Impact of neonatal diet on calf death

Effective colostrum management remains crucial in preventing calf morbidity and

mortality, with immunoglobulins being just one of several essential components for the calf's
development. The traditional threshold of 10 g/L of serum Ig has long been used to determine
the failure of passive transfer of immunity in calves. However, recent studies have questioned
this approach1. Beyond immunoglobulins, non-nutrient factors such as leucocytes, growth
factors, hormones, oligosaccharides, and microRNAs play significant roles in shaping the
development of both intestinal and systemic immunity 2. These factors contribute to the
maturation and function of the intestine, facilitating the calf's digestion and absorption of
nutrients from milk and colostrum. Identical to peripheral blood, colostrum has large numbers
of viable leucocytes, but with comparatively higher proportion of macrophages and a lower
proportion of lymphocytes with T lymphocytes being higher number 34. The enhanced
energetic status of colostrum-fed neonates is evident in the accelerated maturation of the
somatotropic axis, promoting organ development and body growth 5. An extract of first-
milked bovine colostrum improved the villus anatomy in the small intestine and also the
extent of proliferation of epithelial cells in the intestines.6 Moreover, availability of sufficient
milk, instead of to reduced milk feed levels, was the primary factor linked to a decreased
incidence of newborn diarrhoea.7

Colostrum quantity and quality

Ig concentration is a key determinant of colostrum quality and is still required for

effective passive transfer.8 Cow-side colostrum examination for quality has been extensively
studied because direct laboratory procedures for determining Ig in colostrum are complicated
and costly.9 Colostrum contaminated by bacteria is a common occurrence on many dairies,
raising two related concerns: the possibility of spreading illnesses and reduced intestinal
absorption of IgG. There should be less than 10,000 cfu/mL of faecal coliforms and no more
than 100,000 cfu/mL of total bacteria.10

The composition of colostrum plays a crucial role in thermogenesis and regulating

body temperature, particularly important for neonates born with minimal energy reserves. 11
Various factors like Season, parity and age, 12 breed,13 colostrum yield,14 vaccination
schemes,15 length of the dry season16 and the amount of time between calving and colostrum
collection affect colostrum composition.17 For calves born with limited energy stores, the
main source of energy is colostrum fat.18 Colostrum proteins are also essential for
gluconeogenesis during the first twenty-four hours of life. 11 Differences in the following
management practices of various farms influence the composition of colostrum. 19 Recently,
genetic factors also found to have role in colostrum traits. 20 The yield of colostrum also
affected by various factors like age at calving, Parity of animal, season, dry period length and
the milk yield in previous lactation period etc.21

Colostrum time of feeding after birth

For the best possible body growth, organ development, and immunity to infections, an
intense milk-feeding regimen that is biologically normal is required.22 During the first three-
to-four-week period of life, ad libitum or nearly ad libitum feeding reduces hunger in calves,
which enhances calf wellbeing.7 A serum protein concentration of 52 g/L, equivalent to 10
g/L serum IgG, was previously recommended for healthy calves up to 8 days old. 23 Newer
research challenges this simplicity, suggesting that a serum total protein value of ≥ 57 g/L
may decrease the risk of respiratory disease in calves. 24 Furthermore, according to certain
research, the ideal range for dairy calves' serum total protein levels to indicate sufficient
passive transfer of immunity is between 58 and 63 g/L.25

Supplements in colostrum

Milk contains proteins, oligosaccharides and micro RNAs each with distinct role in
development and maintaining the health of calf. Compared to mature milk, bioactive proteins
are way higher in colostrum.26 Conventionally, the majority of the benefits of colostrum are
credited to its substantial number of immunoglobulins (Ig). Since calves are born with no
protective immunoglobulins (Ig) because of the anatomy of the placenta they rely on the
efficient passive transfer of Ig from colostrum.27 Furthermore, Colostrum has significant
amounts of insulin and a variety of growth hormones, notably insulin-like growth factors
(IGFs).28 Oligosaccharides in colostrum act as energy source for beneficial bacteria and might
have crucial role in inhibiting the adhesion of infectious agents. 29 Large number of
microRNAs, which may be essential for the development of the intestinal epithelium and the
development of the calf immune system are also present in colostrum.30
Transition milk feeding

Milkings two through six following calving are considered transition milk (TM). 27
Immunoglobulin G along with other bioactive substances like insulin, growth hormone, and
IGF-1 are also present in higher concentrations in TM. Furthermore, these levels eventually
drop as mammary secretions change from colostrum to normal milk. 31 It was found that
giving TM to calves after they were fed colostrum increased their growth rates and reduced
the amount of haptoglobin in their serum,32 which was supported by the previous findings like
feeding TM after colostrum boosted bodyweight and enhanced scores for nasal, ear, and
ocular health.33 Recently it was demonstrated that in comparison to MR, feeding TM in the
first 4 d following colostrum enhanced the intestinal development with regards to improved
villi width and length, greater thickness of mucosa and submucosa and increased proliferation
of epithelium in various parts of intestine.34

Milk replacer different types (with and without supplementation)

In contrast to common belief, there is no proof that a cow or calf's health benefits
from an early separation from its mother. The conventional recommendation was to feed
calves approximately 10% of their body weight per day in milk or milk replacer, promoting
the concept of "restricted feeding." This approach aimed to encourage early consumption of
concentrates, thereby reducing costs associated with expensive liquid feeds.35

Providing high-quality milk replacer instead of whole milk can benefit dairy farmers
by preserving the market value of whole milk. 36 However, the use of milk replacers is
primarily observed in developed nations. Maintaining consistent quality with essential
nutrients is crucial,37 which necessitates careful consideration of ingredient type, level,
mixing ability, and absence of discoloured components. 38 Milk replacers typically incorporate
locally available ingredients such as soy milk powder, 39 soy protein,40 whey proteins,36
wheat,41 buttermilk powder, vegetable or animal fat, glucose, vitamin, and mineral
premixes.42 In the early weeks of life, preruminant calves' digestive enzymes are tailored for
milk-based protein breakdown, but their ability to digest complex non-milk proteins and
carbohydrates improves within the first month .43
 Typically, milk replacers are given at 10% of the calf's body weight to ensure
maintenance and minimal weight gain. However, in accelerated programs, calves may receive
higher volumes of milk replacers or those with a protein content of 26-28%. 44 Studies indicate
that calves on a more nutrient-rich diet gain weight faster and exhibit better feed efficiency
when fed high-protein milk replacers.45 Conventional milk replacers are formulated with
protein and fat levels at around 20-22% and 20%, respectively, aiming to maximize lean
tissue growth.46 Additionally, calves provided ad libitum access to milk replacers exhibit
lower mortality rates and higher average daily weight gain. 47 Dairy bull calves' growth
potential and diversity of rumen bacteria are affected by various milk replacers.48

Beef on dairy

The 1960s marked the beginnings of the idea of "dairy beef," which indicates meat
from dairy cattle. The owner’s profit from the increased value of the calves produced by
selectively breeding female dairy cattle with beef bulls. 4950 Over time, this method has
become more popular, especially in meeting the US's increasing demand for beef. 51 Even
though it's a byproduct of the dairy industry, beef from dairy herds makes up a significant
portion (20–22%) of the US beef output. 52 In general, calves born from mating with beef
semen are worth more than those born from dairy bulls.53
Moreover, it has been discovered that adding beef genetics to dairy herds improves
reproductive performance, which decreases the demand for extra dairy female graduates. 54
Additionally, beef-on-dairy calves are often believed to have health advantages, 55 and yield
better carcass weights and dressing percentages compared to purebred calves.56

Since 90% of beef females mate by natural service, the dairy industry is mostly
accountable for the rise in the sale of beef seme. From 2016 to 2019, there was an increase in
the number of beef mating’s on dairy farms employing Angus semen, and Charolais breed
service sires ranking in second.57 According to reports, dairy cows in the western United
States adopted beef semen for mating between 2010 and 2017. 58 By 2020, however, the
majority of Californian dairies had integrated the use of beef semen into their mating
systems.59 Furthermore, Schaefer et al. developed a workable model of beef production called
the calffed Holstein model by implementing practices including good management and
nutrition.60
 For the purpose of selecting beef for dairy sires, a variety of indices have been
established, taking into account different aspects such as gestation length and economic
parameters for the Ireland index,61 and carcass performance and calving-related traits for the
Scandinavian index.54 However, no analysis of the sire selection for dairy beef has been done
in the United States up to this point. Due to variations in carcass valuation criteria, the other
European country indices were equally not applicable in the United States. 62 Nevertheless,
privately owned US institutions such as the American Angus Association. 63 and Holstein
association USA developed indices to select Angus bulls for mating. Some characters like
polled ness and black hide were considered for their advantages in US for Angus semen
slection.57

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