Position System
GPST GPS System Time
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite Systems
HGO Hi-Target Geomatics Office
IDE Integrated Development Environment
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ITRF International Terrestrial Reference Frame
ITRS International Terrestrial Reference System
IRNSS Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System

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JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory
KNUST Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
LEO Low-Earth Orbit
MCS Master Control Station
NAVSTAR Navigation satellite timing and ranging
MET Meteorological
OPUS Online Positioning User Service
PNT Positioning, timing and navigational
PPP Precise Point Positioning
Ppm Part Per Million
PRN Pseudo-Random Noise
QC Quality Checking
QZSS Japanese Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
RINEX Receiver-Independent Exchange Format
RMS Root mean square
RTK Real Time Kinematic
SE Standard Error
SMD Survey and Mapping Division
SSS Spectrum Survey Software
TEQC Translation, Editing and Quality Checking
VS 2017 Microsoft Visual Studio 2017 IDE
WPF Windows Presentation Foundation
WVR Water Vapour Radiometer

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CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 Background

The last two decades have seen an incredible growth of Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS), a term coined to collectively refer to satellite-based navigation systems such as the
American Global Positioning System (GPS), the Russian GLObal NAvigation Satellite System
(GLONASS), China’s satellite navigation system referred to as Beidou and the European Galileo.

The current pace of integrating GNSS products into multiple scientific, commercial, and daily life
applications is increasing rapidly. Beyond the original goal of positioning, navigating and timing,
for military use. Further uses have evolved such as search & rescue, logistics, precision agriculture,
deformation monitoring, road construction, metrological and space weather.

GPS and its three Main Competitors: GLONASS, Beidou and Galileo, provide position, navigation
and time information from receivers anywhere on Earth having direct satellite visibility. GPS has
evolved as the dominant global positioning service since its official operational start-up in 1994
and is due to continue technical upgrades accompanied by other competing and collaborating
systems that have emerged during the period after the launch of the GPS service (Wennberg, 2011).
GNSS receivers designed for survey and mapping applications come in different system types,
components and have autonomous operations with each having their software and online services
for processing data. Meanwhile, it is a system widely used by the military, civilian, industrial, and
scientific communities due to its capabilities and relative advantages, such as 24-hour observation
time and all-weather global positioning. Improving the accuracy of GNSS long-distance
positioning is still an important topic in current research and development (Bender et al., 2011;
Rao et al., 2013; Tsushima et al., 2014; Verhagen et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2016; Yozevitch et al.,
2014; Zhang et al., 2013).

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The significant and ever-growing demand for GNSS-related techniques in various areas has
spurred on a wealth of research. Several different data processing techniques have been developed
over the years, and these techniques must meet high precision and accuracy standards (Salazar,
2010). Most GNSS receivers, from the manufacturers, with propriety software for processing data
included in the package. Processing of the data is based on the algorithms used in these individual
applications, each having its pros and cons. Some also include predefined datums, and coordinate
systems, which tend to work best for some particular regions.

1.2 Problem Statement

Processing of data from receivers forms the basis of the use of differential systems as a method of
deriving the collected spatial data. Manufacturers of GNSS receivers have their proprietary
processing software with different levels of accuracies. The algorithms used in these software have
their pros and cons for processing data. Several processing systems give specific details in the
processing reports generated and others provide information that is usually not necessary for some
survey works. Some also include predefined coordinate systems, which tend to work best for some
particular regions.

The authorities in charge of Surveying and Mapping for most countries have their specifications
for report formats submitted upon completion of survey projects. These are implemented to avoid
confusion and conflicts in data reports from different surveyors. These services are provided (i.e.,
Software and online services) for processing GNSS data. Several online processing services are
available to provide users with free, unlimited access to GNSS processing results. Output reports
are based on differential methods via reference stations or precise point positioning, using precise
orbit and clock data (El-Mowafy, 2011; Furones et al., 2012; Ghoddousi-Fard & Dare, 2006;
Landau et al., 2009; Leandro et al., 2011; Teunissen et al., 2010). Usually, the outputs are to their
specific standards and these steps are put in place to eliminate inconsistencies and bring about
uniformity in reports.

Unlike most other developed countries, Ghana does not have a processing system or software.
Hence, many surveyors use the propriety software that comes with their GNSS receivers from the
manufacturers or any other software they get hold of to process data. As a result, when projects
are submitted to the Survey and Mapping Divisions (SMD), there are some discrepancies in the
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processed data report format from different surveyors, resulting in even some works rejected.
Therefore, it was necessary to develop a central GNSS processing software capable of processing
most data from all receivers in Ghana using Receiver Independent Exchange Format (RINEX)
files as input data.

This research was to identify and minimize certain problems that arise in SMD (due to differences
in processing software) by developing software for processing GNSS for local/national use. This
program is to help simplify processing and reports for general purposes and accept a particular
format irrespective of the instrument used by the surveyor.

1.3 Research Aim and Objectives

Currently, some commercial programs are used to perform differential and static GNSS
processing. They have good accuracies, but they require a lot of manual interactions and the report
produced contains a lot of information, which are undesirable or unnecessary for some surveys.
The main aim of this research is primarily developing software or system for processing GNSS
data for general purpose surveying with fewer interactions, standard formatted output, and
compare results with the existing system.

Specific Objectives

This general aim also includes several specific objectives:

• To study and investigate the existing processing services to determine the best algorithm
to compute location and correct for errors if any.
• To develop software using the algorithm to process GNSS data.
• To analyze the results or reports generated using the program and comparing it to other
commercial services available.

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1.4 Research Questions

To achieve the objectives listed above, the researcher will utilize the following research question
in the study:

• Which GNSS data processing algorithm obtainable will best suit the program?
• How comparable are these open source tools?
• How will the results be reported or submitted to the user?
• Which individuals are the software targeting and will users sign up to use the application?

1.5 Justification for Research

Since it was first presented to civilian users in the early 1980s, comprehensive research has been
released on GNSS applications, accuracies, precise point position (PPP), and more. In high-
precision surveying and geodetics applications, GNSS plays a growingly significant position.
However, there has been a little investigation into the notion of computer software development
for processing of GNSS data local/national purpose in Ghana. Osah, 2013 developed “GeoSuite”
a geodetic application for GNSS data post-processing, Datum transformation and Direct & Inverse
geodetic computation for Ghana but does not generate report documents for SMD report use or
submission.

Several open-source applications like the RTKLIB and gLab have been researched and tested to
be efficient and produce accurate results after processing data has been compared to other
commercial software (Videkull, 2015). But most of the information generated is not needed for
some survey works. While conflicts in Ghana arise with various survey departments regarding the
map format and data processed by the surveyors, this study aimed at developing a computer
program that uses some of the open-source algorithms. That helps to process data and produce
relevant reports based on the user’s preference or work by modifying the existing algorithm to suit
the needs and ensure that the reports conform to the standards of SMD and for easy querying.

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1.6 Scope of Project

The study involved a lot of research with some assisted tutorials, and the following approach was
adopted to achieve these defined objectives:

• Literature review on existing suite/packages

• Investigation of GNSS processing algorithms (i.e., mathematical computations, functions,
etc.)
• Study the structure of GNSS observables and RINEX (Receiver Independent Exchange)
formats.
• Writing functions and classes in visual C-Sharp (C#) programming language to load and
read RINEX observables, navigation files, to time conversions (i.e., GPS week, GPS day
of the week, GPS seconds of the week, etc.).
• Writing scripts in C# to compute satellite positions using navigation messages as well as
receiver positions using ephemeris for both GNSS code and carrier phase measurements.
• Design an advanced, modern, and flexible Graphical User Interface (GUI) in Visual Studio
(VS) Integrated Development Environment (IDE) with minimal operations from the user
and also generate reports.
• Field measurements with GPS receivers
• Testing and validating software designed and other commercial software with GPS data
gathered.
• Compare processed results for analysis.

1.7 Organization of this Thesis

This dissertation includes the following sections:

Chapter 1: Introduction to the study

This chapter provides a summary of the dissertation., statement of problem, aim and objectives,
the significant/benefit for the study and research questions. The rest is the justification for research,
and lastly organization of the thesis.

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Chapter 2: Theoretical background

This chapter presents the theoretical background of GNSS, literature review which deals with ideas
of the same researchers and authors on a similar study. Types, causes, and effects of the usage as
well as some comparison with the new idea against others, source of errors, GNSS position
methods, processing of GNSS observables, coordinate projections, and datum transformation.
SMD and data collection and computations which are accepted by SMD.

Chapter 3: Research methodology and design

This chapter also presents the procedures and methods used in developing the whole program.
Also, it contains flowcharts of the network system through the entire process and materials for the
study.

Chapter 4: Processing with “GNSS Ghana Software”

This chapter demonstrates how to use the developed program to perform all various processing
that it is capable in a step by step manner with pictures.

Chapter 5: Analysis of data and discussion of findings

This chapter presents the final results and discussions of the data processed by analyzing it with
the previous version or other similar programs.

Chapter 6: Conclusion and recommendations

Finally, this chapter recapitulates the primary results of the research subject and makes
recommendations for further progress if necessary.

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CHAPTER 2
GNSS Overview, Positioning
Standards, and Reporting
2.1 Introduction

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) has grown to become the integral part that describes
all forms of space-based navigation systems and encompasses all space-based radio-positioning
systems that provide global coverage and transmit signals for ground, marine, aviation and space
applications, positioning, monitoring, navigation and timing information. (Acheampong, 2008).

The motivation of GNSS systems was to build a global positioning system for all-weather 24 hours
to promote the US military and its partners' positioning needs (For background on the GNSS
system development see Camacho-Lara, 2013; Larsen, 2001; Parkinson, 1997). Thus, there are
limited opportunities for managing the system for civilian users. In a prevalent reference system
on or close to the earth, the system offers a precise 3D position, velocity, and time.

GNSS is the technical interoperability and compatibility between the various satellite navigation
systems, for example, the modernized GPS, Galileo, reconstructed GLONASS, used by civil users
to promote safety and convenience of the system without considering the nationalities of each
system (Galileo, 2010). Nowadays, new technologies are developing corresponding to different
countries, like BeiDou (China), IRNSS (India) and QZSS (Japan). Due to the technique and
procedures developed lately to solve certain GNSS efficiency limitations, there is a growing
community that uses GNSS for a range of civil applications. A huge and rapid-growing quantity
of literature relating to GNSS, and the geodetic use of GNSS, can be found in monographs and
textbooks (Alfred, 2004; Choi et al., 2011; Clark et al., 2006; Hegarty, 2013; Hoffman-Wellenhof
et al., 2008; King, 2004; Rizos et al., 2012; Satirapod, 2002; Seeber, 2003).

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The three major segments of all the main GNSS satellite technologies are SPACE, CONTROL,
and USER (GPS.GOV, 2017). In most of the satellite technologies, these segments are similar,
and they all form the GNSS (Kornhauser, 2017). A brief description of these segments is given in
figure 2.1 below. Initially, GNSS was designed for navigation application, but now it is possible
to obtain a high relative accuracy at centimeter-level in so-called precise GNSS positioning mode,
with the appropriate receiver technologies and data reduction procedures.

Figure 2.1: GNSS Major Segment and EGNOS (“EGNOS Architecture,” 2015)

Geodetic control points form the basis (framework) upon which all survey works rely; hence, there
is the need to have very reliable and accurate controls to initiate survey works. In the contemporary
world, methods of point positioning have significantly evolved due to excessive advancement in
technology and the high demand for real-time data has in the field of geoscience.

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Methods of point positioning have evolved from the traditional ground survey methods (chain
surveying, traversing, tacheaometry, etc.) to sophisticated positioning systems such as the use of
GNSS (satellite-aided positioning methods and products, e.g., GLONASS). From the traditional
ground methods of surveying (triangulation, trilateration, traversing amongst others) to an era of
satellite-aided positioning systems. Coordinating a point involves the determination of a point’s
position on a specified reference grid (determining the eastern and northern). This revolution has
had its tow on the accuracies, precision, adequate human resources utilization, efficient time usage,
computations, and adjustments of surveys.

The two main methods of GNSS point positioning are the differential GNSS (DGNSS) positioning
methods PPP techniques. In differential or relative processing employs more than one receiver is
required. Naturally, the minimum setup for determining accurate coordinates for one fresh point
is two receivers. However, to obtain precise coordinates for a point from GNSS data, several
nuisance parameters such as satellite ‘errors’, atmospheric ‘errors’, and receiver ‘errors’ need to
be removed from the data. Precise Point Positioning (PPP) is a positioning method that employs
widely and readily available Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) orbit and clock correction
products, e.g., obtained via the International GNSS Service (IGS), to perform point positioning
using a single GNSS receiver.

GNSS receivers are expensive investments, and with PPP, the cost of doing surveys with GNSS
decreases slightly. PPP does not require expensive data from local or regional reference stations
(Rizos et al., 2012). These cost-effective solutions make PPP more attractive to the surveying
profession. PPP involves more adjustments and rigorous calculations than other methods of high
precision GPS, a downside that has negatively affected its advancement. In PPP common mode
errors and some systematic biases do not cancel out like they do in relative positioning. In PPP,
you must account for tectonic plate motion, Earth tides, ocean loading, and observation errors from
troposphere and Ionosphere interference. Satellite and receiver errors such as Satellite clocks,
satellite and receiver antenna phase center offset group delay differential, and satellite and receiver
antenna phase wind-up. With so many biases to correct for, the adjustment process can be
overwhelming, but with advances in technology, programs are now available that allow for the
input of IGS station data and precise orbit information that conform to the IGS standards (Kouba
& Héroux, 2001). This Differential GNSS is currently the most widely used method of high

9|Page
precision 3D kinematic positioning (Shi, Zhao, et al., 2012). Kouba (2009), stated in his article,
that "Relative positioning approach that requires the combination of observations from a minimum
of two GPS receivers, with at least one occupying a station with known coordinates is commonly
used.

Baseline or network processing is useful in connecting the user position to the coordinates of the
reference stations while the precise orbit virtually eliminates the errors introduced by the GPS
space segment." As you can see the benefit of using two receivers can cancel out satellite and
receiver clock errors. To adjust for these biases and noise a single difference, double difference,
and triple difference can be applied. The single difference is made between the two receivers and
one satellite, and this cancels out the satellite clock bias. Double difference considers two points,
two receivers, and the two associated single differences. Double difference cancels out the receiver
clock bias. Triple difference considers the epoch and differences in the double differences between
the two different epochs. Triple differencing cancels out the integer ambiguity. Double
differencing is the most popular method used, but it is only viable when using baselines. With PPP
adjusting for these are much more rigorous. Using the International GNSS Service (IGS) precise
orbit products and GPS carrier phase data with nearby IGS station data, the same results can be
achieved with an adjustment in the proper software.

PPP based on RTK networks (PPP-RTK) is also a viable alternative. PPP receivers can tie into
local RTK networks to achieve centimeter accuracies instantaneously (Wübbena et al., 2005). For
example, in Michigan, RTK is made possible by a statewide Continuous Operating Reference
System (CORS) network. With a PPP receiver, you can obtain reference data from the CORS
network to achieve the same desired accuracies instantaneously in a PPP-RTK mode. You can
incorporate the IGS reference data to improve the accuracies, and with this method ambiguity
resolution is possible. This flexibility makes PPP a powerful tool when performing surveys. PPP
in static mode is relatively similar to other methods of GPS in static mode. The principle remains
the same, occupy a single point for an extended period of time, usually a two to six hours period.
The only significant difference with PPP is in the post-processing, mainly the adjustment model.

The ever-increasing demand for real-time geographic data further places a demand on systems,
algorithms, and structures for processing real-time data without compromising the data integrity,
relevance, and accuracy. Though several algorithms exist for the processing of real-time

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geographic data, they may not be problem-specific and thus may fall short in resolving every
geographic computational need completely. This may be due to inhomogeneity in the geodetic
frame, specific technical requirements, and of different survey bodies of different countries. This
research is focused on testing available software, select which of these software/algorithms best
suits the requirement of the survey division of Ghana (SMD) and further modify the selected
algorithm to better deal with the specific changes of the SMD.

There have been research works performed on the geodetic framework of Ghana by many people
(including Ayer & Tiennah, 2007; Ayer & Fosu, 2008; Ayer, 2008; Annan et al., 2016; Ziggah et
al., 2017) and Afram (2011), who aimed at investigating and further proposing a method for
transforming coordinates of points from the War Office coordinate system to the WGS 84
coordinate system and vice versa. With nineteen control stations within the Golden Triangle used,
the transformation parameters were determined. The accuracy of each of these sets of parameters
was tested on twenty control stations within the Golden Triangle (study area) and seven control
stations Ho Municipality (outside the study area). It was proposed that the Molodensky-Badekas’
model was the best for the Golden Triangle, whilst the Three parameters ‘Block-Shift’ model is
proposed for the whole of Ghana.

Osah, 2013, worked on a suite that is a standalone window base application with a user-friendly
interface written in MatLab. This was tailored towards solving local transformation parameter
challenges. The GNSS data post-processing application of the Suite is based on both code and
phase observables and on double differences between simultaneous observations using RINEX
file as an input GNSS raw data. In addition, the Datum transformation application of the Suite was
also centered on the WGS 84 and War Office ellipsoids using the 3, 5, 7 and 10 transformation
parameters, published by the Survey and Mapping Division of Ghana as default transformation
parameters or user-defined transformation and ellipsoid parameters. GNSS data can be
successfully processed using the developed suite for survey work in Ghana with the accuracy of
averagely about [4.122ft or 1.256m] and [5.38ft or 1.640m] as the maximum deviations for
Northings and Eastings respectively, and [2.215ft or 0.675m] and [2.101ft or 0.640m] as the
minimum deviations for Northings and Eastings respectively and performs transformation on the
WGS 84 and the War Office ellipsoids or user-defined ellipsoid. The Suite can easily be adapted
for other countries, particularly within the Africa continent.

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However, these existing researches have not adequately targeted the challenges of the Survey and
Mapping Division of Ghana as heightened in the problem statement. This research takes into
consideration most of the technical details required by SMD, as indicated in previous sections and
incorporates several algorithms to solve such problems. This research would not only study and
analyze the results provided by existing processing services but would further compare and select
the most appropriate algorithm. A further boost would be the development of software that relies
on modified existing algorithms and again compared the results obtained from this software to
existing software to ascertain, which provides an optimum solution.

2.2 Applications of GNSS

Applications of GNSS technology in many fields, such as business, army, transport, scientific and
private development, recreation, and sport, have been recognized and advanced in the last 20 years.
The accuracy of the position domain is anticipated to improve considerably with GNSS
(Lachapelle, 2002).
 In telecommunications, timing solutions are used for digital network timing &
synchronization, site acquisition, site surveying, cellular & PCS drive test & system
acceptance, and microwave path surveying.
 Real-time location techniques in the agricultural industry are used in precision farming,
crop-dusting airplane tracking, agrarian technology, etc.
 It is commonly used in the geospatial sector for monitoring, construction, planning, and
procurement of GIS data, etc.
 In the fields of government security, GNSS position information is used for operations by
fire, cops, ambulances, search and rescue agencies.
 In space engineering, the applications include spacecraft navigation, precise satellite orbit
determination, and ground-based autonomous orbit tracking.
 In the military, the military systems are generally developed to “military specifications”
and have greater reliability which is applied in intelligence and target location, command
& control, search & rescue, mine laying & detection, and weapon aiming and guidance,
and many more (Button et al., 2009; McNab & Dougherty, 2007; Schlosser, 2013;
Zhengdong, 2004).

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GNSS techniques can be used scientifically in numerous fields, including archaeology,
atmospheric sciences, environmental studies, geodesy, geography and geophysics, oceanography,
fauna, and space studies. This study is focused on one of the key scientific applications of precise
GNSS processing for control surveying, engineering setting out and mapping by developing a
GNSS processing software in Ghana.

2.3 GNSS Signal Components

Information on the GNSS signals can be found in this section. But the basic theory and how the
GNSS signals fit into this must first be understood. The codes and carriers of the GNSS signals
are then quickly examined and the signals mentioned in general (the Modernized GPS, BeiDou,
Galileo and GLONASS signals), as shown in Figure 2.2 form the GNSS signals. Each system is
characterized by particular signals, but each system tries to be consistent with the other, in an
attempt to avoid disturbance and attenuation between signals. (Borio et al., 2010; Vollath & Talbot,
2013; Winkel, 2000).

Figure 2.2: GNSS Signals (NovAtel Inc., 2014)

2.3.1 Electro-Magnetic Waves

All GNSS signals consist of electromagnetic (EM) waves. EM-wave is defined as a self-
propagating wave that is made up of electric and magnetic field components. Even though the EM-
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waves are spherical in nature and very far from the transmitter (GNSS satellite), it is possible to
approximate the spherical wave by a plane wavefront. See Odijk (2002) for more information on
the plane wavefront. All satellites convey unique navigational transmissions centering on two L-
bands of electromagnetic spectrum extracted all from the 10.23 MHz basic frequency produced by
the on-board atomic clock oscillator and having a strength of between 10 and 13 on a day.
(Petrovskyy & Tretyak, 2007; Satirapod, 2002). These satellite signals consist of the two L-band
carrier waves, the ranging codes and a navigation message.

2.3.2 GPS Ranging Codes and Carriers

All satellites broadcast their signals on two L-band frequencies which include L1 (1563.42 -
1587.42MHz), L2 (1215.6 - 1239.6 MHz) and are derived from the same atomic clock driven
oscillator with a frequency of 10.23 MHz by multiplying 154 and 120 respectively (Odijk, 2002;
Petrovskyy & Tretyak, 2007). These carrier waves are used to transmit the range and navigation
codes to the receiver (Petrovskyy & Tretyak, 2007).

L1 and L2 in the carrier waves are modified with a Precision (P) code which is generated at the
same frequency of fundamental frequency, i.e. 10.23 MHz (Satirapod, 2002), and only the L1
carrier is modulated by the Coarse/Acquisition (C/A) code and its generated at 1.023 MHz. Both
signal (pseudo) and phase of the carrier wave measurement can function as GPS observable. The
codes are also referred to as Pseudorandom Noise (PRN) codes and are different for each GPS
satellite. Once every seven (7) days, each satellite repeats its P-code part and renews its entire code
every 37 weeks. But, each satellite broadcasts a completely unique C/A Code that is modulated
only on the L1 frequency and repeated every millisecond (Odijk, 2002; Osah, 2013; Seeber, 2003).

While the P-code is much more accurate than the C / A-code, for security reasons, the P-code is
encoded with Y-code (for civilian users). The word for this is Anti-Spoofing (A-S). The C/A-code
is on the contrary available for all GPS users. A semi-codeless approach is referred to as the use
of an encrypted signal for readings without all the complete code. Many (geodetic) GPS receivers
use special techniques to rebuild the P-code which results in observables that are less accurate than
the original P-code observables but more accurate than the observable C/A-code.

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2.3.3 GNSS Modernization
GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, Compass/Bei- Dou, Japan’s MSAS and QZSS, and India’s GAGAN
and IRNSS systems are conveying new-fangled or modernizing essentials into the world of GNSS
(NovAtel Inc., 2018). At the moment of writing this thesis, GPS had introduced L2C / L5 / L1C
bands, GLONASS added two more satellites (No. 56 - GLONASS 756, No. 60 - GLONASS 757),
a launch of full operational capability Galileo satellites 23-26 into the Galileo orbital plane B, and
Beidou has planned to launch 12 satellites before June,2020 (UNAVCO, 2019).

Some of the benefits resulting from the increased amount of satellites over the present system
include extra frequencies which allow more precise and better-resolved ionosphere and climatic
error modeling. Also, additional signals that will benefit a wider range of monitoring tasks
(Awange, 2018).

2.3.4 Navigation message

Some of the relevant information the GNSS receivers need to know is in the navigation message
and code. It gives all the information necessary for the user to carry out various position
calculations. This includes (ESA, 2011; Abidin, 2003; Bâki Iz, 2010; Shi et al., 2012)

 Satellite coordinates must be calculated with adequate accuracy with the ephemeris
parameters.
 Almanacs provide enough ephemeris data to calculate all satellite positions with an
estimated precision of 1 – 2 kilometers of 1-sigma error in the sky.
 Parameters of time and satellite clock correction needed to compute satellite clock offsets
and time conversions
 Satellite health information and Service parameters (used to determine the data collection
for navigation).
 Ephemerides of the satellites
 Information about the ionosphere (Ionospheric model parameters for single-frequency
users)
 Usually, the clock and ephemeris parameters are updated every two hours, while at least
every six days the almanac is updated.

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2.4 Sources of Errors in GNSS Observables

By measuring the time needed to move from satellites to the receiver, the GNSS receivers calculate
its location. Satellite signals need to be connected directly to the GNSS receiver. Signals may not
pass through water, soil, walls, or other obstacle forms.

The system has an intrinsic error source that affects GNSS signals. These errors may occur at
satellite stations, in the atmosphere, or the receiver station as in figure 2.3. These biases and errors
affect GNSS measurements, and with their collective magnitude can cause the accuracy of position
determination to change (Petrovskyy & Tretyak, 2007).

These biases/errors can be conveniently categorized into three groups: satellite-dependent errors,
receiver-dependent errors, and signal propagation errors (Satirapod, 2002). All these groups have
been briefly explained in Table 2.1 with effects on what they cause.

Figure 2.3: GNSS Error Source

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But these categories of errors can also be expanded into:
 Satellite and Receiver Clock Error
 Tropospheric, Ionospheric and Atmospheric delays
 Satellite Ephemeris (Orbital) Errors
 Receiver noise, interference, and biases
 Multipath

More detailed explanations of these errors/biases can be found or read from many textbooks (i.e.,
Alfred, 2004; Satirapod, 2002; Seeber, 2003, etc.)

Table 2.1: Summary of errors and their effects

Sources of
Effect
Errors

• Non-sphericity of earth
Gravitational • General relativity
• Tidal attraction
• Solar radiation
Satellite Non- pressure Orbital error
Gravitational • Air drag
• Solar wind
• Magnetic field
Others • Satellite clock
• Selective availability
• Ionospheric refraction
• Tropospheric
refraction Signal delays
Signal
• Multipath
Propagation
• Atmospheric delay
Increase in received
• Special relativity frequency

• Antenna phase centre

Receiver variation Error in observed PRN
• Receiver clock bias
• Receiver noise

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2.5 GNSS Positioning Methods

In principle, a GNSS receiver uses four or more GNSS Satellites to measure the distance of the
GNSS signal and the time it reaches the receiver’s station. These measuring procedures are used
to obtain its position (i.e., three-dimensional coordinates) and reception time. Before diving into
positioning methods, some brief explanations on fundamentals of GNSS measurements
(Pseudorange/Code and Carrier phase measurements).

2.5.1 Fundamentals GNSS Measurements

Numerous GNSS measurements are available, and each of them is characterized by several
different features, the amount of noise is one of the most important. The main observables are
discussed in the following sections. These include the code and carrier phase measurements.

2.5.1.1 Pseudorange or Code Measurements

The fundamental observable in the current GNSS systems is the propagation time of the signal
from the antenna phase center of the transmitter (satellite) to the antenna phase center of the
receiver (Salazar, 2010). By considering a perfect user clock and signal transit time, all these can
be multiplied by the speed of light to produce a geometric range/distant measurement (Hegarty,
2013; Hoffman-Wellenhof et al., 2008). On the other hand, if an imperfect user clock, measured
transit time for each satellite’s signals are biased by some common user clock error measurements
are referred to as pseudorange. Pseudoranges are open to the satellite(s) and user receiver(u) clocks
that are not synchronized, causing clock errors which eventually leads to a false geometric
range/distance measurement. However, aside from the clock errors, ionospheric(I),
tropospheric(T) delays and other errors that are mentioned in table 2.1.

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 Figure 2.4: Satellite and receiver position with signal propagation error

The geometric distance or true range 𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 between satellite s and user receiver, u is given by:

𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) = �(𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠 )2 + (𝑦𝑦𝑢𝑢 − 𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠 )2 + (𝑧𝑧𝑢𝑢 − 𝑧𝑧 𝑠𝑠 )2 (2.1)

Where

(𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑠𝑠 , 𝑧𝑧 𝑠𝑠 ) = satellite position in ECEF coordinate system

(𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢 , 𝑦𝑦𝑢𝑢 , 𝑧𝑧𝑢𝑢 ) = receiver position in ECEF coordinate system

Therefore, the measured pseudorange 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡 ) from the description or scenario above is given as;

𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐(𝑡𝑡𝑅𝑅 − 𝑡𝑡𝑇𝑇 ) (2.2)

Where

𝑐𝑐 = speed of light

And factoring the addition of ionospheric 𝐼𝐼 , tropospheric 𝑇𝑇 and other sources of errors 𝜀𝜀𝜌𝜌 , it

results in

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 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑐𝑐(𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡𝑢𝑢 − 𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠 ) + 𝐼𝐼 + 𝑇𝑇 + 𝜀𝜀𝜌𝜌 (2.3)

Code pseudorange provides an unambiguous absolute range.

2.5.1.2 Carrier Phase Measurements

The carrier phase observable as a function of the geometric distance is obtained in a similar way
as the code observable. Considering the figure 2.11 with all variables, this is obtained by taking
the difference between the phase of the generated signal in the receiver at reception time and the
phase of the generated signal carrier at 1575.42 MHz in the satellite at transmission time (Hegarty,
2013; Odijk, 2002).

This measures only the fractional phase so that the difference is that there is an integer number of
whole cycles. The ambiguity at this phase is time constant because the satellite is continuously
monitored.

𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐(𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡𝑢𝑢 − 𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠 ) + 𝐼𝐼 + 𝑇𝑇 + 𝜀𝜀𝜌𝜌 (2.4)

where carrier phase measurement in meter

𝜆𝜆 = wavelength of the signal

𝜆𝜆𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 = integer phase ambiguity

The carrier phase has ambiguity, suffers cycle slips, but it is much less noisy.

2.5.1.3 Measurement Combinations

Raw pseudorange and carrier phase measurements from one or more receivers are often combined:

 To reduce/eliminate errors
 To observe errors

Combinations that are usually used include (see Hegarty, 2013 and Odijk, 2002 for more details):

 Code (pseudorange) minus carrier

 Carrier-smoothed code
 Single-, double-, and triple- differences
 Ionospheric-free and geometry-free

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2.5.2 GNSS Position Methods
Determinations of the receiver's position are suitable for two techniques – precision positioning
and relative and differential positioning based on the available measures taken on the GNSS
signals (Acheampong, 2008).

2.5.2.1 Precise Point Positioning (PPP)/Single Point Positioning (SPP)

GNSS satellites measure the range, between the receiver and the satellite as a basis for the idea of
point positioning. The receiver coordinates can be determined if the satellites of at least four (4)
known coordinates can be evaluated. This presumes that the receiver and the satellites are not on
the same plane and calculate very precise positions up to a few centimeters level using a single
GNSS receiver in a dynamic and global reference framework like International Terrestrial
Reference System (ITRS).

PPP is capable of given position solutions with centimeter to decimeter levels, which are attractive
to many apps, like aerial mapping and some studies combining accurate satellite positions and
clocks double frequency recipients to prevent first-order ionosphere impact (Gao, 2006).
Therefore, a stable time scale to reference all measurements, namely GPS Time (GPST) is essential
for precise positioning, see 2.6.5.1

Unlike the traditional way of PPP processing methods, there are two other methods (Pseudorange-
Based and Carrier Phased-Based Point Positioning) that allow for higher resolution and even
support real-time. Details on these new methods can be found in several articles, books and other
publications (such as Andrei et al., 2014; Tian et al., 2013; Whalley, 1990; Witchayangkoon, 2000;
GAO & SHEN, 2002; Osah, 2013; Satirapod, 2002, etc.).

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Figure 2.5: Overview of Precise Point Positioning Concept (Modified from: NovAtel Inc, 2014)

PPP is a replacement technique for GNSS positioning which relies highly on quality "products" of
the clock and orbit. Certain applications permit people to create geodetic locations without bases,
networks, and mobile services. You can use post-processed PPP today, anywhere in the world;
you just need a receiver that can log Receiver Independent Exchange Format (RINEX) and upload
it to sites like Automatic Precise Positioning Service (APPS), Natural Resources Canada (NRCan),
Canadian Spatial Reference System (CSRS) to get automated results which is similar to that of the
global Online Positioning User Service (OPUS).

2.5.2.2 Relative Positioning

All positioning is relative because the process always involves measurements between two or more
points. In the context of GNSS, a user’s position is always computed relative to the satellite
coordinates, which are assumed to be known in an absolute sense. Therefore, the corresponding
position is effectively absolute (Petovello, 2011; Ramzan, 2013). This is focused on improved use
of a network of ground-oriented reference stations to provide the user (or rovers) with differential

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data to enhance the precision of its location. The results are focused on a new approach to GNSS
constellation data. The stability is not guaranteed in this situation.

Figure 2.6: Overview of Relative Positioning Concept (NovAtel Inc., 2014)

2.5.2.2.1 Single Differences

The instantaneous phase difference between two receivers and one satellite is a single difference.
Single differences between two satellites and one receiver can also be defined.

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 Figure 2.7: Single difference geometry

Using the former definition, the phase difference between two receivers (reference station r and

User, u) and satellite s is,

𝑠𝑠
𝜑𝜑𝑟𝑟,𝑢𝑢 ≡ 𝜑𝜑𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 − 𝜑𝜑𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 − 𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 + 𝜆𝜆(𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 − 𝜆𝜆𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 ) + 𝑐𝑐(𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 − 𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡𝑢𝑢 ) + 𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 − 𝜀𝜀𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠

𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
= ∆𝜌𝜌𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢 + 𝜆𝜆∆𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢 + 𝑐𝑐∆𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢 + 𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑠 − 𝜀𝜀𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 (2.5)

In this case, it eliminates satellite clock errors, tropospheric and ionospheric delays

2.5.2.2.2 Double Differences

A double-difference is formed from subtracting two single differences, measured to two satellites
S1 and S2 as shown in figure 2.8.

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 Figure 2.8: Double difference geometry

Hence, by deduction;
1,2 1 2
𝜑𝜑𝑟𝑟,𝑢𝑢 ≡ 𝜑𝜑𝑟𝑟,𝑢𝑢 − 𝜑𝜑𝑟𝑟,𝑢𝑢

= 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 − 𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢1 − 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 + 𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢2 + 𝜆𝜆(𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟1 − 𝜆𝜆𝑢𝑢1 − 𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟2 + 𝜆𝜆𝑢𝑢2 ) (2.6)

12 12
= ∆𝜌𝜌𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢 + 𝜆𝜆∆𝜆𝜆𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢 (2.7)

Equation (2.7) shows that all time-specific unknowns are eliminated. The only unknowns are the
constant lock-on double difference phase ambiguity and range values (Hegarty, 2013). Note that a
sum (or difference) of integers is an integer.

2.5.2.2.3 Triple Differences

The difference between two double differences over two epochs makes up a triple difference.
There other names to triple difference, which is known as the between-epochs difference and
the receiver satellite-time triple difference. It is a nice pre-processing phase since it is possible to
recognize and remediate cycle slips (Van Sickle & Dutton, 2014).

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 Figure 2.9: Triple difference geometry

1,2 1,2 1,2

𝜑𝜑𝑟𝑟,𝑢𝑢 (𝑡𝑡1,2 ) ≡ 𝜑𝜑𝑟𝑟,𝑢𝑢 (𝑡𝑡1 ) − 𝜑𝜑𝑟𝑟,𝑢𝑢 (𝑡𝑡2 ) (2.8)

12
= ∆𝜌𝜌𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑢 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 (2.9)

The main drawbacks of this triple difference are the increase in noise level, the reduction in a
number of observation equations, and the integer nature of the phase ambiguity that cannot be
utilized.

Based on these phenomena, occasionally you need not know the precise position but want to know
your approximate position of an object's position, in relation to another object or location that is
known. Solutions for the GNSS relative positioning are used:

• Set where an object is positioned on Earth in relation to the location of another object.

• Compute the horizontal and vertical distances between one target and the other which can
also be referred to as baseline lengths, displacements, relative separations or offsets
between the two objects.

There are other relative or differential positioning techniques used by high-precision

navigation/surveying applications, based on the use of Pseudorange-Based and Carrier Phased-
Based Differential GNSS measurements. These are the cases of the classical Differential GNSS
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(DGNSS), Real-Time Kinematic (RTK), and the Wide Area RTK (WARTK) (Navipedia
contributors, 2014).

2.6 Processing of GNSS Observables/Models

The role of an Observables block is to collect the synchronization data coming from all the
processing Channels and to compute from them the GNSS basic measurements: pseudorange,
carrier phase (or its phase-range version) and Doppler shift (or its pseudorange rate version). This
follows the description of mathematical models for the obtained measurements, with a physical
interpretation. Those models will be used in the computation of the Position-Velocity-Time
solution.

2.6.1 RINEX files

The first prerequisite for having a Receiver Independent Exchange (RINEX) format was for a
simple exchange of the GPS data, which engaged over 60 GPS receivers of 4 different makes, to
be obtained during the first big European GPS project EUREF 89. (Gurtner & Estey, 2009). That
resulted in the RINEX proposition, created from the University of Bern, Switzerland,
Astronomical Institute.

It helps because each manufacturer has its own patented GNSS data output file format. For
example, Trimble has DAT, T01, T02 as the output file extension. The reality is that most geodetic
processing software for GNSS data use a very definable set of observables during the creation of
RINEX data formats (i.e. the carrier-phase measurement at L1 or L2 or both; the pseudorange
(code) measurement, equal to the difference of time of reception of the receiver and time of
transmission of the distinct satellite signal; the observation time for measurement in seconds).

Mostly, programs used to process data do not need most of the information that the receivers store.
In the above definitions, you need phase, code and time, as well as some information about the
station such as the name of the station, the height of the antenna, etc. (Gurtner & Estey, 2009).

GNSS data are valid globally in RINEX file format as they are receiver independent files which is
an ASCII file format.

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The RINEX format consists of mainly seven ASCII file types:

 Observation Data File

 Navigation Message File

 Meteorological Data File

 GLONASS Navigation Message File

 GEO Navigation Message File

 Satellite and Receiver Clock Date File

 SBAS Broadcast Data File

Others may include Ionosphere (IONEX) and the Ephemeris files.

Figure 2.10: The structure of a RINEX file (Gurtner & Estey, 2009).

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Example: GUST3350.17o (Observation file) and GUST3350.17n (Navigation file)

• GUST: Name or ID of the station

• 335: First record in Julian day or day of the year (Date: 1 Dec 2017)

• 0: Sequence of files (In this case the first file)

• 17: Last two numbers of the year (2017)

• o: Observation file type

• n: Navigation file type

2.6.1.1 RINEX Observation file (O-file)

The RINEX Observation Data File is an ASCII file that is made up of Header section and a Data
section. The Header Section is placed at the beginning of the file and gives data about the data
(i.e., metadata, containing global information for the file). The Data Section mostly contains the
data about the observations made by the receiver from one site during one observation session
(Pestana, 2015).

The observations are the measurements made by the GNSS receiver by means of the signals
transmitted by the GNSS satellite. The observables are made up of three fundamental quantities:
Time, Phase, and Pseudorange (Osah, 2013; Pestana, 2015). From RINEX 2.11 to the time of
writing this thesis, RINEX 3.02 allows for additional observable: Signal Strength (signal to noise
ratio) and Doppler frequencies.

Type of observations:

 L1, L2, etc. are the Carrier phase data in cycles.

 D1, D2, etc. are Doppler frequencies.

 C1, C, etc. are the C/A code pseudorange on L1 (meters)

 P1 and P2 are L1/L2 pseudorange using the P-code (meters)

 S1, S2, etc. are Signal to Noise ratios (not always available)

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There are key pieces of information that are to be noted and extracted from the RINEX
observations file as in figure 2.11 below:

 The Header Section:

The approximate position, Types of observation, Interval and the Time of first
observation
 The Data Section:
The Epoch, Number of satellites, Observation data for each satellite, satellite number,
and the Event flag

Figure 2.11: The structure of a RINEX observation file

2.6.1.2 RINEX Navigation file (N-file)

The data section of a RINEX navigation file contains the ephemeris for the satellite position
computation. It contains epoch and satellite clock information. One block of data per satellite and
each block of data contains PRN, Year, Month, Day, Hour, Minutes, Seconds, Satellite clock
corrections, and orbit parameters. The RINEX navigation message file of one receiver can be used
by other receivers if they all have a similar epoch or is contained.

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2.6.1.3 RINEX Meteorological file (M-file)
Similar to the observation file (O-file), the RINEX metrological file has two sections (Header and
Data). This file contains data about the ionosphere such as Pressure, Dry temperature, Relative
Humidity, Wet zenith path delay, etc. Another important part of the file within the header section
is the type and number of observations.

The types of observation are:

 PR – Pressure (mbar)
 TD – Dry temperature (degree Celsius)
 HR – Relative Humidity
 WS – Wind Speed (ms)
 WD – Wind Direction (From where the wind blows)
 RI – Rainfall Incremental value (1/10 mm): rain accumulation since the last recording
 HI – Hail Indicator

2.6.2 Time Scales

Time-sensitive information can help receivers to relate two different timescales in the NAV
message in some subframes. These time standards are expressed in GNSS Time and Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC). And the relationship between GNSS and UTC is also included, and it notes
future scheduled leap seconds. The NAV message also provides the receiver with the information
needed to correlate its clock with the satellite clock. But because the time relationships are evolving
in the GNSS. To establish such relations to the required extent of accuracy, it takes more than a
portion of the NAV message (Sickle & Dutton, 2016).

The GNSS Time is the standard of the receiver system, which is also known as the GPS System
Time (GPST). The GNSS Time is kept within 1 microsecond, and usually less than 25
nanoseconds, of the rate of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) as it is determined by the U.S
(Sickle & Dutton, 2016; Clynch, 2006).

Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) is the time standard for the world and its popularly known as
GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), or Zulu time (Beaulne & Sikaneta, 2005; Cordey & Rossi, 2010).
UTC is based on atomic times and aligned with the zero-longitude time zone. Local time differs

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from UTC by the number of hours of the observer’s time zone, and that is what is used in everyday
life (Sickle & Dutton, 2016; Clynch, 2006). The UTC is expressed in Year, Month, Day, Hour,
Minute and Seconds. This is the type of time format recorded in a RINEX format observation file
(O-file) (See figure 2.18 of observation file).

The Julian date (JD) can also be indicated outside the astronomy sector, as the number of the day-
of-year (more correctly, the ordinal date) of the Gregorian Calendar may be described in the Julian
calendar, in particular, computer schedules, military, and food industries. Not to be mistaken for
the Julian calendar, a Julian date or day number is the number of days since a 7,980-year cycle
which Joseph Scaliger proposed in 1583. Because arithmetic computations with dates seemed to
be somehow complicated, the system's aim is to facilitate the calculation of the whole number
distinction between calendar date and another calendar date. JDs are large and sometimes difficult
to handle. There is a somewhat changed JD scale commonly used in science today, and it is named
the Modified Julian Date (MJD). This scale was introduced at midnight to arrange day-transition,
according to civil times. MJD is defined as the Julian Date minus 2,400,000.5 (MJD = JD -
2400000.5). Thus, at midday on 1 January, 2000 MJD is 51,544.5 (Clynch, 2006b; Corré, 2014;
Winkler, n.d.).

2.6.3 Coordinate System

The position of points in space is expressed in various coordinate systems, which helps to make
easy GNSS computations. The point could represent an intersection, a building, etc., and therefore,
to uniquely identify these points a special pair of numbers is needed (Mahmoud, 2013). Hence, a
set of numbers that uniquely defines the positions of points in space can be said to be a coordinate
system.

Coordinate Systems can be categorized as;

 One dimensional (e.g., Number Line) where identification of points is made on a line with
real numbers using the number line.
 Two dimensional (2D) (e.g. Cartesian-x,y, Polar- (r, θ) etc.)
 Three dimensional (3D) (Geographic-latitude, longitude, height and Projected-Easting,
Northing, Height).

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  Others may include N-dimensional with time (t) as part of the coordinate, normally used
in Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS).

The above mentioned are grouped into a global or spherical coordinate system such as latitude-
longitude and a projected coordinate system such as universal transverse Mercator (UTM) or
Transverse Mercator (TM). In this research, there are three (3) major coordinate systems with
additional local coordinate systems in 3D, which are discussed in brief and used in developing the
program. These include:

 Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) Cartesian.

 ECEF Geographical System
 World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)
 Ghana National Grid system

2.6.3.1 Geographic, Cartesian and Projected Coordinate System

Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) makes use of a 3D global or spherical surface latitude,
longitude, and height. Thus, geodetic coordinates (ϕ, λ, h) with ellipsoidal height (h) on the ellipse
or astronomic coordinates (Φ, Λ, H) with orthometric height (H) on the geoid to uniquely define
the position on the earth. It is frequently mistakenly called a datum, but a datum is just one
component of a GCS. A GCS contains an angular measuring unit, a prime meridian and a datum
based on a spheroid. The spheroid defines the earth model's size and shape, while the datum
connects the spheroid with the surface of the earth. Examples include WGS84 and the ECEF -
Geographic coordinate systems (see Mahmoud, 2013; Osah, 2013 for details).

Cartesian Coordinate System (CCS) similar to GCS, uses 3D to define the position on the earth
surface by means of geocentric coordinate (x, y, z) often referred to as 3D Cartesian coordinates.
This system has its origins in the Earth's mass center, and the X- and Y-axes in the equator. The
X-axis goes through the Greenwich meridian, and the Z-axis matches the Earth rotational axis.
The three axes are mutually orthogonal and form a right-handed system (Association, 2016;
Mahmoud, 2013). Therefore, a coordinate system for computation is more suitable to determine
the accurate positioning of GNSS receivers which rotates with the ECEF-Cartesian system (X, Y,
Z), making it easier to transform into geographical coordinates (ϕ, λ, h).

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As indicated above, it is a geographic and Cartesian coordinate system that represents positions X,
Y and Z coordinates in meters with point (0,0,0) as the center of mass the earth, hence the name
“earth-centered” (Clynch, 2006a). “Its axes are aligned with the International Reference
Pole (IRP) and International Reference Meridian (IRM) that are fixed with respect to the surface
of the earth, hence the description "earth-fixed" ("ECEF," 2017, para. 1). The axes are described
as in the CCS above.

“The x-axis intersects the sphere of the earth at 0° latitude (the equator) and 0° longitude (prime
meridian in Greenwich). This means that ECEF rotates with the earth, and therefore coordinates
of a point fixed on the surface of the earth do not change” ("ECEF," 2017, para. 2).

Figure 2.12: ECEF coordinates in relation to latitude and longitude (Krishnavedala, 2014)

A Projected Coordinate System (PCS) is a method of transforming the surface (or a portion of the
surface) of the earth into a flat 2D surface and is mostly measured in the units of meters or feet.
Contrary to GCS, a PCS has constant lengths, angles, and areas across the two dimensions. A PCS
is consistently based on a GCS based on a sphere or spheroid. Apart from GCS, a PCS includes a

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map projection, a set of parameters for the projection for a specific location, and a linear measuring
unit (Melita & Kopp, 2000).

For surveying, the plane or grid coordinates are required for the production of a two-dimensional
surface area of a map. The goal is to map an ellipsoid point (ϕ, λ) into a point (x, y) in a plane
(Hoffman-Wellenhof et al., 2008). Map coordinates use a 2D Cartesian system in which the two
axes are known as northings and eastings. They are calculated using a conventional method
recognized as a map projection from the ellipsoidal latitude and longitude (Ayer & Fosu, 2008).

Figure 2.13: ECEF coordinates in relation to East, North, and Up (Micheal, 2010)

2.6.3.2 Datum Transformation

Datum Transformation can then be defined as the transformation that is used to transform the
coordinates of a point defined in one datum to coordinates in another datum. Datum
Transformations are required for converting coordinates determined with the use of satellite
positioning equipment into local coordinates if these were defined on a different ellipsoid.

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There are numerous transformation models. Some of these are: the Helmert Similarity
Transformation, Bursa-Wolf, Multiple Regression, Molodensky-Badekas, Veis Model, Affine
Transformation, etc. The selection of the transformation model most suitable relies on the
following factors:

 Whether this model should be used in a small area or in a large area;

 The accuracy requirement;
 Whether transformation parameters are available, or they have to be determined.

A transformation, where the scale factor in all directions remains equal, is usually the most widely
used of transformation models, it is called a similarity or conformal transformation. The shape, but
not size, is maintained. An orthogonal transformation is a transformation in sequence in which the
scale factor is unity. In this case, the network's shape and size do not change but the position of
the point changes (Mitsakaki, 2004). Similarity Transformations can be used when the source and
target coordinate reference systems have the following characteristics (EPSG, 2005):

 Each of them has orthogonal axes

 Each of them has the same scale along both axes, and
 Both have the same units of measure.

Transformation parameters are needed for each method which could be in 3-, 5-, 7- and 10-
parameters. Basically, the 10 parameters method of computation can be used for the others except
for the 5 transformation parameters. Details on the determination of transformation parameters can
be for a country can be found in articles, books and publications (Such as Ayer, 2008; Laari et al.,
2010; Mahmoud, 2013; Ziggah et al. , 2017, etc.).

2.6.3.3 Conversions
Coordinate system conversion is very necessary to represent a coordinate into another coordinate
system. The Connection between two coordinate systems by a correspondence that takes
coordinate values in the old system and returns coordinate values in the new one.

There are several conversions of coordinates in GNSS and mapping. These includes Projection
and Reverse projection (From geographic to (U)TM - Projected coordinates and from (U)TM -
projected to geographic coordinate system respectively) in local grid or datum, geographic to
Cartesian coordinate system of the gird or datum and then transformation from one Cartesian to

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another Cartesian coordinates in different coordinate system. Computations involved are
demonstrated and explained in chapter 3 that makes use of figure 2.14.

Figure 2.14: Projection, Re-projection, Datum Transformation (Knippers & Hendrikse, 2009)

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2.7 Cadastre

A cadastre is technically a legal document showing the scope, value, and ownership of land and
usually the basis for occupation. The cadastre was originally a register of the property and
landholders' areas and characteristics that were collected for property taxation. However, the
cadastre provides two major aims, with most nations that in latest times do not tax land:

 It is a means used to accurately describe, identify, and locate a given part of the land in a
country.
 It continually serves as a record of the right of ownership and tenure of a particular piece
of land (Rose, 2019).

Though the requirements and components of a cadastre may differ from country to country, it
embodies and echoes principally the same idea and principles. The main components of a cadastre
may include:

 The name of the donor or beneficiary

 A sequence numbers of the title
 The volume and folio numbers on which the plot is registered
 The name of a farm or locality with an individual plot number
 The registration block and individual plot numbers
 A post office address
 A street index reference and parcel number
 A grid coordinate or “geocode.

2.7.1 Cadastre in Ghana

Land survey activities in Ghana began in approximately 1880, and priority was given to the
cadastral survey, which seems to meet the immediate demands of the colonial administrators. The
Colonial Governors were primarily involved in gold around this time, and the leaders began to
create large-scale grants to foreign affairs. It was clear that these concession regions needed to be
controlled and identified in any type (Fosu & Derby, 2008). Officers from the Royal Engineering
Regiment of the United Kingdom were brought into the country to be attached to the Mines

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Department. Triangulation, topographical mapping, and also cadastral surveys, including the
definition of estate borders were among the tasks allocated to these officers.

Due to the propensity of boundary litigations which meant boundary disputes on ascending
frequency, a reliable cadastral record was necessitated. In addition, cadastral data was required to
assess the importance of land for the alleviation of poverty and the country's growth. Two laws
were enactment in 1962: The Land Registry Act (Act 122, 1962) and the Survey Act (Act 127,
1962) to regulate land administration and land survey activities in Ghana, respectively.

In accordance with these laws and new land laws that take into consideration challenges modern,
and effective means of land administration, the body assigned to oversee the surveying and
mapping in Ghana is the Survey and Mapping Division. Their mandate and specifications for
cadastral and other forms of survey works in the country were spelled out in section 2.7.2 below.

2.7.2 Survey and Mapping Division (SMD)

Surveying and mapping are among of the sub-divisions under the Ghana Lands Commission. Some
of the functions of SMD according to section 20 of the Lands Commission Act (Act 767) includes
(“Survey and Mapping Division – Ghana Lands Commission,” 2015):

• Supervise, regulate and control the survey and demarcation of land for the purposes of land
use and land registration

• Direct and supervise the conduct of trigonometric, hydrographic, topographical and

engineering surveys

• Coordinate the preparation plans from the data derived from the survey and any amendment
of the plans

• The survey, map and maintain the national boundaries including maritime boundaries

• Supervise, regulate, control and certify the production of maps

• Mapping of the entire country to produce maps at various scales for socio-economic
development

• Develop and maintain the national geodetic reference network for the country

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 • Take custody of and preserve records and operations relating to the survey of any parcel of
land including cadastral plans

• Other functions determined by the commission.

With the above-listed functions of SMD, there are some challenges that they face, which makes
the division seems to be out of modern technologies and procedures. Some of these challenges
faced by SMD are includes:

• Most surveyors use the old type of instruments to do their work hence reducing the
accuracy of the work

• Most of the surveyors practice without reference to the guidelines and standards.

• The division has a strong existing framework that is currently being used but lucks some
aspect of standard ways and format for which regardless of the instrument used the format
for should be unique to make easy querying and sorting.

• There is no smart or modernized way of submission and checking of plans and maps. They
are still used to individual plotting, submitting by hand with hardcopy and waiting days for
validations and checks.

• Most use existing spreadsheet programs to do computations for cadastral use. Some
surveyors will have to mostly write a spreadsheet program to do another number of points
which sometimes results in having wrong computations within them.

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2.7.3 Cadastre Template

Figure 2.15: A template of cadastre prepared in the Ashanti Region of Ghana for submission

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It states clearly the ownership, size, location, etc. It basically provides details of the basis of
occupancy. On the template is the space for the approval seal and signature of the licensed surveyor
and the regional surveyor. One key element is the key plan of the area.

Key Plan: The key plan is a small-scale map used in locating the area in which a piece of land
falls. It details all-natural and manmade features in the area. As required by the survey division,
areas that have not been surveyed and demarcated must be shown on a key plan to enable easy
identification of the parcel in question.

2.7.4 Cadastral Computation

This section involves the approach used for cadastral computations and reports based on the
standards required by SMD in Ghana. There are four main parts of computations that are submitted
to SMD for checks aside other files (such as a checklist, C, etc.), which includes the following and
are described in the sections below:

 Beacon Index
 Bearing and Distance
 Area computation
 Plan Area

For the purpose of this research, an additional computation or table was added for flexibility and
ease of use during map design.

2.7.4.1 Beacon Index

Coordinates that will be used in the cadastral computation are all contained in the beacon index
file. This includes all coordinates of the site pillar corners and the control points that are used in
the traversing.

These are documented in a file using the standard format from SMD to include the report. Thus,
each point (Beacon) with the respective coordinates (X - Northing and Y - Eastings) and other
important parts (Computation Sheet No., Record Book Description, Remarks, etc.).

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2.7.4.2 Area Computation
The method used in area computation for the survey department, SMD consists of only two
accepted formats (Double Meridian Distance and Double Parallel Distance). Double Parallel
Distance (DPD) uses latitudes of successive courses instead of the departures for area computation.
The parallel distance can also be computed in this manner, similar to meridian distances. On the
other hand, Double Meridian Distance (DMD) is used to compute the area of a closed traverse.
This approach determines areas by means of the coordinates of the boundary points.

The method used in this research is the DMD. The computational procedure with coordinates in
feet is as follows:

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 = 𝛴𝛴[𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖 ∗ (𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖+1 − 𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖 )]

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑡𝑡 = 𝛴𝛴[𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖 ∗ (𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖+1 − 𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖 )]

1
𝐴𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛𝐴𝐴 = ∗ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛(𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 − 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑡𝑡) in square feet.
2

But the final area computed must be converted to Acres and Hectares. All computation procedures
are all documented in another file.

2.7.4.3 Bearing and Distance Computation

Another computation that is included in the cadastral report to be submitted is the bearing and
distance computations for each traverse line. There are two sections to this computation;

 Connecting pillars – lines from and to control beacon to the site beacon
 Site pillars – lines connecting all site beacon

2.7.4.4 Plan Data

The final part of the report combines the area and distance & bearing computation of each traverse
line into one file. Thus, a full summary to help the cartographers to plot and replot survey or the
entire traverse in a table is created.

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CHAPTER 3
Research Materials and Methods
This chapter gives an in-depth study into the materials, selection criteria for the best algorithms,
and procedures for the development of the GNSS post-processing software. The software is
intended for use by Ghana Survey and Mapping Division. The binaries include GNSS time
conversions (i.e., GPS week, GPS day of the week, GPS seconds of the week, etc.), computations
of satellite and receivers’ positions in WGS 84 ECEF system and performing datum
transformations and projections. The software suite was developed using visual C-Sharp (C#)
programming language in the Visual Studio 2017 IDE Community environment. The needed
functions were constructed into class libraries to allow for easy access and repeated use. The
software allows for the exporting and loading of GNSS data in the form of RINEX files.

3.1 Materials and Method

The software and applications that were used in the execution of this project were as follows:

 TEQC - Translation, Editing, and Quality Check (Estey & Weir, 2014)
 Microsoft Visual Studio – Community (Microsoft Corporation, 2017)
 Gnuplot (Williams et al., 2017)
 RTKLIB 2.4.3 (Takasu, 2009)
 gLAB (Sanz et al., 2012)
 Some online GNSS post-processing services
 Commercial offline post-processing tools

To guarantee the legitimacy of the process, and the accuracy of the employed calculations, GNSS
static data (base and rover receiver data) was used. The data that was used for this research was a
GNSS Static data (RINEX data for 30 seconds logging interval).

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Figure 3.1: General flowchart

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3.2 Software Development

This section demonstrates how the basic GNSS processes were simplified into functions for easy
computations. Algorithms used in this program are based on the comparisons between some of the
available online services and open source GNSS offline post-processing tools. It also highlights
the development of the application in the Visual Studio C# language environment and provides a
more detailed procedure for the creation of computational algorithms using the functions that were
created. Development of the program was in three phases:

 Writing C# scripts to perform particular tasks

 Database design and implementations
 Designing a Graphical User Interface (GUI) which makes use of the functions at the
backend (internal workings behind the interface).

3.2.1 Script Writing

C- Sharp (C#) is an object-oriented programming language with fast computation and quick data
analysis that is easy to use (similar to C++, Python, and Java languages). Interfacing with programs
written in other languages such as C, C++, Java, Python, HTML, etc. is easy in C#. Visual Studio
Environment comes with its own robust Editor/IDLE, which is convenient for both beginners and
professionals.

Due to the computational nature of the written application, it made use of a large number of
matrices. C # has no built-in function for matrix computation, unlike other programming languages
like MATLAB, which have almost all the possible matrix computations inbuilt. It was, therefore,
necessary to create a whole new matrix class library with the help of some already existing codes
into one class file, which would allow for most of the matrix computations needed in the project
and handle manipulations properly.

Other class libraries for Grid Systems, Transformation parameters and Coordinates Conversion
(Transformation, Forward and Reverse Projection and, Geographic to Cartesian and vice versa,
etc.) had to be created to allow for working with geographic data. These were saved in a
“class_name.cs” file format, eg. “CoordinateSystemConversion.cs” as shown Figure 3.2.

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 Figure 3.2: Sample C# class - CoordinateSystemConversion.cs
Based on the comparison results, the processing algorithm for the processing tool which ranked
highest was implemented into the program developed. Although the codes used were from a
different programming language, it is converted and used.

Converting everything in the source code was not an easy task. Therefore, the best way out of this
was to port the native language used to C-Sharp (C#) using existing converting software (Tangible
Software Solutions Inc., 2018) although there were many errors and bugs from converting
automatically instead of using more manual methods. The entire work of converting or porting
reduced the task of hard-coding by 80%.

This procedure was very tedious and time-consuming as this research is just to implement the
existing source code and simplify all the hard works involved in setting the options just to make
single post-processing. It is also well understood that once settings were made these services, they
were saved and reused the next time it’s opened. Another method that was implemented was the

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attempt to create a Dynamic-Link Libraries (DLLs) or functional class library, which could be
called and used in the program development. This approach was best because all that was required
was to recreate all the functions into classes of the project and compile them into a class library
for external usage from their native languages. The class library could then be redistributed to
many places. All that was needed was to import or add references to the project. The disadvantage
of this was the need to write all the original codes into classes or create a wrapper class library,
which was similar to the above-mentioned method.

Finally, the last method which was tried and implemented in the study was just to interface with
the processing tool that is chosen right from the program developed because C-Sharp has that
capability using the command lines with arguments for the purpose of this study. This was more
efficient as it used the full power of the tools and was required to create a new configuration file
with all options and parse to the tool from the program. Figure 3.7 shows the general flow chart
adapted in the software development design.

3.2.2 Database Design

Database components were needed in the architectural design of the program to keep track of the
processing of data and path. Basically, the management of data and some settings were stored in
the system using SQLite (Hipp et al., 2017), which was generously licensed in the public domain
and did not require extensive configurations. Due to its simplicity and its characteristic of being
usable as a standalone file, without any extra attachments or special software, provides almost all
the needed functionalities, allowing it to be used as a lightweight attachment embedded in the
program.

After any processing operation is carried out with GGS, some results are automatically stored in
the database whilst others have to be manually stored. All stored information in GGS can be
recalled and further worked on to obtain the desired results of the user (see Figure 3.3)

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 Figure 3.3: General flow of data in the database
There are a few tables in this database meant to store records, details, and results from any of the
processes carried out by the user. Table 3.1 gives the list of tables that are included in this database
and for these purposes.

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 Table 3.1: Database tables and design purpose

Table Name Purpose

Project Type Storing details of the projects created (i.e., Name, Type,
Directory Path and Time created)
GNSS Processed Storing all information generated after processing GNSS
data.
Cadastral Processed Storing details and information derived from processing
cadastral data (Thus, results from direct data or from
GNSS solution).
Geographic Coordinates Storing geographic coordinates for both input and output
information.
Projected Coordinates Storing projected coordinates from both input and output
information.

Figure 3.4: Entity Relational Diagram (ERD)

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3.3.2 GUI Design
Part of the goal of this research was to create a user-friendly interface that would allow the user to
easily access all the needed functionality easily, without having to run complicated scripts. The
Visual Studio (VS) environment provides the necessary tools and materials for designing the
application interface. The environment’s Toolbox contains Controls for interface design, and extra
tools and plugins (DLLs) can be created or downloaded from other developers free of charge.

Among the created DLLs, those used for this project include MetroSuite 2.0 (Gather, 2018) and
MetroFramework (Denric, 2016), which enhance the user-friendliness and aesthetics of the
program.

Creating a new C# project in VS 2017 is very simple. This can be done by following the simple
steps listed below:

 Click on “Create New Project” under the “New project” or by clicking on File Menu >
New > Project.
 Depending on the environment selected during installation, several programming
languages that are supported by VS will appear in the list on the left, including Visual C#.
 Click and expand the Visual C# Templates window
 For desktop GUI applications, it is best to use Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF)
or Windows Form Application. This research made use of the latter in creating its user
interface.
 Enter the Name of the project, select the Project Directory using the browse button.
 Then click, OK.

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 Figure 3.5: Creating a New Project for GNSSGhana in C#

 Next, it opens the main design form window (figure 3.6 below) which contains features
like;
 Toolbar – a menu bar where basic functionalities of the editor, designer, tools, etc. can
be found.
 Toolbox panel – this contains all the controls that be used on the design form, including
button, label, textbox, combo box/drop-down menu, radio button, etc.
 Properties panel – this panel gives the opportunity to manipulate properties of the
individual control that is placed on the form, including color, font, codename, display
text, etc.
 Solution panel – the panel allows developers to navigate through all the files that are in
the project such as references, resources, classes and forms files, and other attached
objects.
 Status – provides information about current operations
 Others are the Error and Output panels.

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 Figure 3.6: Microsoft Visual Studio general workspace interface

The controls can then be dragged onto the form. The next step is to manipulating their properties
to suit the purpose of the project and writing scripts into the respective controls to perform
particular tasks.

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 Start

RAW Processed
Convert to Input
GNSS Coordinate
RINEX Data
Data Data

Further
Quality GNSS
Cleaning Yes
Check Processing?
and Editing
No

Checked GNSS
Coordinate
GNSS Processing for
Points
RINEX Data coordinates

Needs to be
Yes
Converted? GNSS, Cadasrtral
Datum Report Documents
Transformation or Transformed
No
Coordinates

Local
Transformation & Coordinate
Projection Points

Results, Validating
Projection and Cadastral Computing Area, Distance Analysis and
Yes
Re-projection Processing? and Bearing etc. Conclusion
of results

Results from
Computations
No

Database
Report Generating
Storage

1 End

Figure 3.7: General flowchart of software design

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3.3 GNSS Data

Data used in the study were from the selected control point, which was created in Engineering
College, KNUST and had been observed for a time period of 10 days continuous with SOK600
for antenna type. These observations were made with a GNSS receiver and downloaded for 10 or
more hours every day.

Figure 3.8: Station location, setup and Sokkia GSR 2600 used for data logging (Afrifa, 2015)
Data was trimmed and renamed using TEQC, a powerful tool for pre-processing (Estey & Weir,
2014), before being uploaded to the various popular online services. This was to help get another
check on the results since these points were known to be in Ghana and their approximate positions
were also known.

Most of the major GNSS manufacturers and providers attach software and drivers to their
packages. RINEX converters are common attachments to these packages or are available as
additional downloads after purchase. The availability of these converters means that the user can
easily obtain the RINEX format of their captured field data. Due to the availability of the different

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GNSS output formats, it was necessary to write an application that could access data from all kinds
of receivers. As stated earlier, the RINEX data format can be converted to and from all other GNSS
data types. The application was written to accept the input GNSS data in RINEX format to
eliminate the need to convert data from other GNSS receivers’ types.

In this study, Sokkia and Trimble receivers were used and hence a Convert to RINEX from Trimble
was used to convert data (.T01) to RINEX.

3.4 Services, Tools and Experiments

The most popular service is the Online Positioning User Service (OPUS) operated by United States
National Geodetic Survey (NGS), a suite for online post-processing tools (which includes: OPUS-
Rapid Static, OPUS-Static and OPUS-Projects). These services are capable of providing up to
centimeter-level positioning accuracy from static GNSS/GPS observations (Gakstatter, 2013).

There are at least seven viable alternatives to OPUS, a fact that is not commonly known. All are
free, easy to use, provide worldwide coverage, and generate surprisingly similar tools, processing
services, and results.

These include;

 Australian Online GPS Processing Service (AUSPOS) operated by National Mapping

Division of Geoscience Australia (“AUSPOS,” 2018)
 Automatic Precise Positioning Service (APPS) operated by NASA JPL - Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (“APPS,” 2018)
 CSRS-Precise Point Positioning (CSRS-PPP) operated by Canada Geodetic Survey
Division of Natural Resource Canada (“NRCan,” 2018)
 Trimble CenterPoint RTX Post-Processing by Trimble Navigation (“Trimble Inc.,” 2018)
 GNSS Analysis and Positioning Software (GAPS) by the University of New Brunswick
(“GAPS,” 2018)

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For the offline post-processing tools, these were used in the process

 Commercial
o Spectrum Survey software by POINT, Inc. of Olathe, Kansas - U.S.A
o Hi-Target Geomatics Office
 Open-source
o RTKLib

These four were selected because they are free, offline, and open source tools that have fantastic
potentials.

Table 3.2: Software packages used in this study.

Parameter OPUS AUSPOS APPS CSRS-PPP RTX GAPS RTKLib

Software and Bernese AUTO- NRCanPPP GAPS
PAGES 6.1.4.17185 2.4.3
version 2.3 GIPSY 6.4 1.05 6.0.0 r587

Dual and Dual Dual

single Dual- frequency, frequency,
Single and
Dual frequency, frequency static and static and
dual-frequency
Dual frequency, Static, pseudo- kinematic, kinematic,
Available in Static and
frequency, Static, Kinematic, range and basic and basic and
options Kinematic
Static DGPS NRT, PPP carrier phase advanced advanced
mode, PPP
only and observations, mode of mode of
only
DGNSS static, PPP processing, processing,
services PPP only PPP
GPS, BeiDou,
GPS, GPS, GLO, QZSS,
Constellation GPS GPS GLO, GPS, GLO GPS, GLO, BeiDou, SBAS,
BeiDou Galileo IRNSS,
Galileo
Frequency L1, L2 L1, L2 L1, L2 L1, L2 L1, L2
pseudo- pseudo-
pseudo- pseudo-range
Type of range and Code and Code and Code and range and
range and and carrier
observation carrier phase phase phase carrier
carrier phase phase
phase phase
Antenna Not Not Not
Considered Considered Not considered Considered
model considered considered considered
ITRF
2008, IGS 2014,
Frame of ITRF
ITRF 2008 GDA ITRF 2008, ITRF 2008 ITRF 2008 ITRF 2008
reference 2008
2020, NAD83(CSRS)
GDA94
Orbits and
clocks of IGS final IGS final JPL final IGS final IGS final IGS final IGS final
satellites
Cut-off angle <null> <null> 10◦ 10◦ 10◦ 10◦ 10◦

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The results from these tools and services were scored and ranked, and the best one was used to
develop the program.

3.4 Generating Report

The final stage in this study, which is very important to the user, was a single page output where
all results from cadastral, GNSS and coordinates converted are organized and formatted to a
general user-readable format. The reports were made in such a way that they meet the requirement
of SMD, especially the organization of cadastral reports (i.e., the files, computations, order, format,
and style are very important when submitting). Files and computations to be submitted SMD
include Beacon Index, Distance and Bearing, Plan Data and Area computations as discussed in the
previous chapter.

On the other hand, GNSS reports are sometimes required to include some very important details
after processing such as coordinates, baseline distances and, if necessary, the status of each point
(i.e., fixed or float) and GGS is designed and programmed to have all these features and more.

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CHAPTER 4
Processing with “GNSS Ghana
Software”
The software developed at the end of this study comes packed with three main geodetic processing
modes (i.e., DGNSS using baseline computation vectors, Cadastral computation, and Projection/
Datum Transformation). These were created to make geodetic computation and data processing as
user-friendly as possible. This section gives a detailed and comprehensive guide on how to process
data with a program called GNSS Ghana Software (GGS). The software has been designed with
modern tools for easier interactions.

Figure 4.1: GNSS Ghana home screen

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Figure 4.1 shows the home screen of the GNSS Ghana after launching the program. The home
page gives the user access to help, settings, recent project works, and to create a new project
entirely. The Create New Project section of the application can be accessed from both the DGNSS
processor and the cadastral part of the software while the other sections (such as the part for
coordinate conversion) are stand-alone. It allows the user to create and save a project, as well as
open existing projects for modification. This approach must satisfy some conditions to open an
existing project.

4.1 Creating A New Project

Projects can be created for GNSS post-processing with the ability to include cadastral (thus, to
make use of the processed coordinates to prepare cadastral computation reports) or only cadastral
reports by providing coordinates using GGS. This is done easily by clicking on “Create New
Project.”

This navigates to a second page (figure 4.2 below) where you will provide details of the project,
including project name, the project directory (where the results will be stored) and the processing
type. Based on project type selected by the user, in this case, “GNSS Processing”, the user has the
choice of selecting one out of a set of transformation parameters (3-, 7-, and 10-parameter variants)
or Multiple Regression Equation (MRE) to be used for the processing to a local coordinate system.

GNSS Ghana is different from other GNSS processing software because the program comes
packed with pre-built systems and most particularly for Ghana, as demonstrated in this chapter,
the default used in conversion are the Transverse Mercator (TM) parameters and MRE for Ghana,
which was published by SMD in 2008.

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 Figure 4.2: Creating a New Project with GGS for GNSS Processing
For generating cadastral reports, without processing of the GNSS data (but providing coordinates
of the already processed data) the project type must be changed to “Cadastral Report” as in figure
4.3, else users can check the option to include cadastral computations, which will make use of the
processed outputs, in the final step shown in figure 4.2 above.

The subsequent parameter to set is the measurement units in which the processed output will be
converted as final coordinates. In the figure above, the unit selected was kept in the “Gold Cost
Feet” conversion factor to meters.

Clicking “Next” will move to the following page, if all required entries are made correctly, or else
error messages relating to the particular issue will pop up, giving directions to correct it.

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 Figure 4.3: Creating a New Project with GGS for Cadastral Report Processing

4.1.1 DGNSS processing

The developed software was tested by processing field data gathered using the DGNSS technique
of surveying. One of the main uses of GNSS Ghana software is to process DGNSS with precision.

Baselines between the base and rovers were processed using the software with the following
settings: a cut-off angle of 10° and ephemeris, broadcast; data type, code, phase error ratios, etc.
having all been preconfigured.

Figure 4.4 shows the page for importing data into GGS for DGNSS processing. The software uses
only the RINEX data format as data input for DGNSS processing. The RINEX files can be
imported either from single files or folders (batch selection).

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 Figure 4.4: GGS Ghana DGNSS Data import page
The first data required is a base station data or any RINEX data that has enough epochs or time to
which will contain and cover all the rovers’ time frames, and the corresponding navigation file
must be loaded into the right-field using the custom file browser designed for the program as shown
in figure 4.5.

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 Figure 4.5: Using Custom File Browser
Rover data must be provided for processing with at least one (1) RINEX dataset serving as the
base file to allow for DGNSS processing. For assignments that involve cadastral computation is to
be included, at least four (4) rover datasets, one of them serving as closing station and others to
complete the loop of the traverse involved, are required. In addition to RINEX data, Precise
ephemeris/clock or Ionosphere file can be supplied to increase the accuracy of the processed
results.

Approximate position for the base station is estimated from the file provided but the option to set
the base station to be used in adjusting during the DGNSS process can be accessed by clicking on
the “Set Base” button. A field for renaming the name of the Site ID, in lieu of the file name
automatically assigned, is provided. The right values and measurements must be entered into the
respective text fields and changes applied by clicking the “OK” button, as shown in figure 4.6
below.
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 Figure 4.6: Setting the base station coordinates
Similarly, for both base and rover data, the program preprocesses files to give a brief summary of
each RINEX dataset (i.e., total Epochs, Observation intervals – data rate, start and end time for
each data, data file size).

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 Figure 4.7: GGS imported RINEX data ready for processing
If the user is satisfied with all data imported as indicated in figure 4.7 above, the “Next” button is
clicked to navigate to the next page. The next step is the renaming and arranging of all rovers to
suit the desired purpose, as described in section 4.1.3.

4.1.2 Cadastral processing

The second part of the program was designed to automate the processing of cadastral computations
when boundary marks are observed. Irrespective of the number of points or corners of the plot, the
stress in creating an entirely new spreadsheet computation is eliminated using GGS for processing.
This section shows the method of using the developed program by providing coordinates of various
points into the right fields and processing the report to be generated as per the format required by
the SMD of Ghana.

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On the Create Project page, the user must select the project type as “Cadastral Report” (See section
4.1) and select the respective settings for the project and click “Next.” This navigates to the
cadastral report generation import page, as shown in figure 4.8 below, where coordinates will be
provided for subsequent procedures.

Figure 4.8: GGS Cadastral Report Data source

Here, you can manually input the coordinates in the table provided or import by clicking the “Add”
button to show a pop-up dialog for selecting a file that contains all the coordinates needed for the
entire process.

File importation into the system is organized for easy use and accepts the most popular data file
formats, especially if the delimiter is known. The tool, “File to table,” is a multifunctional tool that
was designed to help users to import data from any field of a data file into the program. The only
thing required from the user is to use the custom file browser to select file, specify lines to skip,

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check “Auto Detect Header” for the program to do its thing or not, click on “Load File” to load
the data into the page and then match all fields to their respective columns on the program as shown
in figure 4.9 below. There is no need for height values in this case (i.e., only Easting, Northings,
and descriptions). Data used in this example was an output result from Spectrum Survey Software
(SSS) v3.20 and can be found in the appendix figure A.1.

Figure 4.9: GGS File to Table interface

Afterward, the user then clicks on the “Apply” button, which will load the data into the “Cadastral
Report data” page. Then if no extra points or corners are to be added, click “Next.”

The user must take note that, for the number of points that are provided in the table for processing,
at least three points could be used for any traverse or coordinate transfer. As required by SMD,
and the algorithm for area computation, however, the site for which the computation is used must

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have, at least, three points for area of the site and addition two control points to serve as a starting
and closing controls for the traverse and report generation.

4.1.3 Renaming and organizing

Both GNSS data processing and the standalone Cadastral computation allow for the renaming of
points to a selected format for final processing and report generations, right after data importations,
as shown in this section.

The environment comes with a GIS map interface and tools for renaming and reordering points. It
also provides an overview of where the points that are imported into the system, for both the GNSS
processing or cadastral sections. The only difference is the absence of antenna height and pole type
in the Cadastral section, as it is meant for GNSS processing only as in figure 4.10 and 4.11.

Figure 4.10: GNSS Processing - Point Connections

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Point connections are created with lines and follow the order of the points in the list. Unlike
cadastral computations, the order of the imported points does not have an effect on the report of
the GNSS processing. However, for the cadastral computation, the order of points can be edited
after processing upon creating a GNSS processing file (See section 4.1).

Figure 4.11: Cadastral - Point Connections before ordering

Point connections in GNSS processing for GGS are based on the ground station-by-rover link sort.
There is no support for vector closure or point to point peer connections for corrections among
rovers.

Renaming of point’s site ID is by toggling the edit checkbox on the right, which enables Editing
Mode. Editing site IDs can be done for a single point or by selecting multiple points, preferably in
the same order, by entering the site ID desired and clicking “Apply.” This will automatically assign
the name to all points, adding a numerical suffix to them in the direction they are in the list
selection, starting the count from one (1).

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 Figure 4.12: Cadastral - Point Connections after ordering and renaming
The order of points and the map interface are only to give an idea of how the traverse path should
be and does not affect the final traverse path. Renaming and point ordering is not compulsory in
GGS, but they help to increase legibility and easy point identification from the map view on the
left side. For example, the effect of the change for the cadastral data used can be easily be seen
from figure 4.11, which shows not renamed and non-ordered data and figure 4.12 above with well-
ordered and renamed. When satisfied with all entries and renaming, proceed to the actual
processing by clicking on the “Process” button.

Based on the project chosen, if it involves a cadastral computation and report generation type, a
pop-up dialog appears, allowing the user to set the actual traverse path for the computations as
indicated in figure 4.13. This is done by selecting the starting and closing stations from the drop-
down list of all points present in the specific project. With the map view’s initial visualization, the
user can drag points into the order of the traverse from the list and click “Apply” to generate a

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report. Subsequently and unfortunately, the receiver data files must be processed before any
additional computation can be performed on them. A window has been added on the processed
result page to allow for post-processing of results, and also to generate a cadastral report using
outputs and to follow the similar procedure to set the traverse path (See section 4.1.4 for more
details).

Figure 4.13: Cadastral – Creating a traverse path

4.1.4 Processed Solution

The last page for GGS project processing is the result page, which contains all the processed
solutions for both cadastral reports and GNSS processed outputs. Figure 4.14 shows a typical
output solution for the beacon index from a cadastral report project with four corners (points) and
two control points. For a cadastral project, only the “Cadastral Report” button with the other two
constant buttons are available to the user. Upon clicking, the hidden buttons, including “Beacon”,

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“Distance & Bearing”, “Plan Data”, “Area Computation” and “Map Data”, may be used on the
cadastral map for printing and obtaining details and images from results for the cadastral report,
as shown in the figures in Appendix C.

Figure 4.14: Cadastral – Processed Solution interface

On the other hand, processing from GNSS projects can have all the results for the cadastral report,
only if included in the project while creating. Results include point list (contains points coordinates
in WGS 84 and local grid system) and summary list (contains baseline distances and status of the
processed result) as well as all extractions in the point list as shown in figure 4.15.

With GGS, results from either process can be exported to various formats (Text, PDF, and Comma
Separated Values - CSV) by checking the required option to export when the pop-up dialog box
for exporting appears after clicking “Export” button (See figure 4.16).

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Figure 4.15: GNSS Processing – Processed Solution interface

Figure 4.16: Export dialog

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4.2 Coordinate Projection and Datum Transformation

Figure 4.17 shows the interface for an additional part of the developed application, the ability to
perform coordinate system conversion, implemented into the program and used to convert
coordinates. Forward and Inverse projection and datum transformation processes were created in
various classes to allow for easy reintegration into multiple or batch conversions and to give
support to the world coordinate systems (i.e., Coordinate Reference Systems – CRS).

Figure 4.17: Typical CRS Conversion Interface

A collection of most of the known coordinate systems in the world has been prepacked into the
program (see figure 4.18). Therefore, based on the conversion type, either with simple projection
with only CRS or datum transformation with projections (which require both the source and target
CRS), the user will have to select a CRS from the world CRS provided, or the user can use the

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“Create Custom System” to create a new one which will be stored for future reuse and
modification.

Figure 4.18: Dialog for the list of Coordinate Reference Systems (CRS)
As described in previous sections, the user has the choice of selecting a type of transformation
parameter (3-, 7-, or 10-parameter variants) or Multiple Regression Equation (MRE) to be used to
create a CRS.

Similar procedures are used to import data from a file using a multifunctional “file to table
importer” tool (see section 4.1.2 for details) by clicking on the “Open” button or by manual entry.
The data format determines the fields that appear in the data importer.

When all data entered in the correct fields and coordinates system, the user clicks on the
“Compute” button to get results in the respective system within the output section. Both input and
output results can be exported to CSV and Text files.

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4.2.1 Forward and Inverse Projection
As explained in previous chapters, the coordinates conversion system has inbuilt support for
various projections types (i.e., including Alber, Krovak, Lambert Conformal Conic, Mercator and
Transverse Mercator projection computations). For projection and re-projection, the user only
needs to select one CRS from the list provided to convert between any two of Cartesian, geographic
or projected coordinate system, as indicated in figure 4.19 below.

Both input and output units must match the CRS selected units, except where coordinates in the
Cartesian system which are always in meters. They are all affected by the converting factor to
meters for each coordinate system, but one can select input and output units (i.e., meter or feet)
using the same conversion factor.

Figure 4.19: Projection with GGS

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Projection is selected in this case for computation and the conversion direction, which indicates
the system of the input and the expected output as seen in the figure above.

4.2.2 Datum Transformation

Datum transformation with GGS allows converting from one datum to another datum, as well as
the projection in the target CRS to any coordinate system. The user selects the source and target
CRS to be used in the respective fields required and follow a similar procedure for data
importation. The only thing that remains to be done is to click on the “Compute” button after the
data and the two datums between which a transformation is to occur in order to get results as
demonstrated in figure 4.20.

Figure 4.20: Datum transformation with GGS

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Clicking on the “Plot” button shows a map with all the converted or computed points on a map in
the WGS 84 coordinate system, as shown in figure 4.21 below.

Figure 4.21: GGS plot of the converted point on the map

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CHAPTER 5
Results and Discussions
This chapter presents results from previous chapters and analyses that were performed. Results
from various services used to process. Processed results from various tools named in previous
sections were collected and tabulated for the ten (10) days data gathered by downloading the files
from these online services whiles the offline tools were directly saved to the disk for each of the
rover data for different days, and the appendix contains all outcomes.

0 5.1 Average Values from Services

Each of the files was submitted to the processing services, and the results have been tabulated for
X, Y, and Ellipsoid height. The full results from all tools and services are found in Table A.2, but
the average values are in Table A.3. Here, the responsiveness is how closely each of those services
produces results to one another. Therefore, looking at the average position of each service and the
difference from known control pillar (see Table A.1 for the coordinate):

Table 5.1: Difference of the average solutions from the known coordinate.
Service X Y Z δX δY δZ
OPUS 6333147.825 -173104.348 736230.418 0.023 0.022 0.025
AUSPOS 6333147.818 -173104.351 736230.409 0.016 0.019 0.016
APPS 6333147.816 -173104.347 736230.412 0.014 0.023 0.019
CSRS-PPP 6333147.821 -173104.347 736230.412 0.019 0.023 0.018
Trimble RTX 6333147.821 -173104.350 736230.411 0.019 0.020 0.018
GAPS 6333147.856 -173104.345 736230.418 0.054 0.024 0.025
RTKLib 6333147.918 -173104.429 736230.407 0.116 -0.059 0.014

From the table 5.1 above, results for the online services were generally within a range of 0.034mm
whiles the offline service produced a centimeter range value of 0.131m of the known coordinates

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in both horizontal and vertical values from RTKLib result which was not bad at all. High value for
the offline services could clearly be seen from both popular services and could be because of the
settings and some additional files used. Therefore, there was a need to see the variations of the
point position with time in both planes.

5.1.1 Position Tracking and Time

Due to the variations shown in table 5.1, further investigation was needed to see which positional
component had an effect on the differences. Table A.3, shows the variation in all the services and
the shift from the mean for all the services are visually shown in figures 5.1(a, b, and c) whiles
figures 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 gives the graphical representation of the variation in X, Y, and Z with time
respectively.

Figure 5.1: Variations from each service.

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As shown in table A.3 and figures 5.1(a) and 5.2, it reveals the precision in X for all the services.
OPUS is shown to be more precise whiles RTKLib is least in terms of precision on this component.
However, all the services performed comparatively well, considering they have approximately the
same values if the values are round up to one decimal place.

6333148.1
6333148
6333148
6333147.9
6333147.9
6333147.8
6333147.8
6333147.7

OPUS AUSPOS GAPS CSRS-PPP APPS TRIMBLE RTX RTKLIB

Figure 5.2: Services X values verse Time

Figures 5.1(b) and 5.3 below, discloses the precision in Y for all the services. Results from APPS
shown to give more precise whiles RTKLib is least in terms of precision and had wide variations
in the reading as illustrated in figure 5.3 below. However, all the online services performed
practically well since they have approximately the same results with not much difference between
each other with the exception of RTKLib, which had results far from the OPUS and others.

-173104.3
-173104.4
-173104.4
-173104.5
-173104.5
-173104.6

OPUS AUSPOS GAPS CSRS-PPP APPS TRIMBLE RTX RTKLIB

Figure 5.3: Services Y values verse Time

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Finally, figures 5.1(c) and 5.4, show the variations in Z, which is the third component produced
from all the services. In this case, RTX is shown to have more precise whiles RTKLib is least in
terms of precision, therefore having a large variation in its dataset. However, the remaining
services seemed to follow RTX with GAPPS and CSRS-PPP on a tie, followed by APPS,
AUSPOS, and OPUS.

736230.44
736230.43
736230.42
736230.41
736230.4
736230.39

OPUS AUSPOS GAPS CSRS-PPP APPS TRIMBLE RTX RTKLIB

Figure 5.4: Services Z values verse Time

5.1.2 Scoring and Ranking

Scores presented in table 5.2 below, was based on the combination of the X, Y, and Z ranges
derived from the variations checks from the above table.

Table 5.2: Score for ranking.

Values OPUS AUSPOS APPS CSRS- RTX GAPS RTKLib
PPP
X 0.025 0.052 0.028 0.033 0.040 0.041 0.136
Y 0.015 0.017 0.004 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.186
Z 0.014 0.012 0.010 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.037

Total. Score 0.054 0.081 0.042 0.058 0.064 0.067 0.359

From the scoring done in table 5.2 above, it should be noticed that all services provided very
remarkably similar results and that the ranking in this study was only based on the data and settings
used in this research.

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The ranking was as follows:

1. APPS
2. OPUS
3. CSRS-PPP
4. TRIMBLE RTX
5. GAPS
6. AUSPOS
7. RTKLib

There was a noticeable issue in the RTKLib’s reported output positions, which will keep it from
being of any use to most users. The results achieved from its reports wherein sub-meter accuracy,
which was promised by the developers and can be improved to millimeter accuracy with the right
settings and other files which may be this research did not consider. RTKLib’s results were
significantly different from the other services and therefore users should independently evaluate
RTKLib suitability for their purposes even though the accuracy was within a centimeter-level.

Results from this experiment proved not to match with that of results from the article posted by
Gakstatter, (2013) but somehow results from Olalekan et al., (2019) confirm with some of the
results obtained. Even though the experiment seemed to be similar, but the difference in the results
might have been due to the software version or algorithm upgrades used in this study (see table
3.2).

5.2 Comparing the Developed Software

This section unveils the testing and comparisons performed using the developed software (GGS)
on results that were generated against some commercial software (including positional accuracy
test and datum transformations). With these tests, three (3) new GNSS data were used in the
differential mode to verify how closely each software (Spectrum Survey Software -SSS and Hi-
Target Geomatics Office - HGO) is to the know coordinates and also knowing their coordinates
check the errors in datum transformation and projection with the GGS.

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5.2.1 GGS vs Commercial DGNSS post-processing Softwares
The positional results obtained after processing are initially presented in WGS84 3D Cartesian
coordinates in ECEF (X, Y, Z) and later transformed to Ghana National Grid coordinate system in
Transverse Mercator (TM) projected system (Northings, Eastings, and Height) using a single
coordinate converter tool. This way, the bias in the coordinate conversions are eliminated from all
other software and hence leaving every coordinate on the same ECEF system. All software was
used to perform DGNSS on the same data to assess the baseline accuracies of two (2) stations,
including the base. The base station used as a reference was UST TP 1 (E: 694859.720 ft., N:
727513.950 ft. and Z: 862.533 ft.) and the other control point procced was UST TP 6 (E:
694925.660 ft., N: 727227.850 ft. and Z: 866.546 ft.) in local CRS located in KNUST campus.

DGNSS results from GGS, Spectrum Survey Software (SSS) and Hi-Target Geomatics Office
(HGO) are recorded in table 5.3 below and the differences from the known control points
coordinate in local grid system shown in table 5.4.

Table 5.3: Baseline results from software processed results in WGS84

3D Cartesian Coordinates UTM

TOOL
X (m) Y (m) Z (m) N (m) E (m) h (m)

GGS 6333097.0699 -173046.7196 736376.3704 737949.508 658601.982 261.558

HGO 6333096.0695 -173046.7205 736376.3734 737949.511 658601.981 261.558

SSS 6333097.0760 -173046.7217 736376.3691 737949.506 658601.980 261.564

Table 5.4: Comparison of processed results against the known

BASELINE Error difference from known
UST TP 6 Processed
TOOL DISTANCE values
(ft.) N (ft.) E (ft.) H (ft.) δN (ft.) δE (ft.) δH (ft.)

GGS 293.738 727227.644 694925.377 866.219 0.206 0.283 0.330

HGO 293.869 727227.654 694925.374 866.220 0.196 0.286 0.326

SSS 293.743 727227.638 694925.372 866.237 0.212 0. 288 0.309

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The following were observed from the table above:

 Overall GGS performed efficiently providing the best results which were very close to the
known coordinates of UST TP 6.
 Though the deviations, per standards of different SMDs of different countries, may
generally be accepted, the HGO’s performance in terms of the deviation from the true
values was comparatively huge and hence the least in terms of performance.

Table 5.5: Difference in results from software to another

Software Difference
COMPARISON
δN (ft.) δE (ft.) δH (ft.)

GGS - HGO 0.010 0.003 0.004

GGS - SSS 0.006 0.005 0.021

SSS - HGO 0.016 0.002 -0.017

Table 5.5 above shows the results of comparing software among each other. It is further noticed
that GGS has a correlation of 0.95 with HGO and SSS with about a difference in error distance to
be 0.01 ft. and 0.008 ft. respectively in the horizontal with the data used in this research. Any can
be used for processing in the country because the p-value of the test is 0.19 and greater than 0.05
(the stated p-value for alpha), the null hypothesis shows that there was no difference in the means.

5.2.2 Datum transformation and Projection

This sub-section presents results and analysis on the datum to datum transformation and
projections that were obtained from using the developed software. Therefore, these comparisons
were made by using some existing twenty-one geodetic controls which have both WGS 84 and
War Office ellipsoid coordinates in Ghana to serve as a means to validate results, and these lists
of the control points used in this study are provided in appendix in table B.1 and B.2 respectively.

These twenty-one controls’ coordinates were used in modeling most of the transformation
parameters in Ghana and were agreed that there is no homogeneity in the coordinates before they
were used (Laari et al., 2010; Mahmoud, 2013; Yao Y Ziggah, Youjian, Amans, Fan, &

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Engineering, 2013). Therefore, using them gave the means to access some of the accuracies in the
developed program with the implemented transformation parameters.

5.2.2.1 Software Projected and existing coordinates

In other to validate the projection and re-projection computations in the developed program, the
nineteen points were converted to from WGS 84 geographic to UTM. Table 5.6 below shows
results after the projection with a difference in northing and easting values.

Table 5.6: Projected vs Existing UTM coordinates

Point ID Existing Converted Differences
E (m) N (m) E (m) N (m) ΔE(m) ΔN(m)
CFP 109 785496.184 604133.467 785496.1839 604133.4687 0.0001 -0.0017
CFP 150R 837675.384 673057.354 837675.3845 673057.3544 -0.0005 -0.0004
CFP 155 818674.492 657293.934 818674.4914 657293.9327 0.0006 0.0013
CFP 178 702928.231 726736.416 702928.2311 726736.4173 -0.0001 -0.0013
CFP 179 717542.514 704754.037 717542.5146 704754.0365 -0.0006 0.0005
CFP 185 618849.866 716919.103 618849.8662 716919.1021 -0.0002 -0.0011
CFP 200 770368.127 622404.543 770368.2184 622404.5422 -0.0914 0.0008
CFP 180 689673.650 669449.949 689673.6489 669449.9479 0.0011 0.0011
CFP 207 614452.515 646686.273 614452.5149 646686.2730 0.0001 0.0000
CFP 217 751343.023 657431.306 751343.0224 657431.306 0.0006 0.0000
CFP 225 666058.211 603175.815 666058.2112 603175.8164 -0.0002 -0.0014
GCS 306 651203.345 800050.254 651203.3448 800050.2545 0.0002 -0.0005
GCS 302 608625.459 764186.057 608625.4584 764186.0561 0.0006 0.0009
GCS 304 671737.477 773171.245 671737.4773 773171.2436 -0.0003 0.0014
GCS 305 638846.362 756944.448 638846.3615 756944.448 0.0005 0.0000
GCS 142 747072.585 727406.985 747072.5852 727406.9863 -0.0002 -0.0013
GCS 145 675589.911 725045.878 675589.9111 725045.8791 -0.0001 -0.0011
GCS 213 749131.685 677898.459 749131.6853 677898.4593 -0.0003 -0.0003
GCS 125 825074.356 638217.317 825074.3557 638217.3178 0.0003 -0.0008
GCS 102 751105.004 584375.832 751105.0039 584375.8313 0.0001 0.0007
CFP 184 644325.601 715517.342 644325.6017 715517.3432 -0.0007 -0.0012

From the results above, the maximum deviation of the projected and the existing coordinates are
[0.0014 m] and [0.0011 m] in the easting and northing coordinates respectively, while the
minimum values of deviations are [-0.0017 m] in northing and [-0.0914 m] in easting which may

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have resulted from inherent errors in some of the coordinates used. A mean absolute error of
[4.7 x 10−3 m] on the dataset for the average of the Cartesian, forward and reverse projection
(conversions between geographic and projected coordinates on the same ellipsoid) from the
developed program could be insignificant in the outputs for any engineering or survey use.

5.2.2.2 Software Datum transformed and existing coordinates

A datum transformation using the WGS 84 geographic coordinates to Ghana War office projected
coordinates using the 7-transformation parameters produced results shown in Table 5.7 below,
which were compared to the existing War office values. These results did not consider the height
or elevation values since the interest of the research was in the positional accuracy.

Table 5.7: Transformed vs Existing Ghana War Office coordinates

Point ID Existing Converted Differences
E (ft.) N (ft.) E (ft.) N (ft.) ΔE ΔN
CFP 109 1109433.05 286868.63 1109433.6393 286864.7740 -0.5893 3.8560
CFP 150R 1281255.21 512174.18 1281256.4223 512177.1500 -1.2123 -2.9700
CFP 155 1218791.85 460739.72 1218793.3600 460741.6916 -1.5100 -1.9716
CFP 178 840169.51 689861.56 840170.4222 689862.5149 -0.9122 -0.9549
CFP 179 887815.70 617579.48 887814.8273 617581.7689 0.8727 -2.2889
CFP 185 564228.30 658750.36 564229.7368 658752.0580 -1.4368 -1.6980
CFP 200 1060041.45 346933.94 1060041.3549 346930.6886 0.0951 3.2514
CFP 180 795978.88 502139.98 795976.8887 502141.7011 1.9913 -1.7211
CFP 207 548934.64 428353.90 548936.9898 428356.6007 -2.3498 -2.7007
CFP 217 998070.31 461992.40 998069.0168 461990.2601 1.2932 2.1399
CFP 225 717756.06 285019.85 717754.3831 285025.3133 1.6769 -5.4633
GCS 306 671516.26 931057.32 671515.0165 931053.5671 1.2435 3.7529
GCS 302 531310.67 813987.32 531312.1122 813984.4366 -1.4422 2.8834
GCS 304 738496.56 842589.26 738494.2262 842588.1678 2.3338 1.0922
GCS 305 630369.77 789811.15 630370.2871 789809.4967 -0.5171 1.6533
GCS 142 984942.00 691483.15 984940.6781 691482.8075 1.3219 0.3425
GCS 145 750479.52 684673.93 750480.8875 684675.5367 -1.3675 -1.6067
GCS 213 991066.89 529124.19 991064.8916 529125.0769 1.9984 -0.8869
GCS 125 1239541.76 398140.35 1239546.2810 398142.5480 -4.5210 -2.1980
GCS 102 996471.72 222464.16 996470.2943 222458.0701 1.4257 6.0899
CFP 184 647795.79 653823.60 647796.3174 653823.8759 -0.5274 -0.2759

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 7

3
Residuals

-1

-3

-5

-7
CFP CFP CFP CFP CFP CFP CFP CFP CFP CFP CFP GCS GCS GCS GCS GCS GCS GCS GCS GCS CFP
109 150R 155 178 179 185 200 180 207 217 225 306 302 304 305 142 145 213 125 102 184
ΔE -0.6 -1.2 -1.5 -0.9 0.87 -1.4 0.1 1.99 -2.3 1.29 1.68 1.24 -1.4 2.33 -0.5 1.32 -1.4 2 -4.5 1.43 -0.5
ΔN 3.86 -3 -2 -1 -2.3 -1.7 3.25 -1.7 -2.7 2.14 -5.5 3.75 2.88 1.09 1.65 0.34 -1.6 -0.9 -2.2 6.09 -0.3
Control Pillar

Figure 5.5: Residuals in Easting and Northing Coordinates

Results from transformation calculations as seen above gave the maximum values of the
transformed from the existing to be [6.0899 ft.] and [2.3338 ft.] in the northing and easting
coordinates respectively, while the minimum values of deviations are [-5.4633 ft.] in northing and
[-4.521 ft.] in easting. To visualize the effects, figure 5.5 shows the residual plot from the existing
coordinates and converted. The mean and standard deviation of the differences, respectively are [-
0.1016 ft. and 1.7496 ft.] in easting and [0.0155 ft. and 2.8606 ft.] in northing. Also, the standard
errors for this dataset as per the result from using GGS gave [±0.3818 ft.] in the easting and
[±0.6242 ft.] in northing values. With a 99% confidence level in GGS, accuracy on the points with
the 7-transformation parameters for eastings was [0.1016ft. ± 0.9850 ft.], and for northing [0.0155
ft. ± 1.6104] ft. This may be as a result of inhomogeneity in establishing the geodetic framework
coordinates.

5.2.3 Reports for cadastral submission

One of the key tools for the GGS was the ability to generate an automated report for cadastral
computations from either coordinate points provided by the user or from a result from a GNSS
data post-processing as discussed in the previous chapter. Sample reports from GGS that were
used in accessing the software are provided in Appendix C.

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CHAPTER 6
Conclusion and Recommendation
This study primarily sought to develop a user-friendly GNSS post-processing software with and
simplified tools for use. Meanwhile, an experiment was to investigate some post-processing
services available. The application was developed based on the best open-source algorithm for
GNSS data processing. RINEX data format is accepted as inputs with flexibility to set/alter
processing parameters. The software has been designed to generate simplified and concise reports
for DGNSS, cadastral and coordinates transformations. The reports contain all details required for
submission to the SMD. Again, tests or validations of the suite were been carried out by post-
processing using the developed application and other commercial software (Sokkia Spectrum
Survey and Hi-Target Geomatic Office).

6.1 Conclusions

To ensure GNSS surveys are executed to achieve required accuracy, online GNSS processing
services can be deemed as a tool of immense advantage for surveying industries. In the journey to
get reliable geographic data, overreliance on the establishment of a reference station could be
minimized with the online processing of data. Without detailed knowledge of data processing, one
can be able to process GNSS data with these services. The minimum observation time with a
receiver is also reduced to 15 minutes, which can be post-processed using some of these services.
This investigation has uncovered that any online GNSS processing services can be utilized for fast
data processing at the client end. However, the choice of an online processing service must be
based on the accuracy requirements of a particular task to find out the distinction in observed value.
Online services results were much better as compared to RTKLib from the study made but capable
of producing centimeter-level on accuracy for some geodetic analysis.

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The aim of developing a GNSS data post-processing software called “GNSS Ghana” written in C-
sharp (C# programming language) with Visual Studio IDE was achieved for SMD and capable of;

 GNSS data (RINEX) post-processing

 Cadastral computation
 Direct, Inverse projection and Datum transformation

Based on algorithms implemented from available tested open-source software and refinements
performed on it, the developed software has a robust nature and advantages over some commercial
software used by the surveyors in SMD Ghana:

 Produces similar, accurate results as most of the commercial software available and target
specific by removing all unnecessary reports.
 The local coordinate system has been configured into the program for easy use but also
was designed for advanced configurations (i.e., Settings and parameters can be changed
for different ellipsoid and datum) for other systems. Results prove that datum
transformation can be used for any national or engineering work.
 Cadastral computation (including plan data, distance, and bearing, area, etc.) for SMD
Ghana was implemented to eliminate the robust use of several spreadsheets created for
some corners or points.
 GNSS data (RINEX format) can be processed using the developed application for all
survey works that do not require accuracies higher than the accuracy stated for this
application.
 It requires less or a few steps in the procedures involved to get a positional result.
 Nice, comfortable, and a modern user-friendly GUI with custom settings, file browser, etc.
 Uniformity in the data reports helped in file assessments and queries since all data will be
processed with the same tool.

The researcher believes that the results of this study will help structure the reporting system and
minimize the discrepancies in the processed data reports from different surveyors based on the
format that is accepted by Ghana SMD.

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6.2 Recommendation

The following recommendations on further research of GNSS processing for local country survey
projects in the future which are based on the research findings are;

 The developed program is based on baseline computations from only the base, and each
rover point; hence, vector closure would be included in the future to increase the accuracy
of each processed GNSS point. Thus, support for vector closure or point to point peer
connections for corrections among rovers, such that a fixed point that is closer can also be
used to correct other floating values.
 Continuous operating reference (COR) stations can be built and implemented into the
software to allow nation-wide processing of GNSS data with proximity to the closest COR
stations.
 The software should be adopted, and modified for online (web-based and desktop) use and
capable of submitting results to the users via email.
 Future online-based versions should allow document checks, approval and print out for
authentications (licensed and regional surveyors) before ready collections
 Future builds can be made to automate map plotting with a key plan and map data for easy,
fast and uniformity of data.

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Appendix
Results from GNSS post-processing
services and cadastral demo file

Table A.1: Known Control Point used for comparison (Afrifa, 2015)

COORDINATES
X 6333147.8021 ± 0.0023
Y -173104.3697 ± 0.0012
Z 736230.3934 ± 0.0010

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 Table A.2: Data from GNSS processing services
Date

OPUS AUSPOS APPS CSRS-PPP Trimble RTX GAPS RTKLib

X 6333147.8350 6333147.8130 6333147.8117 6333147.8175 6333147.8050 6333147.8421 6333147.8569

5/12/2014

Y -173104.3510 -173104.3470 -173104.3454 -173104.3437 -173104.3450 -173104.3401 -173104.4438

Z 736230.4260 736230.4100 736230.4141 736230.4141 736230.4120 736230.4177 736230.4147
X 6333147.8320 6333147.8080 6333147.8013 6333147.8162 6333147.8430 6333147.8765 6333147.9798
6/12/2014

Y -173104.3420 -173104.3470 -173104.3466 -173104.3405 -173104.3410 -173104.3487 -173104.3373

Z 736230.4180 736230.4030 736230.4152 736230.4093 736230.4120 736230.4191 736230.4182
X 6333147.8190 6333147.8100 6333147.8287 6333147.8265 6333147.8030 6333147.8535 6333147.9120
8/12/2014

Y -173104.3480 -173104.3540 -173104.3488 -173104.3497 -173104.3430 -173104.3513 -173104.4595

Z 736230.4190 736230.4060 736230.4130 736230.4126 736230.4080 736230.4165 736230.4045
X
10/12/2014

6333147.8140 6333147.7910 6333147.8107 6333147.8073 6333147.8310 6333147.8606 6333147.8738

Y -173104.3510 -173104.3630 -173104.3465 -173104.3476 -173104.3410 -173104.3443 -173104.5104
Z 736230.4230 736230.4150 736230.4055 736230.4086 736230.4130 736230.4186 736230.4038
X
11/12/2014

6333147.8350 6333147.8430 6333147.8153 6333147.8406 6333147.8030 6333147.8570 6333147.9933

Y -173104.3440 -173104.3480 -173104.3454 -173104.3486 -173104.3600 -173104.3501 -173104.3962
Z 736230.4120 736230.4120 736230.4099 736230.4110 736230.4100 736230.4159 736230.3916
X
12/12/2014

6333147.8190 6333147.8190 6333147.8119 6333147.8120 6333147.8340 6333147.8360 6333147.9046

Y -173104.3570 -173104.3550 -173104.3467 -173104.3574 -173104.3570 -173104.3570 -173104.5230
Z 736230.4130 736230.4050 736230.4087 736230.4136 736230.4080 736230.4153 736230.4019
X
13/12/2014

6333147.8190 6333147.8250 6333147.8159 6333147.8167 6333147.8200 6333147.8517 6333147.9834

Y -173104.3460 -173104.3480 -173104.3476 -173104.3386 -173104.3590 -173104.3397 -173104.3573
Z 736230.4150 736230.4090 736230.4149 736230.4125 736230.4110 736230.4198 736230.3999
X
19/12/2014

6333147.8390 6333147.8290 6333147.8292 6333147.8294 6333147.8100 6333147.8664 6333147.8799

Y -173104.3530 -173104.3540 -173104.3498 -173104.3550 -173104.3470 -173104.3375 -173104.4787
Z 736230.4160 736230.4100 736230.4094 736230.4094 736230.4110 736230.4164 736230.4289
X
20/12/2014

6333147.8150 6333147.8230 6333147.8180 6333147.8212 6333147.8410 6333147.8559 6333147.8751

Y -173104.3420 -173104.3460 -173104.3464 -173104.3447 -173104.3540 -173104.3416 -173104.3513
Z 736230.4190 736230.4080 736230.4131 736230.4122 736230.4100 736230.4209 736230.3952

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 Table A.3: Average results from services

Service Coord MIN MAX DIFF UNCERTAINTY at 99%

X 6333147.814 6333147.839 0.0250 6333147.824 ± 0.0033
OPUS

Y -173104.357 -173104.342 0.0150 -173104.3482 ± 0.0017

Z 736230.412 736230.426 0.0140 736230.4179 ± 0.0015
X 6333147.791 6333147.843 0.0520 6333147.8179 ± 0.0049
AUSPOS

Y -173104.363 -173104.346 0.0170 -173104.3513 ± 0.0019

Z 736230.403 736230.415 0.0120 736230.4087 ± 0.0012
X 6333147.836 6333147.877 0.0405 6333147.8560 ± 0.0040
GAPS

Y -173104.357 -173104.3375 0.0195 -173104.3456 ± 0.0022

Z 736230.4153 736230.4209 0.0056 736230.4178 ± 0.0006
X 6333147.807 6333147.841 0.0333 6333147.8208 ± 0.0033
CSRS-PPP

Y -173104.357 -173104.3386 0.0188 -173104.3473 ± 0.0021

Z 736230.4086 736230.4141 0.0055 736230.4115 ± 0.0007
X 6333147.801 6333147.829 0.0279 6333147.8159 ± 0.0029
APPS

Y -173104.35 -173104.3454 0.0044 -173104.3470 ± 0.0005

Z 736230.4055 736230.4152 0.0097 736230.4115 ± 0.0011
X 6333147.803 6333147.843 0.0400 6333147.8211 ± 0.0055
TRIMBLE
RTX

Y -173104.36 -173104.341 0.0190 -173104.3497 ± 0.0026

Z 736230.408 736230.413 0.0050 736230.4106 ± 0.0006
X 6333147.857 6333147.993 0.1364 6333147.9176 ± 0.0179
RTKLIB

Y -173104.523 -173104.3373 0.1857 -173104.4286 ± 0.0234

Z 736230.3916 736230.4289 0.0373 736230.4065 ± 0.0040

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Figure A.1: Data used in the Cadastral File to Table demo

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 Results from Forward and Inverse
projection, and Transformation
Table B.1: Existing WGS 84 coordinates (WGS 84 ellipsoid)

Latitude Longitude Ell. UTM Orth.

Point ID Height Height
Deg. Min. Sec. Deg. Min. Sec. [m] E (m) N (m) [m]

CFP 109 05 27 36.32595 -00 25 24.81756 78.341 785496.184 604133.467 54.525

CFP 150R 06 04 49.84387 00 03 00.86059 358.724 837675.384 673057.354 333.279
CFP 155 05 56 20.52274 -00 07 19.18038 524.556 818674.492 657293.934 499.088
CFP 178 06 34 16.88777 -01 09 52.78660 616.042 702928.231 726736.416 589.197
CFP 179 06 22 19.62332 -01 01 59.90811 493.174 717542.514 704754.037 466.527
CFP 185 06 29 5.19173 -01 55 30.56291 - 618849.866 716919.102 -
CFP 200 05 37 32.87363 -00 33 33.54116 33.544 770368.127 622404.543 279.952
CFP 180 06 03 13.64662 -01 17 10.34588 437.507 689673.65 669449.949 410.824
CFP 207 05 50 58.62367 -01 57 58.14538 400.701 614452.515 646686.273 374.024
CFP 217 05 56 35.18549 -00 43 46.93701 311.009 751343.023 657431.306 284.988
CFP 225 05 27 18.31345 -01 30 03.96620 275.081 666058.211 603175.815 249.305
GCS 306 07 14 09.09947 -01 37 49.67440 536.167 651203.345 800050.254 508.735
GCS 302 06 54 44.92872 -02 01 00.32719 561.004 608625.459 764186.057 533.214
GCS 304 06 59 31.95103 -01 26 43.21590 621.058 671737.477 773171.245 593.883
GCS 305 06 50 46.84308 -01 44 36.31138 417.153 638846.362 756944.448 389.866
GCS 142 06 34 32.86777 -00 45 56.05383 782.369 747072.585 727406.985 755.701
GCS 145 06 33 24.89857 -01 24 42.82870 503.604 675589.911 725045.878 476.674
GCS 213 06 07 41.50988 -00 44 56.05705 327.169 749131.685 677898.459 300.958
GCS 125 05 45 58.98277 -00 03 54.52938 97.464 825074.356 638217.317 72.578
GCS 102 05 16 57.87942 -00 44 03.86026 83.408 751105.004 584375.832 59.764
CFP 184 06 28 17.60775 -01 41 41.39103 472.125 644325.601 715517.342 445.055

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 Table B.2: Existing Ghana coordinates (War Office ellipsoid)
Ell. Orth.
Latitude Longitude Ghana Grid - TM
Point ID Height Height
Deg. Min. Sec. Deg. Min. Sec. [m] E (ft.) N (ft.) [m]
CFP 109 05 27 26.295 -00 25 25.845 79.289 1109433.1 286868.63 182.0
CFP 150R 06 04 39.815 00 02 59.783 358.896 1281255.2 512174.18 1094.0
CFP 155 05 56 10.488 -00 07 20.246 525.827 1218791.9 460739.72 1641.6
CFP 178 06 34 06.931 -01 09 53.754 617.242 840169.51 689861.56 1937.0
CFP 179 06 22 09.631 -01 02 00.869 492.624 887815.70 617579.48 1528.8
CFP 185 06 28 55.215 -01 55 31.467 642.921 564228.30 658750.36 2019.9
CFP 200 05 37 22.854 -00 33 34.551 304.614 1060041.50 346933.94 917.7
CFP 180 06 03 03.624 -01 17 11.272 437.705 795978.88 502139.98 1348.5
CFP 207 05 50 48.567 -01 57 59.053 400.864 548934.64 428353.90 1227.7
CFP 217 05 56 25.190 -00 43 47.920 311.740 998070.31 461992.40 937.4
CFP 225 05 27 08.187 -01 30 04.875 275.559 717756.06 285019.85 819.5
GCS 306 07 13 59.262 -01 37 50.580 529.742 671516.26 931057.32 1648.0
GCS 302 06 54 35.045 -02 01 01.221 563.262 531310.67 813987.32 1756.8
GCS 304 06 59 22.062 -01 26 44.126 617.755 738496.56 842589.26 1937.6
GCS 305 06 50 36.940 -01 44 37.235 415.998 630369.77 789811.15 1275.3
GCS 142 06 34 22.926 -00 45 57.035 781.962 984942.00 691483.15 2478.0
GCS 145 06 33 14.933 -01 24 43.778 503.545 750479.52 684673.93 1563.7
GCS 213 06 07 31.505 -00 44 57.032 327.536 991066.89 529124.19 988.6
GCS 125 05 45 48.926 -00 03 55.629 98.038 1239541.8 398140.35 240.0
GCS 102 05 16 47.850 -00 44 04.840 83.964 996471.72 222464.16 197.9
CFP 184 06 28 07.645 -01 41 42.307 473.357 647795.79 653823.60 1464.2

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 Table B.3: Projected WGS 84 geographic using GGS

Existing Converted
Point ID Latitude Longitude Latitude Longitude
Deg. Min. Sec. Deg. Min. Sec. Deg. Min. Sec. Deg. Min. Sec.
CFP 109 05 27 36.32595 -00 25 24.81756 05 27 36.32594 -00 25 24.81756
CFP 150R 06 4 49.84387 00 03 0.86059 06 4 49.84389 00 03 0.86059
CFP 155 05 56 20.52274 -00 7 19.18038 05 56 20.52274 -00 07 19.18036
CFP 178 06 34 16.88777 -01 9 52.7866 06 34 16.88776 -01 09 52.7866
CFP 179 06 22 19.62332 -01 01 59.90811 06 22 19.62332 -01 01 59.90812
CFP 185 06 29 5.19173 -01 55 30.56291 06 29 05.19170 -01 55 30.56291
CFP 200 05 37 32.87363 -00 33 33.54116 05 37 32.87364 -00 33 33.54413
CFP 180 06 03 13.64662 -01 17 10.34588 06 03 13.64663 -01 17 10.34587
CFP 207 05 50 58.62367 -01 57 58.14538 05 50 58.62367 -01 57 58.14538
CFP 217 05 56 35.18549 -01 43 46.93701 05 56 35.1855 -00 43 46.93699
CFP 225 05 27 18.31345 -01 30 3.9662 05 27 18.31345 -01 30 3.96621
GCS 306 07 14 9.09947 -01 37 49.6744 07 14 9.09948 -01 37 49.67439
GCS 302 06 54 44.92872 -02 01 0.32719 06 54 44.92873 -02 01 0.32718
GCS 304 06 59 31.95103 -01 26 43.2159 06 59 31.95104 -01 26 43.21591
GCS 305 06 50 46.84308 -01 44 36.31138 06 50 46.8431 -01 44 36.31138
GCS 142 06 34 32.86777 -00 45 56.05383 06 34 32.86776 -00 45 56.05384
GCS 145 06 33 24.89857 -01 24 42.8287 06 33 24.89856 -01 24 42.8287
GCS 213 06 07 41.50988 -00 44 56.05705 06 07 41.50989 -00 44 56.05706
GCS 125 05 45 58.98277 -00 03 54.52938 05 45 58.98277 -00 03 54.52937
GCS 102 05 16 57.87942 -00 44 3.86026 05 16 57.87942 -00 44 3.86026
CFP 184 06 28 17.60775 -01 41 41.39103 06 28 17.60776 -01 41 41.39102

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Table B.4: Transformed geographic WGS 84 into War office coordinates – TM using GGS

Point ID Easting Northing Zone Scale Convergence

CFP 109 1109433.639 286864.774 30 N 0.999800429 + 000 03 17.26706
CFP 150R 1281256.422 512177.15 31 N 0.999917116 + 000 06 40.24004
CFP 155 1218793.36 460741.6916 30 N 0.999866843 + 000 05 26.81455
CFP 178 840170.4222 689862.5149 30 N 0.999754115 - 000 01 07.92021
CFP 179 887814.8273 617581.7689 30 N 0.999750171 - 000 00 13.40984
CFP 185 564229.7368 658752.058 30 N 0.999879615 - 000 06 16.12399
CFP 200 1060041.355 346930.6886 30 N 0.999779447 + 000 02 35.34922
CFP 180 795976.8887 502141.7011 30 N 0.999762440 - 000 01 48.71335
CFP 207 548936.9898 428356.6007 30 N 0.999891696 - 000 05 54.44005
CFP 217 998069.0168 461990.2601 30 N 0.999761057 + 000 01 40.60247
CFP 225 717754.3831 285025.3133 30 N 0.999788186 - 000 02 51.49942
GCS 306 671515.0165 931053.5671 30 N 0.999810016 - 000 04 45.89407
GCS 302 531312.1122 813984.4366 30 N 0.999906272 - 000 07 20.50873
GCS 304 738494.2262 842588.1678 30 N 0.999779987 - 000 03 15.20761
GCS 305 630370.2871 789809.4967 30 N 0.999833579 - 000 05 19.03327
GCS 142 984940.6781 691482.8075 30 N 0.999758295 + 000 01 36.49291
GCS 145 750480.8875 684675.5367 30 N 0.999775701 - 000 02 49.36306
GCS 213 991064.8916 529125.0769 30 N 0.999759534 + 000 01 36.34991
GCS 125 1239546.281 398142.548 30 N 0.999882552 + 000 05 37.89827
GCS 102 996470.2943 222458.0701 30 N 0.999760700 + 000 01 27.89504
CFP 184 647796.3174 653823.8759 30 N 0.999823126 - 000 04 41.92788

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Results from GNSS Ghana DGNSS
and Cadastral process

Figure C.1: GGS Point List

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Figure C.2: GGS Point Summary

Figure C.3: GGS Beacon

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 BEARING AND DISTANCE FROM COORDINATES
From Point SGA A179 18 1 (A) To Point SGA A179 18 2 (B)

Xa = 697249.880 Ya = 719926.865
Xb = 697350.863 Yb = 719922.901
-3.96 100.98

Actual Bearing = 092 14 45 DISTANCE = 101.06

From Point SGA A179 18 2 (A) To Point SGA A179 18 3 (B)

Xa = 697350.863 Ya = 719922.901
Xb = 697346.862 Yb = 719822.513
-100.39 -4.00

Actual Bearing = 182 16 54 DISTANCE = 100.47

From Point SGA A179 18 3 (A) To Point SGA A179 18 4 (B)

Xa = 697346.862 Ya = 719822.513
Xb = 697247.071 Yb = 719826.540
4.03 -99.79

Actual Bearing = 272 18 45 DISTANCE = 99.87

From Point SGA A179 18 4 (A) To Point SGA A179 18 1 (B)

Xa = 697247.071 Ya = 719826.540
Xb = 697249.880 Yb = 719926.865
100.32 2.81

Actual Bearing = 001 36 16 DISTANCE = 100.36

CONNECTING PILLARS
From Point UST TP 1 (A) To Point SGA A179 18 1 (B)

Xa = 694859.720 Ya = 727513.950
Xb = 697249.880 Yb = 719926.865
-7587.08 2390.16

Actual Bearing = 162 30 50 DISTANCE = 7954.67

From Point SGA A179 18 4 (A) To Point UST TP 6 (B)

Xa = 697247.071 Ya = 719826.540
Xb = 694925.377 Yb = 727227.644
7401.10 -2321.69

Actual Bearing = 342 35 01 DISTANCE = 7756.71

Figure C.4: GGS Bearing and Distance

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 Figure C.5: GGS Area Computation

PLAN DATA SHEET

FROM TO BEARING DISTANCE REMARKS
deg. min sec feet
SGA A179 18 1 SGA A179 18 2 092 14 45 101.06
SGA A179 18 2 SGA A179 18 3 182 16 54 100.47
SGA A179 18 3 SGA A179 18 4 272 18 45 99.87
SGA A179 18 4 SGA A179 18 1 001 36 16 100.36

CONNECTING PILLAR
UST TP 1 SGA A179 18 1 162 30 50 7954.67
SGA A179 18 4 UST TP 6 342 35 01 7756.71

AREA = 0.23 acres

= 0.09 hect.

Figure C.6: GGS Plan Data

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