REVISED NINTH EDITION A Textbook of FLUID MECHANICS HYDRAULIC MACHINES Dr. R.K. BansalA TEXTBOOK OF FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINESWIN A CASH AWARD OF Rs. 500.00 It has come to our notice that some booksellers are fraudulently selling fake/duplicate copies of some of our fast. selling titles. In our sincere efforts to provide you with our genuine books and to protect you against these counterfeit books, Laxmi Publications (LP) has put a Hologram on the cover of some of its fast selling titles. The Hologram displays a unique 3D multi-level, multi-colour effect from different angles. It has the following three levels of flat graphics merged together. The background artwork ‘seems to be ‘under’ or ‘behind! the Hologram and gives the illusion of depth unlike the fake Hologram on the fake/duplicate books. (Preto ‘Channel 1 ‘Channel 2 Background Presently, only some titles have got the Holograms. 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The counterfeit edition of the book may have no LP Hologram or ifit has, it will be without the illusionary depth as described above. ‘What is the harm in purchasing duplicate books ? — Poor quality of paper and printing which affect your eyes, — No royalty to authors who are scholars and have put their hard labour in writing the book, ‘thus depriving them of their intellectual rights. (Warning : Selling or buying pirated books is an offence. Legal action shall be taken against the| Dookseller(s) and student(s) or whoever found guilty of such an offence in any way.A TEXTBOOK OF FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES (in $.1. Units) [For Degree, U.P.S.C. (Engg. Services), A.M.LE. (India)] By Dr. R.K. BANSAL B. Sc. Engg. (Mech.), M.Tech. Hons. (I.L.T:, Delhi) Ph. D., M.LE. (India) Formerly Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dean (U.G. Studies), Delhi College of Engineering, Delhi LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD BANGALORE © CHENNAI © COCHIN — + GUWAHATI. + HYDERABAD JALANDHAR * KOLKATA © LUCKNOW + MUMBAI =» RANCHI NEW DELHIPublished by LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 113, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Phone : 011-43 53 25 00 Fax : 011-43 53 25 28 www laxmipublications.com {info@laxmipublications.com Author : Dr. B.K. Bansal Compiled by : Smt. Nirmal Bansal © All rights reserved with Author and the Publishers. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Price : Rs. 495.00 Only. First Edition : Sept. 1983 Ninth Edition ; 2005 Reprint : 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 Revised Ninth Edition : 2010 OFFICES © Bangalore 080-26 61 15 61 © Chenn 044-24 34 47 26 © Cochin —_ 0484-237 70 04, 405 13 03 = © Guwahati 0361-254 36 69, 25138 81 © Hyderabad 040-24 65 23 33 © Jalandhar 0181-222 12 72 © Kolkata 033-22 27 43 84 © Lucknow 0522-220 95 78 © Mumbai 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69 © Ranchi 0651-221 47 64 EFM-0559-495-FLUID MECHANICS & HM-BAN, Cc ‘Typeseted at : Shubham Composer, New Delhi Printed at : Repro India Ltd, MumbaiThe louing memory of ny daughter, CabléPREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION ‘The popularity of the eighth edition and reprints of the book A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines amongst the students and the teachers of the various Universities of the country, has prompted the bringing out of the ninth edition of the book so soon, The ninth edition has been thoroughly revised and brought up-to-date. A large number of problems from different B.E. degree examinations of Indian Universities and other examining bodies such as Institution of Engineers and U.P.S.C. upto Summer 2002 examinations have been selected and have been solved at proper places on this edition. Most of these problems have been worked out in S.J. units. All of the text along with existing problems have been converted into S.1. Units In the ninth edition, a new chapter entitled Ideal Flow (or Potential Flow) has been added. Potential flow has been included in most of Indian Universities. This chapter has been written ina simple and easy-to-follow language so that even an average student can grasp the subject matter by self-study. Also a few new topics such as “Liquids in Relative Equilibrium” and “Pipe Network” have been added in this edition. The topic of Pipe Network has been included in the chapter of Flow Through Pipes. The pipe network is mostly used in city water supply system, Laboratory supply system or house hold supply of water and gas, ‘The objective type multiple-choice questions are often asked in the various competitive examinations. Hence a large number of objective type questions with answers have been added in the end of the book. With these additions, it is hoped that the book will be quite useful for the students of different branches of Engineering at various Engineering Institutions. Texpress my sincere thanks to my colleagues, friends, students and the teachers of differ- ent Indian Universities for their valuable suggestions and recommending the book of their students, ‘Suggestions for the improvement of this book are most welcome and would be incorporated in the next edition with a view to make the book more useful. ~ AuthorPREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION am glad to present the book entitled, A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines to the engineering students of mechanical, civil, electrical, aeronautical and chemical and also to the students preparing for the new scheme of Section B of A.M.LE. Examination of Institution of Engineers (India). The course contents have been planned in such a way that the general requirements of all engineering students are fulfilled. During my long experience of teaching this subject to undergraduate and post-graduate engineering students for the past 16 years, I have observed that the students face difficulty in understanding clearly the basic principles, fundamental concepts and theory without adequate solved problems along with the text. To meet this very basic requirement to the students, a large number of the questions taken from the examinations of the various Universities of India and from other professional and competitive examinations (such as Institution of Engineers and U.P.S.C. Engineering Service Examination) have been solved along with the text in M.K.S. and S.1 units. The book is written in a simple and easy-to-follow language, so that even an average stu- dents can grasp the subject by self-study. At the end of each chapter highlights, theoretical questions and many unsolved numerical problems with answer are given for the students to solve them. Tam thankful to my colleagues, friends and students who encouraged me to write this book. I am grateful to Institution of Engineers (India), various Universities of India and those authorities whose work have been consulted and gave me a great help in preparing the book. I express my appreciation and gratefulness to my publisher. Shri R.K. Gupta (as Mechanical Engineer) for his most co-operative, painstaking attitude and untiring efforts for bringing out the book in a short period. Mrs. Nirmal Bansal deserves special credit as she not only provided an ideal atmosphere at home for book writing but also gave inspiration and valuable suggestions. ‘Though every care has been taken in checking the manuscripts and proof reading, yet claiming perfection is very difficult. I shall be very grateful to the readers and users of this book for pointing any mistakes that might have crept in. Suggestions for improvement are most weleome and would be incorporated in the next edition with a view to make the book more useful. - AuthorChapter Chapter La 1.2. 13. Ma 1.5. 16, 4a. CONTENTS 1. Properties of Fluids Introduction Properties of Fluids 12.1. Density or Mass Density 122. — Specific Weight or Weight Density 123. — Specific Volume 124. Specific Gravity Solved Problems 1.11.2 Viscosity Units of Viseosity Kinematie Viscosity Newton's Law of Viscosity Variation of Viscosity with Temperature ‘Types of Fluids Solved Problems 1.3—1.19 ‘Thermodynamic Properties 1 Dimension of R 142. — Isothermal Process 14.3. Adiabatie Process 144. — Universal Gas Constant Solved Problems 1.20—1.22 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus Solved Problems 1.23—1.24 Surface Tension and Capillarity 1 Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet 16.2. Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble L ‘Surface Tension on_a Liquid Jet Solved Problems 1.25—1.27 164, Capillarity Solved Problems 1.28—1.32 Vapour Pressure and Cavitation Highlights Exercise Chapter 2. Pressure and Its Measurement 2a. 2.2. 23. Fluid Pressure at a Point Pascal's Law Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Solved Problems 2.1—2.7 @) Pages 134 24 35-68 35 35 37) 2.4. Absolute, Gauge, Atmospheric and Vacuum. Pressures Solved Problem 2.8 2.5. Measurement of Pressure Manometers ‘Mechanical Gauges ple Manometers Piezometer U-tube Manometer Solved Problems 2.9—2.13 2.6.3. Single Column Manometer Solved Problem 2.14 2.7. Differential Manometers 2.7.1, U-tube Differential Manometer Solved Problems 2.15—2.17 2.7.2. Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer Solved Problems 2.18—2.21 2.8. Pressure at a Point in Compressible Fluid 28.1. Isothermal Process Adiabatic Process ‘Temperature at any Point in Compressible Fluid ‘Temperature Lapse-Rate (L) Solved Problems 2.22—2.26 Highlights Exercise Chapter 3. Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 3.1, Introduction 8.2, Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure 3.3. Vertical Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.1—3.12 8.4, Horizontal Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problem 3.13, 8.5. Inclined Plane Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.14(a)—3.21 8.6. Curved Surface Sub-merged in Liquid Solved Problems 3.22—3.31 8.7. Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure on Lock Gates Solved Problems $.32—3.33 8.8. Pressure Distribution in a Liquid Subjected to Constant Horizontal/Vertical Acceleration 3.8.1. Liquid Containers Subject to Constant, Horizontal Acceleration Solved Problems 3.34—3.36 3.8.2. Liquid Containers Subjected to Constant Vertical Acceleration Solved Problems 3.37—3.38, Highlights Exercise 107 109 2 12 115 120 122 124 125(ei) Chapter 4. Buoyancy and Floatation 4a. 4.2. 43. 44, 45. 46. Aa. 48. 49. Introduction Buoyancy Centre of Buoyancy Solved Problems 4.14.6 Meta-centre Meta-centrie Height Analytical Method for Meta-Centre Height Solved Problems 4.7—4.11 Conditions of Equilibrium of a Floating and ‘Sub-merged Bodies 4.7.1. Stability of a Sub-merged Body 4.72. Stability of a Floating Body Solved Problems 4.12—4.18 Experimental Method of Determination of ‘Meta-centrie Height Solved Problems 4.19—4.20 Oscillation (Rolling) of a Floating Body Solved Problems 4.21—4.22 Highlights Exercise Chapter 5. Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow Bal. 5.2. 5.3. 54. 5.5. 5.6. 5.7. 5.8. A. KINEMATICS OF FLOW Introduction ‘Methods of Deseribing Fluid Motion ‘Types of Fluid Flow 5.3.1, — Steady and Unsteady Flows 5.3.2. Uniform and Non-uniform Flows 5.3.3. Laminar and Turbulent Flows 5. Compressible and Incompressible Flows 5.3.5. Rotational and Irrotational Flows 5.3.6. One, two and Three-Dimensional Flows Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q) Continuity Equation Solved Problems 5.1—5.5 Continuity Equation in Three-Dimensions 5.6.1. Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Polar Co-ordinates Solved Problems 5.54. Velocity and Acceleration 5.7.1. Local Acceleration and Convective ‘Acceleration Solved Problems 5.6—5.9 Velocity Potential Function and Stream Function 5.8.1, Velocity Potential Function 5.82. Stream Funetion 5.8.3. Equipotential Line 5.84. Line of Constant Stream Function 181-162 131 131 131 131 136 136 137 138 43 143 143 44 154 155 156 158 159 160 163-258, 163 163 163 163 164 164 164 165 165 165 165 166 170 a. 173 44 175 175, 181 181 182 183 1835.9. 5.10, BAL. Bz, 5B. Bad. 5.15. 5.16. BAT. (aii) 5.8.5. Flow Net 5.8.6. Relation between Stream Function and ‘Velocity Potential Function Solved Problems 5.10—5.17 ‘Types of Motion 5.9.1. Linear Translation 5.9.2. Linear Deformation 5.9.3. Angular Deformation or Shear Deformation 5.9.4. Rotation 5.95. Vorticity Solved Problems 6.18—5.19 Vortex Flow 5.10.1. Forced Vortex Flow 5.10.2. Free Vortex Flow 5.10.3. Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow 5.10.4. Equation of Forced Vortex Flow Solved Problems 5.20—5.25 5.10.5. Closed Cylindrical Vessels Solved Problems 5.26—5.31 5.10.6. Equation of Free Vortex Flow Solved Problem 5.32 (B) IDEAL FLOW (POTENTIAL FLOW) Introduction Important Cases of Potential Flow Uniform Flow 5.13.1. Uniform Flow Parallel to x-Axis, 5.13.2. Uniform Potential Flow Parallel to y-Axis| Source Flow Sink Flow Solved Problems 5.33—5.85 Free-Vortex Flow ‘Super-Imposed Flow 5.17.1. Source and Sink Pair Solved Problems 5.36—5.37 5.17.2. Doublet Solved Problem 5.38 5.17.3. A Plane Source in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Half-Body) Solved Problems 5.39—5.41 5.17.4. A Source and Sink Pair in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past Rankine Oval Body) Solved Problem 5.42 5.17.5. A Doublet in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Circular Cylinder) Solved Problems 5.43—5.44 Highlights Exercise 184 184 184 191 191 191 192 192 192 192 193 193, 194 195 196 197 202 202 209 210 210 au 2 au 213 214 216 216 219 221 221 225 228 231 233 237 241 244 246 250 252 254(ii Chapter 6. Dynamics of Fluid Flow 61. 6.2. 63. 64. 6.5. 6.6. 6.7. 6.8. 6.9. 6.10. Introduction Equations of Motion Euler's Equation of Motion Bernoulli's Equation from Euler's Equation Assumptions Solved Problems 6.1—6.6 Bernoulli's Equation for Real Fluid Solved Problems 6.7—6.9 Practical Applications of Bernoulli's Equation 67.1, Venturimeter Solved Problems 6.10—6.21 6.7.2. — Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate Solved Problems 6.22 —6.23 6.7.3. — Pitot-tube Solved Problems 6.24—6.28 "The Momentum Equation Solved Problems 6.29—6.35 ‘Moment of Momentum Equation Solved Problems 6.36—6.37 Free Liquid Jets Solved Problems 6.38—641 Highlights Exercise Chapter 7. Orifices and Mouthpieces Ta. 7.2. 73. 14. 15. 7.6. 11. 7.8. Introduction Classifications of Orifices Flow Through an Orifice Hydraulic Co-efficients 1. Covefficient of Velocity (C,) 742. Covefficient of Contraction (C,) 743. Covefficient of Discharge (C,) Solved Problems 7.1—7.2 Experimental Determination of Hydraulic Coefficients Toa Determination of Co-fixion of Dincharg (C7 Determination of Co-efficient of Velocity (C,) 752. Determination of Co-efficient of Contraction (C,) Solved Problems 7.3—7.10 Flow Through Large Orifices 7.6.1. Discharge Through Large Rectangular Orifice Solved Problems 7.11—7.13 Discharge Through Fully Sub-merged Orifice Solved Problems 7.14—7.15 Discharge Through Partially Sub-merged Orifice Solved Problem 7.16 259-316 259 259 260 261 261 261 265 266 268 268 270 281 283 285 286 288 289 298 298 301 303 307 309 317-354 317 317 317 318 318 319 319 319 320 320 321 321 321 327 328 828 330 331 331 38279. 710, 7a. 72, 713. 74. 715. xiv) ‘Time of Emptying a Tank Through an Orifice at its Bottom Solved Problems 7.17—7.18 ‘Time of Emptying a Hemispherical Tank Solved Problems 7.19—7.21 ‘Time of Emptying a Circular Horizontal Tank Solved Problems 7.22—7.23 Classification of Mouthpieces Flow Through an External Cylindrical Mouthpiece Solved Problems 7.24—7.25 Flow Through a Convergent-Divergent Mouthpiece Solved Problems 7.26—7.28 Flow Through Internal or Re-entrant on Borda's Mouthpiece Solved Problem 7.29 Highlights Exercise Chapter 8. Notches and Weirs 86. 8.7. 89. 8.10. aul. 82, 813. Introduction . Classification of Notches and Weirs . Discharge Over a Rectangular Notch or Weir Solved Problems 8.18.3 . Discharge Over a Triangular Notch or Weir Solved problems 8.48.6 5. Advantages of Triangular Notch or Weir over Rectangular Noteh or Weir Discharge Over a Trapezoidal Notch or Weir Solved Problem 8.7 Discharge Over a Stepped Notch Solved Problem 8.8 Effect on Discharge Over a Notch or Weir Due to Error in the Measurement of Head 88.1. For Rectangular Weir or Notch 882. For Triangular Weir or Notch Solved Problems 8.9—8.11 (a) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a ‘Tank with a Rectangular Weir or Notch (b) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a ‘Tank with a Triangular Weir or Notch Solved Problems 8.12—8.14 Velocity of Approach Solved Problems 8.15—8.19 Empirical Formulae for Discharge Over Rectangular Weir Solved Problems 8.20—8.22 Cipolletti Weir or Notch Solved Problems 8.23—8.24 Discharge Over a Broad-Crested Weir 332 333 335 338 366 367 368 370 370 374 374 376 377 378ad. 815. 816. (w) Discharge Over a Narrow-Crested Weir Discharge Over an Ogee Weir Discharge Over Sub-merged or Drowned Weir Solved Problems 8.25—827 Highlights Exercise Chapter 9. Viscous Flow 9.1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.4. 9.5. 9.6. 9.7. 9.8. Introduction Flow of Viscous Fluid Through Circular Pipe Solved Problems 9.19.6 Flow of Viscous Fluid between Two Parallel Plates Solved Problems 9.7—9.12 Kinetic Energy Correction and Momentum, Correction Factors Solved Problem 9.13 Power Absorbed in Viscous Flow 9.5.1. Viscous Resistance of Journal Bearings Solved Problems 9.14—9.18 9.5.2. Viscous Resistance of Foot-step Bearing Solved Problems 9.19—9.20 9.5.3. Viscous Resistance of Collar Bearing Solved Problems 9.21—9.22 Loss of Head Due to Friction in Viscous Flow Solved Problems 9.23—9.24 ‘Movement of Piston in Dash-pot Solved Problem 9.25 ‘Methods of Determination of Co-efficient of Viscosity 98.1. Capillary Tube Method Falling Sphere Resistance Method Rotating Cylinder Method Orifice Type Viscometer Solved Problems 9.26—9.32 Highlights Exercise Chapter 10. Turbulent Flow 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.4. Introduction Reynolds Experiment, Frictional Loss in Pipe Flow 10.3.1. Expression for Loss of Head Due ‘to Frietion in Pipes 10.3.2. Expression for Co-efficient of Friction in Terms of Shear Stress Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow 10.4.1. Reynolds Expression for Turbulent Shear Stress 10.4.2. Prandtl Mixing Length Theory for ‘Turbulent Shear Stress 379 379 379 380 381 383 387-432 387 387 391 397 400 404 404 407 407 408 4 412 412 413 aut 415 417 418 419 419 420 421 422 423 427 429 433-464 433 433 434 434 436 437 437 43810.5. 10.6. (xvi) Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow in Pipes 10.5.1. Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries 10.5.2. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes 10.5.3. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Rough Pipes Solved Problems 10.1—10.4 10.5.4. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Terms of Average Velocity Solved Problems 10.5—10.6 10.5.5. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes by Power Law Resistance of Smooth and Rough Pipes Solved Problems 10.7—10.13 Highlights Exercise Chapter 11. Flow Through Pipes wa. 112. 1s. 4. 1s. 11.6. 17. 11.8. 19. 11.10. Introduction Loss of Energy in Pipes Loss of Energy (or head) Due to Friction Solved Problems 11.1—11.7 ‘Minor Energy (Head) Losses, 11.4.1. Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement 11.4.2. Loss of Head Due to Sudden Contraction Solved Problems 11.8—11.14 11.4.8. Loss of Head at the Entranee of a Pipe 114.4. Loss of Head at the Exit of Pipe 11.4.5. Loss of Head Due to an Obstruction ina Pipe 11.4.6. Loss of Head Due to Bend in Pipe 11.4.7. Loss of Head in Various Pipe Fittings Solved Problems 11.15—11.21 Hydraulie Gradient and Total Energy Line 115.1. Hydraulic Gradient Line 11.5.2. Total Energy Line Solved Problems 11.22—11.26 Flow Through Syphon Solved Problems 11.27—11.29 Flow Through Pipes in Series or Flow Through Compound Pipes Solved Problems 11.30—11.30A. Equivalent Pipe Solved Problem 11.31 Flow Through Parallel Pipes Solved Problems 11.32—11.41 Flow Through Branched Pipes Solved Problems 11.42—11.44 438 440 441 442 442 446 450 450 453 461 462 465-558 465 465 465 467 an an 473 474 482 482 483 483 491 491 491 498 498 508 524 525wu 1.12. 11.13. 1.44. (wwii) Power Transmission Through Pipes 1111.1. Condition for Maximum ‘Transmission of Power 1.11.2. Maximum Efficieney of Transmission of Power Solved Problems 11.45—11.47 Flow Through Nozzles 11.2.1. Power Transmitted Through Nozzle 11.122. Condition for Maximum Power ‘Transmitted Through Nozzle 11.12.83. Diameter of Nozale for Maximum ‘Transmission of Power Through Nozzle Solved Problems 1148—11.51 Water Hammer in Pipes 11.13.1, Gradual Closure of Valve 11.132. Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Rigid 11.13.8. Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Elastic 11.134, Time Taken by Pressure Wave to Travel from the Valve to the Tank and from Tank to the Valve Solved Problems 11.52—11.55 Pipe Network 1114.1. Hardy Cross Method Solved Problem 11.56 Highlights Exercise Chapter 12. Dimensional and Model Analysis 12a. 122. 12.3. 124. 12.5. 12.6. 12.7. 12.8, Introduction Secondary or Derived Quantities Solved Problem 12.1 Dimensional Homogeneity ‘Methods of Dimensional Analysis, 12.4.1. Rayleigh's Method Solved Problems 12.2—12.7 12.4.2. Buckingham’s x-Theorem 12.4.3. Method of Selecting Repeating Variables 12.4.4. Procedure for Solving Problems by Buckingham's x-Theorem Solved Problems 12.8—12.14 ‘Model Analysis Similitude-Types of Similarities ‘Types of Forces Acting in Moving Fluid Dimensionless Numbers 12.8.1. Reynold’s Number (R,) 12.82. Froude’s Number (F,) 12.8.3. Euler's Number (£,) 12.8.4. Weber's Number (W,) 12.8.5. Mach’s Number (M) 530 581 537 537 538 539 BAL 542 542 543 545 545 BAT 549 552 554 559-610 559 559 560 561 561 561 562 565 566 566 568 578 579 580 581 581 582 582 58212.9. 12.10. 1211, Chapter 13.1. 13.2. 13.3, 13.4. 13.5. 13.6. 13.7. (wit) ‘Model Laws or Similarity Laws 12.9.1, Reynold’s Model Law Solved Problems 12.15—12.18 12.9.2. Froude Model Law Solved Problems 12.19—12.27 12.9.3. Euler's Model Law 12.9.4. Weber Model Law 12.9.5. Mach Model Law Solved Problem 12.28 Model Testing of Partially Sub-merged Bodies, Solved Problems 12.29—12.32 Classification of Models 12.1.1. Undistorted Models 12.11.2. Distorted Models 12.11.3. Seale Ratios for Distorted Models Solved Problem 12.33 Highlights Exercise 13. Boundary Layer Flow Introduction Definitions 13.2.1, Laminar Boundary Layer 13.2.2. Turbulent Boundary Layer 13.2.3. Laminar Sub-layer 13.2.4, Boundary Layer Thickness (5) 13.2.5. Displacement Thickness (3*) 13.2.6, Momentum Thickness (8) 13.2.7. Energy Thickness (5**) Solved Problems 13.1—13.2 Drag Force on a Flat Plate Due to Boundary Layer 13.8.1, Local Co-efficient of Drag [Cp*1 13.3.2. Average Co-efficient of Drag [Cp] 13.3.8, Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profiles Solved Problems 13.3—13.12 Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate Solved Problem 13.13 Analysis of Turbulent Boundary Layer Total Drag on a Flat Plate Due to Laminar and ‘Turbulent Boundary Layer Solved Problems 13.14—13.17 Separation of Boundary Layer 13.7.1. Effect of Pressure Gradient on Boundary Layer Separation 13.7.2. Location of Separation Point Solved Problem 13.18 583 583 584 587 590 595 596 596 597 598 600 604 604 605 605 608 606 607 611-656 eu 612 612 613 613 613 613 615 615 616 619 622 622 622 622 638 638 641 641 642 648 648 649 650(xix) 13.7.3. Methods of Preventing the Separation of Boundary Layer Highlights Exercise Chapter 14. Forces on Sub-merged Bodies 14a. 14.2. 14.3. 14.4. 145. 14.6. 147. 14.8, Introduction Force Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Stationary Body M421. Drag 14.22. Lift Expression for Drag and Lift 14.3.1, Dimensional Analysis of Drag and Lift Solved Problems 14.1—14.15 14.3.2. Pressure Drag and Friction Drag 14.3.3. Stream-lined Body 14.34. Bluff Body Drag on a Sphere Solved Problem 14.16 ‘Terminal Velocity of a Body Solved Problems 14.17—14.20 Drag on a Cylinder Development of Lift on a Circular Cylinder 14.7.1. Flow of Ideal Fluid Over Stationary Cylinder 14.7.2. Flow Pattern Around the Cylinder when a Constant Circulation T is Imparted to the Cylinder 14.7.3. Expression for Lift Foree Acting on Rotating Cylinder 14.74. Drag Force Acting on a Rotating Cylinder 14.7.5. Expression for Lift Co-efficient for Rotating Cylinder 14.7.6. Location of Stagnation Points for a Rotating Cylinder in a Uniform Flow-field 14.7.7. Magnus Effect Solved Problems 14.21—14.23, Development of Lift on an Airfoil 14.8.1. Steady-state of a Flying Object, Solved Problems 14.24—14.25 Highlights Exercise Chapter 15. Compressible Flow 15. 1522. Introduction ‘Thermodynamic Relations 15.2.1. Equation of State 15.2.2. Expansion and Compression of Perfect Gas 651 678 680 682 68215.3. 154. 15.5. 15.6, 15.7. 15.8, 15.9. 15.10. 15.11. x) Basie Equations of Compressible Flow 15.8.1. Continuity Equation 15.3.2. Bernoulli's Equation Solved Problems 15.1—15.3 15.3.3. Momentum Equations Velocity of Sound or Pressure Wave in a Fluid 15.4.1. Expression for Velocity of Sound ‘Wave in a Fluid 15.4.2. Velocity of Sound in Terms of Bulk Modulus 15.4.3. Velocity of Sound for Isothermal Process. 15.4.4. Velocity of Sound for Adiabatic Process Mach Number Solved Problems 15.4—15.7 Propagation of Pressure Waves (or Disturbances ) in a Compressible Fluid 15.6.1. Mach Angle 15.6.2. Zone of Action 15.6.3. Zone of Silence Solved Problems 15.8—16.10 Stagnation Properties 15.7.1. Expression for Stagnation Pressure (p,) 15.7.2. Expression for Stagnation Density (p,) 15.7.3. Expression for Stagnation Temperature (T,) Solved Problems 15.11—15.12 Area Velocity Relationship for Compressible Flow Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Orifices and Nozzles Fitted to a Large Tank 15.9.1. Value of n or 21 for Maximum Value Pa of Mass Rate of Flow 15.9.2. Value of V, for Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid 15.9.3. Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid Through Nozzle e 15.9.4. Variation of Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid with Pressure ratio (24) 15.9.5. Velocity at Outlet of Nozzle for Maximum Rate of Flow is Equal to Sonie Velocity Solved Problems 15-13—15.15 Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Veaturimeter Solved Problem 15.16 Pitot Static Tube in a Compressible Flow Solved Problem 15.17 Highlights Exercise 695 695 695 697 702 702 702 704 705 705 705 706 708 709 710 710 710 m1 mu 715 75 716 718 79 a1 722 723 723 724 727 728 730 731 731 734(oxi) Chapter 16. Flow in Open Channels 137-802 16.1. Introduction 737 16.2. Classification of Flow in Channels os 737 16.2.1. Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow : 737 162.2. Uniform Flow and Non-uniform Flow 737 16.2.3. Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow 738 16.2.4. Sub-eritical, Critical and Super-Critical Flow 738 16.3. Discharge Through Open Channel by Chezy's Formula 739 Solved Problems 16.1—16.7 ” 740 16.4. Empirical Formulae for the Value of Chezy’s Constant 744 Solved Problems 16.8—16.12 os 145 16.5. Most Economical Section of Channels - 749 16.5.1. Most Economical Rectangular Channel 749 Solved Problems 16.13—16.15 ” 750 16.5.2. Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel 752 Solved Problems 16.16—16.22 - 54 16.5.3. Best Side Slope for Most Economical ‘Trapezoidal Section 762 Solved Problems 16.23—16.24 . 763 16.5.4. Flow Through Circular Channel 766 Solved Problems 16.25—16.29 ” 766 16.5.5. Most Economical Circular Section . 77 Solved Problems 16.30—16.32 - 115 16.6. Non-Uniform Flow through Open Channels TT 16.1. Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve : 17 16.7.1. Critical Depth (A) c 779 16.7.2. Critical Velocity (V,) 5 779 16.7.3. Minimum Specific Energy in Terms of Critical Depth e 780 Solved Problems 16.33—16.35 : 780 16.7.4. Critical Flow 781 16.7.5. Streaming Flow or Sub-critical Flow or ‘Tranquil Flow 782 16.7.6. Super-Critical Flow or Shooting Flow or ‘Torrential Flow oe 782 16.7.7. Alternate Depths : 782 16.7.8. Condition for Maximum Discharge for a Given Value of Specifie Energy 782 Solved Problems 16.6—16.37 - 782 16.8. Hydraulic Jump or Standing Wave 783 16.8.1. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump 784 16.8.2. Expression for Loss of Energy Due to Hydraulic Jump 786 16.8.3. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump in Terms or Upstream Froude Number e 78716.8.4. (xii) Length of Hydraulic Jump Solved Problems 16.38—16.42 16.9. Gradually Varied Flow (G.V-F.) 16.9.1 16.9.2. 16.9.3. Equation of Gradually Varied Flow Solved Problems 16.43—16.44 Back Water Curve and Affux Expression for the Length of Back Water Curve Solved Problem 16.45 Highlights Exercise Chapter 17. Impact of Jets and Jet Propulsion 17.1. Introduction 17.2. Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary Vertical Plate 12.1. 17.2.2. Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Inclined Flat Plate Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Curved Plate Solved Problems 17.1—17.6 17.8. Force Exerted by a Jet on a Hinged Plate Solved Problems 17.7—17.10 (a) 174. Force Exerted by a Jet on Moving Plates MALL 174.2. 1743. 14a. 1145. 1746. Force on Flat Vertical Plate Moving in the Direction of Jet Force on the Inclined Plate Moving in ‘the Direction of the Jet Solved Problems 17.11—17.13 Force on the Curved Plate when the Plate is Moving in the Direction of Jet Solved Problems 17.14—17.17 Force Exerted by a Jet of Water on an Unsymmetrical Moving Curved Plate when Jet Strikes Tangentially at one of the Tips Solved Problems 17.18—17.23 Force Exerted by a Jet of Water on a Series of Vanes Force Exerted on a Series of Radial Curved Vanes Solved Problems 17.24—17.26 17.5. Jet Propulsion 175.1. 17.5.2. Jet Propulsion of a Tank with an Orifice Solved Problems 17.27—17.28 Jet Propulsion of Ships Solved Problems 17.29—17.33 Highlights Exercise 787 787 790 790 792 793 794 795 796 799 ‘803-852 803 803 804 805 807 809 810 14 815 815 816 818 819 823 826 833(exit) Chapter 18, Hydraulic Machines—Turbines 18.1. 18.2. 18.3. 184. 18.5. 18.6. 18.7. 18.8. 18.9. 18.10. 18.11. 18.12. 18.13. Introduction Turbines General Layout of a Hydroelectric Power Plant Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Turbine Classification of Hydraulic Turbines Pelton Wheel (or Turbine) 186.1. Velocity Triangles and Work Done for Pelton Wheel 186.2. Points to be Remembered for Pelton Wheel Solved Problems 18.1—18.10 18.6.3. Design of Pelton Wheel Solved Problems 18.11—18.13 Radial Flow Reaction Turbines 18.7.1. Main Parts of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine 18.7.2. Inward Radial Flow Turbine 18.7.3. Degree of Reaction 18.7.4, Definitions Solved Problems 18.14—18.20 18.7.5. Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine Solved Problems 18.21—18.22 Francis Turbine 18.8.1, Important Relations for Francis Turbines Solved Problems 18.23—18.26 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine 18.9.1. Some Important Point for Propeller (Kaplan Turbine) Solved Problems 18.27—18.33 Draft-Tube 18.10.1. ‘Types of Draft Tubes 18.10.2, Draft-Tube Theory 18.103. Efficiency of Draft-Tube Solved Problems 18.33 (a)—18.35, Specific Speed 18.111, Derivation of the Specifie Speed 18.1.2. Significance of Specific Speed Solved Problems 18.36—18.41 Unit Quantities 18.12.1. Unit Speed 18.122. Unit Discharge 18.12.3. Unit Power 18.124. Use of Unit Quantities (N,, Qu, P.) Solved Problems 18.41 (a)—18.45 Characteristic Curves of Hydraulic Turbines 18.13.1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves 18.13.2, Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves ‘853-944 853 853 853 853 856 857 905 905 915 915 916 916 917 920 920 921 921 927 927 928 928 929 933 933 93418.14. (xxiv) 18.13.3. Constant Efficiency Curves or Muschel Curves or Iso-Efficieney Curves Governing of Turbines Highlights Exercise Chapter 19. Centrifugal Pumps 19.1. 19.2. 19.3. 19.4. 19.5. 19.6. 19.7. 19.8. 19.9. 19.10. 19.11. 19.12. 19.13. 19.14. Introduction Main Parts of a Centrifugal Pump Work Done by the Centrifugal Pump (or by Impfier) on Water Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump Solved Problems 19.1—19.12 Minimum Speed for Starting a Centrifugal Pump Solved Problems 19.13—19.15 Multistage Centrifugal Pumps 19.6.1. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Heads 19.6.2. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Discharge Solved Problems 19.16—19.17 Specific Speed of a Centrifugal Pump (N,) 19.7.1. Expression for Specific Speed for a Pump Model Testing of Centrifugal Pumps Solved Problems 19.18—19.22 Priming of a Centrifugal Pamp Characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pumps 19.10.1, Main Characteristic Curves 1910.2. Operating Characteristic Curves 19.10.3. Constant Efficiency Curves Cavitation 19.11.1. Precaution Against Cavitation 19.112. Effects of Cavitation 19.11.3. Hydraulic Machines Subjected to Cavitation 19.114. Cavitation in Turbines 19.115. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps Solved Problem 19.23 Maximum Suction Lift (or Suction Height) Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) Cavitation in Centrifugal Pump Solved Problem 19.24 Highlights Bxereise Chapter 20. Reciprocating Pumps 20.1. 20.2. 20.3. Introduction Main Parts of a Reciprocating Pump Working of a Reciprocating Pump 935 936 937 939 945-992 945 945 947 948 951 965 966 968 968 969 969 971 971 972 973 978 978 978 979 979 980 980 981 981 981 981 982 983 985 985 986 987 989 993-1040 993 993 99420.4. 20.5. 20.6. 20.7. 20.8. 20.9. 20.10. oo) 20.3.1. Discharge Through a Reciprocating Pump 20.3.2, Work Done by Reciprocating Pump 20.3.3. Discharge, Work Done and Power Required to Drive a Double-acting Pump Slip of Reciprocating Pump 20.4.1. Negative Slip of the Reciprocating Pump Classification of Reciprocating Pumps Solved Problems 20.1—20.2 Variation of Velocity and Acceleration in the Suction and Delivery Pipes Due to Acceleration of the Piston Effect of Variation of Velocity on Friction in the Suction and Delivery Pipes Solved Problem 20.3 Indicator Diagram 20.8.1. Ideal Indicator Diagram 20.8.2. Bffect of Acceleration in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram Solved Problems 20.4—20.9 20.8.8. Bffect of Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram 20.8.4. Biffect of Acceleration and Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram Solved Problems 20.10—20.12 20.8.5. Maximum Speed of a Reciprocating Pump Solved Problem 20.13 Air Vessels Solved Problems 20.14—20.18 Comparison between Centrifugal Pumps and Reciprocating Pumps Highlights Exercise Chapter 21. Fluid System 21a. 21.2. 21.3. 214. 21.5. Introduction ‘The Hydraulic Press 21.2.1. Mechanical Advantage 212.2. Leverage of the Hydraulic Press 21.2.3. Actual Heavy Hydraulic Press Solved Problems 21.1—21.5 ‘The Hydraulic Accumulator 21.3.1. Capacity of Hydraulic Accumulator Solved Problems 21.6—21.11 21.3.2. Differential Hydraulic Accumulator ‘The Hydraulic Intensifier Solved Problems 21.12—21.18 ‘The Hydraulic Ram Solved Problems 21.14—21.15 994 995 995 996 997 997 997 998 1001 1001, 1003, 1003 1004 1004 1012 1013 1015 1019 1020 1021, 1030 1037 1037 1038 1041-1070 1041 1041 1042 1042 1042 1043, 1045, 1046 1047 1051 1051 1053 1053 1055(xvi) 21.6. The Hydraulic Lift 21.6.1. Direct Acting Hydraulic Lift 21.6.2. Suspended Hydraulic Lift Solved Problems 21.16—21.17 21.7. The Hydraulic Crane Solved Problems 21.18—21.20 21.8. The Fluid or Hydraulic Coupling 21.9. The Hydraulic Torque Converter 21.10. The Air Lift Pump 21.11. The Gear-Wheel Pump Highlights Exercise Objective Type Questions Appendix Subject Index 1056 1057 1057 1058 1060 1060 1063, 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1071-1094 1095-1096 1097-1102PROPERTIES OF rab tN > 1.1 INTRODUCTION Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or ‘gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with the static, kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid staties. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics. > 1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1.2.1 Density or Mass Density. Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the ‘mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted by the symbol p (tho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre, i, kg/m®. The density of liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and temperature. ‘Mathematically, mass density is written as Mass of fluid ‘Volume of fluid © ‘The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm? or 1000 kg/m>, 1.2.2. Specific Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called ‘weight density and itis denoted by the symbol w. Weight of fluid _ (Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity ‘Thus mathematically, " * Volume of uid Volume of fluid = Mass of fluid x g © Volume of uid cox { Mass of luid__ } ace Volume of fluid wpe (ay[2 Fluid Mechanics ] ‘The value of specific weight or weight density (w) for water is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m* in SI units. 1.2.3 Specific Volume. Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied. by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically, it is expressed as Volume of fluid 1 1 volume Mass of fluid Mass of fluid“ 5 ‘Volume of fluid ‘Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m’/kg. It is commonly applied to gases. Speci 1.2.4. Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative density. Itis dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S. Weight density (density) of liquid ‘Weight density (density) of water ‘Weight density (density) of gas Weight density (density) of air Sx Weight density of water X 1000 x 9.81 Nim? Sx Density of water = 5x 1000 kg/m’, (LIA) If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example, the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, hence density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m’. Mathematically, S(for liquids) ‘S(for gases) = ‘Thus weight density of a liqui ‘The density of a liquid Problem 1.1 Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid which weighs 7 N. Solution. Given : 1 1 ow 3 Volume = 1 tre = itre= ire = lume = 1 tire= 55m? (' Thte=—A morte = 1000 em) Weight = 7N Weight ___7N i), Specific weight (w a OE: CD) ‘Volume ( 1 a 1000 (i Density (p) = A = me kg/m? = 713.5 kg/m®. Ans. Density of liquid _ 7135 Density of water 1000 (Density of water = 1000 kg/m?} (iii) Specific gravity[ Properties of Fluids 3) Problem 1.2 Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7 Solution. Given: Volume = 1 hie= 1 1000 em® = 02 m*= 0.001 m? Sp. gravity s=07 (0 Density (p) Using equation (1.14), Density (p) = 5 x 1000 kg/m? = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m*, Ans. (id) Specific weight (w) Using equation (1.1), w= px g= 7009.81 Nim? = 6867 N/m’. Ans. (i) Weight (W) Weight We know that specific weight = a ete Volume or 6867 = ‘0007 0.001 W= 6867 x 0.001 = 6.867 N. Ans. > 1.3 VISCOSITY Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance “dy” apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say u and u + du as shown in Fig. I.1, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers, The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower ayer wie te lowe layer eases \ a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear a stres is proportional tothe rate of change of ve- t |e locity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol y a t) Z-veroory prone Mathematically, ee or 1.2) ‘where 1 (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity ony viscosity. represent thereof shear stn rate of shea efomatono velo grate du dy Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain. 1.3.1 Units of Viscosity. The units of viscosity is obtained by putting the dimensions of the {quantities in equation (1.3) From equation (1.2), we have jt (1.3) Fig. 11 Velocity variation near a solid boundary.[4 Fluid Mechanics ] Shear stress Foree/Area Change of velocity EG. Tene), Change of distance (Time )* Length Force/(Length)*_ Force x Time 1 (Length) Time In MKS system, force is represented by kgf and length by metre (m), in CGS system, force is represented by dyne and length by cm and in SI system force is represented by Newton (N) and length by metre (m).. 1. MKS unit of viscosity = REESE m dyne-see em In the above expression N/m? is also known as Pascal which is represented by Pa, Hence N/m? = Pascal CGS unit of viscosity Sl unit of viscosity = Ns/m? = Pa s. Sl unit of viscosity Newion-see _ Ne ‘The numerical conversion of the unit of viscosity from MKS unit to CGS unit is given below : 981N-see one kgf-sec (1 kgf= 9.81 Newton) m m But one Newton = one kg (mass) x one ( ) (acceleration) wee (1000 gm) x (100 em) ~ sec 1000 x 100 © = 1000 x 100 dyne , dyne=am x $2} me KBE-SEE 9 81 109000 IEE « 0,81 x 100000 9H m = 100 x 100 x en = 98.1 HME 08.1 poise {: sneree, Poise} ‘Thus for solving numerical problems, if viscosity is given in poise, it must be divided by 98.1 to get its equivalent numerical value in MKS. one kgf-sec _ 981NS one Ns _ 981 LNs 8 poise = 10 poise or One poise = + NS m 981° a Pose 0 m But = 98.1 poise[ Properties of Fluids 5) Alternate Method. One poise = 2%°%S. (teste xo But dyne kg One poise m too 2-1 KS, ke sm 10 sm sm Note, (i) In SI units second is represented by ‘s’ and not by ‘sec’. 4i)_IE viscosity is given in pois, it must be divided by 10 to get its equivalent numerical value in SI unit. Sometimes a unit of viscosity as centipoise is used where 1 1 1 centipoise = 1 poise or 1eP=—- p [cP = Cemtipoise, P = Poise poise = 755 pol mm? & ip 1 ‘The viscosity of water at 20°C is 0.01 poise oF 1.0 centipoise 1.3.2. Kinematic Viscosity. It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. It is denoted by the Greek symbol (v) called ‘nu’. Thus, mathematically, Viscosity _ a Density ~ p ‘The units of kinematic viscosity is obtained as Unitsof_ Force x Time ___ Force x Time Units of (Leng? x Mass" “Mass Teng)” — Length Length Mass x xTime = (Time)? b Mass Length (Length)? = Time” In MKS and SI, the unit of kinematic viscosity is metre”/sec or m*/sec while in CGS units it is written as em?/s. In CGS units, kinematic viscosity is also known as stoke. ts ; cette = ue 100 1.3.3. Newton's Law of Viscosity. It states that the shear stress (¢) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co- efficient of viscosity. Mathematically, itis expressed as given by equation (1.2) or as[6 Fluid Mechanics ] Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not ‘obey the above relation are called Non-Newtonian fluids. 1.3.4 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature. Temperature affects the viscosity. The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while the viscosity of gases increases With the increase of temperature. This is due to reason that the viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and molecular momentum transfer. In liquids, the cohesive forces predominates the molecular momentum transfer, due t0 closely packed molecules and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decreases with the result of decreasing viscosity. But in case of gases the cohesive forces are small and molecular momentum transfer predominates. With the increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer increases and hence viscosity increases. The relation between viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases are: .(— ay Trartpr where t= Viscosity of liquid at °C, in poise ‘iscosity of liquid at 0°C, in poise (0 For liquids, ©, B= Constants forthe liquid For water, Hy = 1.79 x 10° poise, «= 0.03368 and B = 0.000221. Equation (1.4) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity decreases. (ii) For a gas, H= Hy +r - BP (1.48) where for air [ly = 0.000017, 0 = 0.000000056, f = 0.1189 x 10°°. Equation (1.48) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity increases. 1.3.5 Types of Fluids. The fluids may be classified into the following five types : 1. Ideal fluid, 2. Real fluid, 3. Newtonian fluid, 4, Non-Newtonian fluid, and 5. Ideal plastie fluid. 1. Ideal Fluid. A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. eal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have some viscosity 2. Real Fluid. A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All the fluids, in actual practice, are real fluids. 3. Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient, is known as a Newtonian fluid. — vetoor eraoient ($3) 4. Non-Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the ‘yi shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear strain (or ig. 1.2 Types of fluids. velocity gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid. 5. Ideal Plastic Fluid. A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as ideal plastic fluid. —+ shear stress: Problem 1.3. if the velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = z y =¥ in which w is the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = Ocand y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poises.[ Properties of Fluids 7) Solution. Given : u ),_.( w 863 Value of [= 8.63 poise SI units = 0.863 N sim? Now shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as t= #. (0 Shear suess at y= 0 is given by cas) setoroenasrmican (i) Shear stress at y= 0.15 mis given by ©, -01s=H (#) 7 088 0.367 = 03167 Nin. A Problem 1.4 A plate 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 60 cm/s and requires a force of 2N per unit area i.e., 2 N/m to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates. Solution. Given : 1 Distance between plates, dy = .025 mm B 025 x 107 m Velocity of upper plate, = 60 em/s = 0.6 mis Te N FIXED PLATE. Force on upper plate, e205 9 ‘This is the value of shear stress i.e., Let the fluid viscosity between the plates is 1. du Using the equation (1.2), we have t where 2 OX M2510" gy 495 BE = 8.33 x 10° x 10 poise = “ poise. Ans. Problem 1.5 A flat plate of area 1.5 x 10° mn’ is pulled with a speed of 04 mis relative 10 ‘another plate located ata distance of 0.15 mm from it Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, ifthe fluid separating them is having viscosity as I poise.[8 Fluid Mechanics ] Solution. Given : ‘Area of the plate, A= 15x 10° mm? = 1.5 m* Speed of plate relative to another plate, du = 0.4 m/s, Distance between the plates, dy = 0.15 mm = 0.15 x 10° m ec r a (2) Le dy 10 15x10 > im oO Shear force, F = 7X area = 266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N. Ans. (W Power* required to move the plate at the speed 0.4 m/sec = Fx w= 400 x 0.4 = 160 W. Ans. Problem 1.6 Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1 poise. The oil is used {for lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter 10 em and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.5 mm and the shaft rotates at 150 r.p.m. Solution. Given : w= 1 poise= + Ss 10 m Dia. of shaft, D=10em=0.1m Distance between shaft and journal bearing, dy = 1.5 mm=15x 10m Speed of shaft, N= 150rp.m, ‘Tangential speed of shaft is given by EDN _ KxX01X150 B= 0.785 mis Using equation (1.2), where d= change of velocity between shaft and bearing = « - 0 =u 10785 10" 15x10 Problem 1.7 Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30° as shown in Fig. 1.4. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm. Solution. Given : 52.33 Nim*. Ans. Area of plate, A= 0.8% 0.8 = 0.64 m? Angle of plane, @=30° Weight of plate, W=300N Velocity of plate, u=03 mis * Power= PxuNmis= Fx uW(: Nes = Watt)Properties of Fluids 9) Thickness of oil film, t= dy=15mm= 15109 m Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is Component of weight W, along the plane = W cos 60° = 300 cos 60° = 150 N ‘Thus the shear force, F, on the bottom surface of the plate = 150 N and shear stress, te OO Nm ‘Area 068 Now using equation (1.2), we have du dy where du = change of velocity = u—0 = w= 0.3 mis dy= 215% 10% m 150 03 ost" 15x10" p= ROIS AIO 117 N sim? = 1.17 x 10 = 11.7 poise. Ans. 064% 03 Problem 1.8 Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 em apart, the space between them being filled with oil of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in oil if upper plate is moved with a velocity of 25 mis Solution. Given : Distance between plates, dy = 1.25 em = 0.0125 m 4 FI Viscosity, = 14 poise = 4 N sim? y w= 14 poise = 7 Velocity of upper plate, w= 2.5 m/sec. Shear stress is given by equ: du 12) as,t=4 (12) as, t= 4 where du = Change of velocity between plates = u ~ 2.5 misec. dy = 0.0125 m. 425 ; T= 19% pias = 280. Nim*. Ans. Problem 1.9 The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the late is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per sec requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine : (i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and (ii) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes ifthe specific gravity of the oil is 0.95. Solution. Given : Each side of a square plate = 60.em = 0.60 m Area, A= 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m? Thickness of oil film, dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 x 10° m Velocity of upper plate, = 2.5 m/sec[10 Fluid Mechanics ] Change of velocity between plates, du = 2.5 mise = 981.N Force _F__981N Area A 0.36m* (i) Let 1 = Dynamic viscosity of oil Force required on upper plate, Shear stress, du | 981 25 Se ee dy” 036 125x10™ 981, 12.5%10" 036 25 3635 x 10 = 13.635 poise. Ans. Using equation (1.2), = cas 7 NS= 10 poise) (Gi) Sp. gr. of oil, $ = 0.95 Let v = kinematic viscosity of oi Using equation (1.14), Mass density of oil, p= Sx 1000 = 0.95 x 1000 = 950 kg/m? 1 360 *s) Using the relation, v= 4, we get y= ——™/ = 001435 m*ise 930 = 14,35 stokes. Ans. ( em?ls = stoke) Problem 1.10 Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m*. The shear stress at 44 point in oil is 0.2452 N/m? and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second. Solution. Given : Mass density, Shear stress, Velocity gradient, Using the equation (1.2), 02452 “0.200 Kinematic viscosity v is given by we _ 1226 | = 1.226 Nsim? 125 x 10°? m/sec p 98L 0.125 x 10? x 10 em*/s = 0.125 x 10? emis = 12.5 cm/s = 12.5 stoke. Ans. (Cz em*Is = stoke) Problem 1.11 Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.05 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.035 stokes. Solution. Given : soy = 005 pote = MS Nant[ Properties of Fluids 11) (0.035 stokes 0.035 em*/s = 0.035 x 10°* mis Kinematic viscosity, stoke = em*Is} Using the relation v= !., we get 0.035 x 104 e ° P 905 1 _ 3408.5 kein? 10 * 0.03510 of liquid _ 14285 _ Det of liquid = rece Density of water 1000 = 1.4285 = 1.43. Ans. Problem 1.12 Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 19. Solution. Given : Kinematic viscosity V = 6 stokes = 6 em*/ Sp. gt. of liquid 9 Let the viscosity of Hiquid = yt _ Density of the liquid Density of water 6x10 ms Now sp. gr. of a liquid or 1.9 = Density of liquid 1000 kg “. Density of liquid = 1000 x 1.9 = 1900 “8 m :. Using the relation x 10" x 1900 = 1.14 Ns/m? -14 x 10 = 11.40 poise. Ans. Problem 1.13 The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u = y—y* inwhich wis the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress, at y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.6 poise. Solution. Given : At y=0.15, Viscosity,[12 Fluid Mechanics ] du _ 85 N Hy SONS ge = ORRRS Te Ams. Problem 1.14 The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m, Calculate the power lost in the bearing {fora sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm. Solution. Given : tm Viscosity H=6 poise Using equation (1.2), Dia. of shaft, Speed of shaft, Sleeve length, ‘Thickness of oil film, ‘Tangential velocity of shaft, w 60 Using the relation cep where di 98 mis Change of velocity =u — dy = Change of distance x 103m t=10x oe 592 N/m? 15x10° This is shear stress on shaft Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress x Area 1592 x RD x L= 1592 x rx 4x90 x 10°? = 180.05 N 04 Tonge onthe shat, T= Foxe x 2= 18005 x 84 =3601 Nm = 2RNT _ 2nx190%36.01 ~— 60 60 Problem 1.18 ifthe velocity profile ofa fluid over a plate is parabolic with the vertex 20 em from the plate, where the velocity is 120 emlsec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, ifthe viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise. Solution. Given : Distance of vertex from plate = 20 em Velocity at vertex, = 120 emisee “Power lost = 716.48 W. Ans. SSNs 10 m? Viscosity, H=85 poise * Power in $. uni[ Properties of Fluids 13) ‘The velocity profile is given parabolic and equation of velocity profile is, uray tbyte od) where a, b and ¢ are constants. Their values are determined from boundary conditions as : (@) aty=0,u=0 (®) aty = 20 em, u = 120 em/see du (© aty= 20m, = 0. Substituting boundary condition (a) in equation (i), we get Boundary condition (b) on substitution in (i) gives 120 = a(20)* + b(20) = 4000+ 200 Ai) Boundary condition (c) on substitution in equation (i) gives du Grete ii) or 0=2xax204D=400+b Solving equations (i) and (i) for @ and b From equation (iii), b=-40a Substituting this value in equation (i), we get 120 = 4000 + 20 x ( 40a) = 4000 - 8000 2023 =400 *~ 70 . b==40x(-03) = 120 ‘Substituting the values of a, b and ¢ in equation (i), u=—0.3y? + 12y. Ei a -03 Velocity Gradient == 03x 2y+ 12=-0.6y +12 aty = 0.6 x 0+ 12 = 124. Ans. at y= 10cm, 0.6 x 10 + 12=-6 + 12 = 6/s. Ans. at y= 20cm, 0.6 x 204 12 =~ 12+ 12=0. Ans. Shear Stresses Shear stress is given by,[14 Fluid Mechanics ] 0.85 x 12.0 = 10.2 Nim’. (@ Shear stress at (24) =08860=51 wm i) Shear stress at y = 10, w 5) ey (Gil) Shear stress at y= 20, Problem 1.16 A Newtonian fluid is filled in he clearance between a shaft and a concentric sleeve. The sleeve attains a speed of 50 cmd, when a force of 40 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft. Determine the speed if a force of 200 N is applied. Solution. Given : Speed of sleeve, uy = 50 em/s when force, F,=40N. Let speed of sleeve is te when force, F = 200 N. Using relation where t = Shear stress ‘du = Change of velocity dy = Clearance {¥ A,qand y are constant} Substituting values, we get 42 = 200 50 My 50x20 = 59 x5 50 cm/s. Ans. 40 Problem 1.17 A 15 cm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another eylinder of diameter 15.10 cm, Both cylinders are 25 em high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid whose viscosity is unknown. If a torque of 12.0 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 r-p.m., determine the viscosity of the fluid. Solution. Given : Diameter of cylinder = 15 em = 0.15 m Dia. of outer cylinder = 15.10 em = 0.151 m Length of cylinders, 1 = 250m=0.25 m Torque, T = 12.0 Nm[ Properties of Fluids 15) Speed, Let the viscosity RDN _ rx 015x100 Tangential velocity of eylinder, «= = 0.7854 mis o SENS. 0 Cy Surface area of eylinder, A= RD XL= nx 0.15 x 0.25 = 1178 m? Now using relation ee ay where dus u-0=u= 7854 mis y= O1SI=0150 Fy - 0905 m 2 yx. 7854 [0005 Shear foree, D Torque, TeFxe 120 BME srg tS 12.0%.0005 2 9 s64 N gm? 7854 x 1178 15 = 0.864 x 10 = 8.64 poise. Ans. Problem 1.18 Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 em apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with glycerine. What force is required to drag a very thin plate of surface area 0.5 square metre between the two large plane surfaces at a speed of 0.6 ms, if (i) the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces, and (ii) the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 em from one of the plane surfaces ? Take the dynamic viscosity of glycerine = 8.10 x 10"! N s/n? Solution. Given : Distance between two large surfaces = 2.4 em separa ‘Area of thin plate, A=05m? 12cm Velocity of thin plate, = 0.6 mis er Viscosity of glycerine, = 8.10 10" N sim? idem Case I. When the thin plate is in the midale of the two plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (a)] ooh Let F, = Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate Fig. 17 (@) F, = Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate F =Total force required to drag the plate Then FeF\+hy ‘The shear stress (t,) on the upper side of the thin plate is given by equation,[16 Fluid Mechanics ] ‘du dy}, where du = Relative velocity between thin plate and upper large plane surface 0.6 misee dy = Distance between thin plate and upper large plane surface 1.2 em = 0.012 m (plate isa thin one and hence thickness of plate is neglected) as n=si0x10"x( 26) 40.5 Nim? 012 Now shear force, hear stress x Area 1 XA= 40.5 x 0.5 = 20.25 N Similarly shear stress (,) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by 8.10 10 x { 2% 0012, ) = 40.5 im? Shear force, : 5x05 = 20.25N Total force, Fs F, + Fy= 20.25 + 20.25 = 40.5 N. Ans. Case I. When the thin plate is ata distance of 0.8 em from one of the plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (0)] yey ee Let the thin plate is at a distance 0.8 em from the lower plane surface. 166m “Ten distance ofthe plate rom the upper plane sutace atm | =24-0.8= 16cm 16m Va (Nepecting thcknes ofthe pate) ‘The shear force onthe upperside of he thin pate, = Shear stress Area t,x vig 170) ay, ‘The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate, du axAcu |“) xa +(e), 06 087100 ‘Total force required = F, + F, = 15.18 + 30.36 = 45.54 N. Ans. Problem 1.19 A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity 2.0 N s/m* and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m X 1.2 m X0.2 em is to be lifted up with a constant velocity of 0.15 m/sec, through the gap. If the plate is in the middle of the gap, find the force required. The weight of the plate is 40 N. Solution. Given : Width of gap = 2.2 em, viscosity, y= 2.0 N s/m? Sq. gr. of fluid 09 =n(“*) xa=8.10%107x 22) x05 = 15.18 | 0.016 Fy =810310 (28) x05=20366[ Properties of Fluids 17) Weight density of fluid 091000500 tn = 9009.8 Nm? (oD kgf = 9.81 N) Volume of plate = 1.2mx1.2mx0.2em 1.2 1.2 x 002 m*= 00288 m? ‘Thickness of plate 0.2em Velocity of plate = 0.15 m/sec Weight of plate 40N. ‘When plate is in the middle of the gap, the distance of the plate from vertical surface of the gap Fig. 18 . (wa of gap~Thickness of pie) . 2 C208) = em= 01m. 2 Now the shear force on the left side of the metallic plate, F, = Shear stress x Area =» (22) xam20s(28)xranian (cr Area = 1.2 x 1.2m?) Similarly, the shear force on the right side of the metallic plate, ‘Total shear force = 1+ Fy = 43.2 443.2 = 864 N, In this case the weight of plate (which is acting vertically downward) and upward thrust is also to be taken into account. ‘The upward thrust = Weight of fluid displaced (Weight density of fluid) x Volume of fluid displaced 81 x 900 x.00288 N (C+ Volume of fluid displaced = Volume of plate = .00288) = 2543 N, ‘The net force acting in the downward direction due to weight of the plate and upward thrust = Weight of plate ~ Upward thrust = 40 ~ 25.43 = 14.57 N Total force required to lift the plate up = Total shear force + 14.5 86.4 + 14.57 = 100.97N. Ans. > 1.4 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES Fluids consist of liquids or gases. But gases are compressible fluids and hence thermodynamic properties play an important role. With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases undergo[18 Fluid Mechanics large variation in density. The relationship between pressure (absolute), specific volume and temperature (absolute) of a gas is given by the equation of state as pV =RTor t RT (1.5) where p = Absolute pressure of a gas in N/m? VW = Specific volume = F Gas constant Absolute temperature in °K. Density of a gas. 1.4.1 Dimension of R. The gas constant, R, depends upon the particular gas. The dimension of R is obtained from equation (1.5) as (© In MKS units For air, Rin MKs = 293 “82m kg °K Rin s1=29.3x9.81 S® = 287 igrk 8 eek 1.4.2 Isothermal Process. If the change in density occurs at constant temperature, then the process is called isothermal and relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) is given by 6) 1.4.3 Adiabatic Process. If the change in density occurs with no heat exchange to and from the 288, the process is called adiabatic. And if no heat is generated within the gas due to friction, the relationship between pressure and density is given by 2 =Constant an where & = Ratio of specific heat of a gas at constant pressure and constant volume. = 1 for air.[ Properties of Fluids 19) 1.4.4. Universal Gas Constant Let ‘m= Mass of a gas in kg V = Volume of gas of mass m solute pressure solute temperature Then, we have p= mRT (1.8) where R = Gas constant. Equation (1.8) can be made universal, Z., applicable to all gases if itis expressed in mole-basis. Let n= Number of moles in volume of a gas V = Volume of the gas __ Mass of the gas molecules * “Mass of a hydrogen atom ‘m= Mass of a gas in kg Tenwepine nate Sting eve fmm qutin (1, ne poems? as) ‘pods Ms ld ergs const and sega 88 8s mo and 8314 J/kg-mole K in SI units. (One kilogram mole is defined as the product of one kilogram mass of the gas and its molecular weight. Problem 1.20 A gas weighs 16 N/m! at 25°C and at an absolute pressure of 0.25 N/mm. Deter- ‘mine the gas constant and density of the gas. Solution. Given : Weight density, w= 16 Nim’ Temperature, 125°C T= 273 4 1= 273 + 25 = 288°K p= 0.25 Nimm? (abs.) = 0.25 x 10° Nim? = 25 x 10 Nim? (0 Using relation w = pg, density is obtained as w_ 16 . JS 21.63 kg/m’. Ans. Pe ost ss (ii) Using equation (1.5), 2 = RT P P= 25x10" 539.55 NM ang pT 163x288 kek Problem 1.21. A cylinder of 0.6 m' in volume contains air at 50°C and 0.3 Ninn? absolute pressure. The air is compressed to 0.3 m*. Find (i) pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process and (i) pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take k = 1.4 Solution. Given : Initial volume, y >[20 Fluid Mechanics ] ‘Temperature Pressure py = 03 Nimm? = 0.3 x 10° N/m? = 30 x 10* N/m? Final volume 3m? kod (@ Isothermal process + Using equation (1.6), 30x10" x06 0.6 x 10° N/m? = 0.6 N/mm?. Ans. (ii) Adiabatic process : Using equation (1.7), 3, (06) tot (28 nxt (2) = 0.791 x 10° Nim? = 0.791 Némm?, Ans. For temperature, using equation (1.5), we get pY = RT and also p W* = Constant P or rv! or Tw Constant Constant {+ Ris also constant} ) = 323x204 = 426.2°K Ans. Problem 1.22 Calculate the pressure exerted by 5 kg of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 10°C if the volume is 0.4 m’. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. Assume, ideal gas laws are applicable. Solution. Given : Mass of nitrogen =5kg ‘Temperature, 10°C o T=273+10= ‘Volume of nitrogen, v=04m? Molecular weight =28 Using equation (1.9), we have pV = nx Mx RT[ Properties of Fluids 21) where Mx R = Universal gas constant = s314 —Nm___ Kg-mole*K and one kg-mole = (kg-mass) x Molecular weight = (kg-mass) x28 for nitrogen = S314 956.9 _N™ 28 ke°K ‘The gas laws for nitrogen isp = mR, where R = Characteristic gs constant or px 0d = 5 x2969 x 283 p= 252969285 _ 1050283.7 Nim? = 1.08 Nim, Ans. 04 > 1.5 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of = ‘elasticity, K which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain, Consider a eylinder fited with a piston as shown in Fig. L9. ° Let V = Volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder ‘p= Pressure of gas when volume is * Let the pressure is increased to p+ dp, the volume of gas CNUINDER decreases from WV to V~ dV. Fig. 19 ‘Then increase in pressure Ip ketim> Decrease in volume av Volumetric strain paral v ~ ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure. Bulk modulus K = Inotease of pressure, Volumetric strain dp__-4dp 1 nae ay 1.10) ¥ 1 Compressibiit et ay pressibilty 3 Relationship between Bulk Modulus (K) and Pressure (p) for a Gas The relationship between bulk modulus of elasticity (K) and pressure for a gas for two different processes of compression are as () For Isothermal Process. Equation (1.6) gives the relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) of a gas as 2 = Constant Pp[22 Fluid Mechanics ] or pV = Constant Differentiating this equation, we get (p and V both are variables) pav+Vdp=0 or pdv=-Vdp or p Substituting this value in equation (1.10), we get K=p (a2) (ii) For Adiabatic Process. Using equation (1.7) for adiabatic process. - Constant or p V* = Constant Differentiating, we get pa(v*) + V'(dp) or px kx dv 4 VE dp or pa + dp 0 [Cancelling W*! to both sides} or ka =~ dp or pk Hence from equation (1.10), we have K= pk (1.13) = Ratio of specifie heat Problem 1.23 Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is increased from 70 Nicm? to 130 Néem?. The volume of the liquid decreases by 0.15 per cent. Solution. Given : Initial pressure = 70 Niem? Final pressure = 130 Nlem? dp = Increase in pressure = 130 - 70 = 60 N/em? Decrease in volume = 0.15% ous where K = Bulk modulus and 100 Bulk modulus, K is given by equation (1.10) as dp _ 60N/em* _ 60100 cdv IS aS v 100 Problem 1.24 Whar is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is compressed in a cylinder ‘from a volume of 0.0125 m' at 80 Nem? pressure to a volume of 0.0124 m* at 150 Nien? pressure ? Solution. Given : Initial volume, ¥ = 0.0125 m* Final volume 0.0124 m?* s+ Decrease in volume, dV =.0125 ~.012: K 4x 10Niem?, Ans.[ Properties of Fluids 23) Initial pressure Final pressure Increase in pressure, dp = (150 ~ 80) = 70 N/em® Bulk modulus is given by equation (1.10) as v > 1.6 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas ‘or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a ‘membrane under tension, The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have the same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by Greek letter 6 (called sigma). In MKS units, itis expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as N/m. ‘The phenomenon of surface tension is explained by Pee coRrael Fig. 1.10. Consider three molecules A, B, C of a liquid in a mass of liquid. The molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero, But the molecule B, which is situated near the free surface, is acted upon by upward and downward forces which are unbalanced, Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is acting in the downward direction. The molecule C, situated on the free surface of liquid, does experience a resultant downward force. All the molecules on the free surface experience a downward force. Thus the free surface of the liquid acts like a very thin film under tension of the surface of the liquid act as though it is an elastic membrane under tension. Fig. 110 Surface tension. 1.6.1 Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet. Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘r’. On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting, Let @'= Surface tension of the liquid p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure intensity) d= Dia, of droplet. Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half (say left half) will be (0 tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion as shown in Fig. 1.11 (b) and this is equal to = 6 x Circumference oxnd[24 Fluid Mechanics ] Rep ® ii) pressure force on the area ~ d? = p x ~ d® as shown in (i ps ier Fig. 1.11 (0). These two forces will be equal and opposite under equilibrium conditions, ée., MIDEORe I eeteAce rersion x x= Peoxnd ext , co ged 49 aay me 4 (©) PRESSURE FORCES Equation (1.14) shows that with the decrease of diameter Fig. 1.11 Forces on droplet. of the droplet, pressure intensity inside the droplet increases, 1.6.2 Surface Tension on a Hollow Bubble. A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected to surface tension. In such case, we have pxt@ 2x(6x Rd) 2ond _ 86 crab (1.15) 4 1.6.3 Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet. Consider a liquid jet of diameter ‘a’ and length ‘L’ as shown in Fig. 1.12, Let p = Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure {= Surface tension of the liquid A Consider the equilibrium of the sem jet, we have Z Force due to pressure 1p Xarea of semi jet Z pxLxd L of Force due to surface tension = 0X2. Z Equating the forces, we have Z pXLxd =0x2L j ett ay Fig. 112 Forces on liquid jet. Problem 1.25 The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is 0.0725 Nim. The pressure inside a droplet of water isto be 0.02 N/em? greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet of water. Solution. Given : Surface tension, 6 = 0.0725 Nim Pressure intensity, p in excess of outside pressure is oat % 7 Let of the droplet[ Properties of Fluids 25) d= ADO op m= 0085 100 = 148 mm. Ams. 0.02 x(10) Problem 1.26 Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 2.5 Nin? above atmospherie pressure. Solution. Given : Dia. of bubble, d= 40 mm = 40x 10m Pressure in excess of outside,p = 2.5 N/m? For a soap bubble, using equation (1.15), we get $o or 25 = SxO 40x10 25%40x10° o 8 Problem 1.27 The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/ent (at- mospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension is given as 0.0725 Nim of water. Solution. Given : N/m = 0.0125 Nim. Ans. Dia. of droplet, d= 0.04 mm = .04 x 10 m Pressure outside the droplet = 10.32 N/em? = 10.32 x 10* N/m? Surface tension, = 00725 Nim The pressure inside the droplet, in excess of outside pressure is given by equation (1-14) or p= 49. -4%00725 _ 7959 nim? = 7250N. 0795 Nem? d= 04x10 10% cm? Pressure inside the droplet = p + Pressure outside the droplet 725 + 10.32 = 11.045 Niem?. Ans. 1.6.4 Capillarity. Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface i known as capillary depression. Itis expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid. Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of the liquid. Expression for Capillary Rise. Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘a’ opened at both ends and is inserted in a liquid, say water. ‘The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid. Let f= height of the liquid in the tube. Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height 1 is balanced by the force atthe surface of the liquid in the tube. But the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension. Fig. 143, Let 6 = Surface tension of liquid = Angle of contact between liquid and glass tube. ‘The weight of liquid of height iin the tube = (Area of tube x h) x p xg Capillary rise.[26 Fluid Mechanics ] Pxhxpxe 0.17) where p = Density of liquid Vertical component of the surface tensile force = (6x Circumference) x cos ® xnd xcos 0 (1.18) For equilibrium, equating (1.17) and (1.18), we get FP xx p xe = Xd x cos 0 _ BX md xcosO _ 4.60080 or j= SARA X CSD _ Ao cos0 (1.19) Faxpxs pxgxd ‘The value of @ between water and clean glass tube is approximately equal to zero and hence cos @ is ‘equal to unity. Then rise of water is given by _ 49 “ pxexd Expression for Capillary Fall. Ifthe glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be lower than the general level of the outside liquid as shown in Fig. 1.14. Let = Height of depression in tube. ‘Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First one is due to surface tension acting in the downward direction and is equal to Gx rd x cos 0. Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of pressure at a depth “I x Area h (1.20) =pxt@ pexhx Si ( p=pshh x 4 Equating the two, we get oxndxcos O=pghx Tf 4G .cos® ae 21) pad Value of @ for mercury and glass tube is 128°. MERCURY Fig. 114 Problem 1.28 Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in (a) water and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions = 0.0725 N/m for water and o= 0.52 Nim {for mercury in contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact = 130°, Solution. Given : Dia. of tube, a Surface tension, 6 for water 6 for mercury Sp. gr. of mercury Smm=2.5x 10° m 0725 N/m 52. Nim 3.6[ Properties of Fluids 27) Density = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m’. (a) Capillary rise for water (@ = 0°) 4x 00725 pxgxd 1000x981x 25x10” = 0118 m= 1.18 em, Ans. Using equation (1.20), we get = () For mercury Angle of contact between mercury and glass tube, @ = 130° 4.0088 4 052 x €08 130° pxgxd 136x100 x981x25x10~ 004 m = - 0.4 em. Ans. ‘The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. Using equation (1.21), we get t= Problem 1.29 Calculate the capillary effect in millimetres in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter, when immersed in (i) water, and (ii) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20°C and the values of the surface tension of water and mercury at 20°C in contact with air are 0.073575 Nim and 0.51 Nim respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero and that for mercury is 130°, Take density of water ‘at 20°C as equal to 998 kg/m. Solution. Given : Dia. of tube, d=4mm=4x 10m ‘The capillary effect (i.¢., capillary rise or depression) is given by equation (1.20) as p= 45.6088 pxexd where 6 = surface tension in N/m @ = angle of contact, and p = density (i Capillary effect for water 6 = 0.073575 Nim, 8 = 0° p= 998 kg/m? at 20°C = 40073575 x 0080" 998 x981%4 x10 (ii) Capillary effect for mercury 6 =0.51 Nim, @= 130° and 3. gr. x 1000 = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m? _ 4051 608 130° "= 13600981 x4 x 10 ‘The negative sign indicates the capillary depression. =7.51 x 10? m=7.51 mm. Ans, .46 x 10° m= = 2.46 mm. Ans. Problem 1.30 The capillary rise in the glass tube is not to exceed 0.2 mm of water. Determine its ‘minimum size, given that surface tension for water in contact with air = 0.0725 N/m. Solution. Given: Capillary rise, h= 0.2 mm = 0.2 x 10° m Surface tension, 6 = 0.0725 Nim[28 Fluid Mechanics ] Let dia. of tube ‘The angle @ for water Density (p) for water = 1000 kg/m? Using equation (1.20), we get 40 3 _ 4x 00725 pxexd "97%! = Too x9Bixd 4x 00725 ‘1000 x 981x 2x10 Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 14.8 em. = 0.148 m = 14.8 em. Ans. Problem 1.31. Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be used 10 measure water level if the capillary rise in the tube is to be restricted to 2 mm. Consider surface tension of water in contact with air as 0.073575 N/m. Solution. Given : Capillary rise, f= 2.0 mm =2.0 10 m Surface tension, 6 = 0.073575 Nim Let dia. of tube a ‘The angle @ for water ‘The density for water, p= 1000 kg/m? Using equation (1,20), we get 40 9.9 x 19 = 4% 0.073575 pxgxd 1000 x 981 xd 4x 0073575, 4X 0075979 ___ = 0,015 m= 15 em. Ans. 1000 x 981 x 2.x 10™ ‘Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 1.5 em. Problem 1.32 An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of the shaft is 0.5 m and it rotates at 200 r-p.m. Calculate the power lost in oil for a sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness of ol film is 1.0 mm. Solution. Given : Viscosity, I= 5 poise = 0.5 N sim? 10 Dia. of shaft, D=05m Speed of shaft, N= 200 rpm. Sleeve length, L = 100 mm = 100 x 10 m=0.1 m Thickness of oil film, 121.0 mm=1x 10% m RDN _ ©x05x200 Tangential velocity of shaft, u = = BK05%200 _ 5.235 mis es y 7 7 du Using the relation, ne wy[ Properties of Fluids 29) where, du = Change of velocity = u ~ 0 = u = 5.235 mls dy = Change of distance 1x 103m 255235 _ 36175 Nin? et The he sear aes on te a 1 Stew force on esha, P= heat wren x Area = 2617S XXD XL (Ara aD XE) zasinsxx03%01 = 41098 ea or Bw 41095 eae eee! oo 10274 252200 950 W = 2.5 1 Ane > 1.7 VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION ‘A change from the liquid state to the gaseous state is known as vaporization. The vaporization (which depends upon the prevailing pressure and temperature condition) occurs because of continuous ‘escaping of the molecules through the free liquid surface. Consider a liquid (say water) which is confined in a closed vessel. Let the temperature of liquid is 20°C and pressure is atmospheric. This liquid will vaporise at 100°C. When vaporization takes place, the molecules escapes from the free surface of the liquid. These vapour molecules get accumulated in the space between the free liquid surface and top of the vessel. These accumulated vapours exert a pressure on the liquid surface. This pressure is known as vapour pressure of the liquid or this is the pressure at which the liquid is converted into vapours. Again consider the same liquid at 20°C at atmospheric pressure in the closed vessel. If the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced by some means, the boiling temperature will also reduce. If the pressure is reduced t0 such an extent that it becomes equal to or less than the vapour pressure, the boiling of the liquid will start, though the temperature of the liquid is 20°C. Thus a liquid may boil ‘even at ordinary temperature, if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so as to be equal or less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that temperature. Now considera flowing liquid in a system. If the pressure at any point in this flowing liquid becomes. ‘equal to of less than the vapour pressure, the vaporization of the liquid starts. The bubbles of these vapours are carried by the flowing liquid into the region of high pressure where they collapse, giving rise to high impact pressure. The pressure developed by the collapsing bubbles is so high that the ‘material from the adjoining boundaries gets eroded and cavities are formed on them. This phenomenon is known as cavitation. Hence the cavitation is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below the vapour pressure and sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure iscreated. The metallic surfaces, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the metallic surface and hence the name is cavitation, 20NT- ky, THe angular velocity w= 22%. 0,000 0 + Power ncasofSL. Unit Pxcwor 2 atFluid Mechanics 2. 1. Bulk modulus of elasticity is given as K= HIGHLIGHTS ‘The weight density or specific weight of a fluid is equal to weight per unit volume. I is also equal to, w=pxe. . Specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. The shear sess is proportional 1 the velocity gratient TH. Mathematically, x= oe iy “ Kinematic viscosity vis given by v= 5. Poise and stokes are the units of viscosity and kinematic viscosity respectively. .. To convert the unit of viscosity from poise to MKS units, poise should be divided by 98.1 and to convert poise into ST units, the poise should be divided by 10. SI unit of viscosity is Ns/m” or Pas, where N/m = Pa = Pascal 1. For a perfect gas, the equation of state is = Rr Pp 293 Kel ka°K where R = gas constant and for = 287 Ske °K. Ie etre ete le Cen eee eee cee eee ater ate w ¥ Compress ithe spo of alk od fey or = Surface esion expressed ia Nino dynlem, The relation betwee face tension (6 an ierence “ of pressure (p) between the inside and outside of a liquid drop is given as p = 80 For aso buble, p= $8 26 Fee eee et guid jt, p= 29 Copiary ie ofa of Hai i given by n= 252288 ‘The value of @ for water is taken equal to zero and for mercury equal to 128° EXERCISE (A) THEORETICAL PROBLEMS |. Define the following fluid properties Density, weight density, specific volume and specific gravity of af . Differentiate between : (?) Liquids and gases, (i) Real fluids and ideal fluids, (if) Specific weight and specific volume of a Mui. What is the difference between dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity ? State their units of ‘measurementsProperties of Fluids 31) 4. Explain the terms : (2 Dynamic viscosity, and (i?) Kinematic viscosity. Give their dimensions, '5. State the Newton's law of viscosity and give examples of its application, 66. Enunciate Newton's law of viscosity. Explain the importance of viscosity in fluid motion, What is the effect of temperature on viscosity of water and that of air? 7. Define Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids. 8. What do you understand by terms : (7) Isothermal process, (i) Adiabatie process, and (iit) Universal-gas constant, 9. Define compressibility. Prove that compressibility fora perfect gas undergoing isothermal compression is + white for a perfect gas undergoing isentropic compression is 10, Define surface tension Prove that he lationship Betcen surface tenson and presse inside a droplet of iil nese foie presi given byp= 11 Expat leaner of pili Oi a ees or apy a gi 12 sing acne Ill ls Ep tp of ceil ad aoe (Deine he te: ey, se vole, spe ri aa prt, compete a comes fs (ah Vsmopte, Bhopal $200) 13 tins spn Now's yf iso 14 Comet kpkin aoe sce aoe 18 Wipe von ves hens onperse wile a ld deer wi ina nnn? 16) How oe vaca of i vay wh epr (iw oxmpier ne src nn cs fas ponent. NTU, Arba § 2002) 17. () Denson expen freon fern ogee Pins dpe gd nd te see nn (op de owing Nwtonan and NowNewona Bis vps pes, ad somes (REPL, opt $2001 (B) NUMERICAL PROBLEMS 1, One litre of crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specific weight, density and specific gravity, Ams. 9600 Nim’, 978.6 kg/m", 0.978] velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress at y = 9 em, Assume dynamic viscosity as 8 poise (Nagpur University) (Ans. 0.839 N/m?) A plate 0,025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 50 ems and requires @ force of 1.471 Nim* to ‘maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates in the poise. (Ans. 7.357 x 10°] 4. Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1.2 poise and is used for lubrication in the clearance between a 10 cm diameter shaft and its journal bearing. The clearance is 1.0 mm and shaft rotates at 200 rpm. Ans. 125.56 Nim’) ‘Two plates are placed at a distance of 0.15 mm apart. The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate having surface area 1.0 m* is pulled at 0.3 mS. Find the force and power required to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity 1.5 poise Ans. 300 N, 89.8 W] 66. Anil film of thickness 1.5 mm is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.9 m>0.9 m and an inclined plane having an angle of inclination 20°, The weight ofthe squate is 392.4 N and it slides down the plane with a uniform velocity of 0.2 m/s. Find the dynamic viscosity of the oil. [Ans. 12.42 poise]Fluid Mechanics ] 10. 12 1a. 16. 1. wv. aL 2. In a stream of glycerine in motion, ata certain point the velocity gradient is 0.25 metre per see per metre. ‘The mass density of fluid is 1268.4 kg per cubie metre and kinematic viscosity is 6.30 x 10~ square metre per second. Calculate the shear stress at the point. [Ans, 0.2 Nim?) Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 980 kg/m? when ata certain point in the ol, the shear Pennine Nadeniteseieeen ios [amor eesao wis . Determine the specific gravity of a Muid having viscosity 0.07 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.042 stokes. {Ans 1.667) Determine the viscosity ofa lguid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 20. TAs. 11.99 poise) It the velocity distribution ofa fuid over a plates given by w= (3/4) yy", where wis the velocity in metre per second ata distance of y metres above the plate, determine the shea sess at y = 0.15 mete. Take dynamic viscosity of the fluid as 8.5 x 10 kg-sec/m’. (Ans, 3.825 x 10° kgffm"] ‘An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for Ibriation between a shaft and sleeve. The diameter of shaft is 05 m and it oates at 200 rpm. Calculate the power lost inthe il fora sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness ofthe ol lm is 1.0 mm, {Ans.2.15 kW) distance of y m above the plate, Determine the shear stess at y = 0,0.1 and 0.2 m. Take H = 6 poise. [Ams. 0.4, 0.028 and 0.159 Nim?) 1. In question 13, find the distance in metres above the plate, at which the shear stress is zero, [Ans, 0.333 m) ‘The velocity profile of a visous fd over a plat is parabolic with vertex 20m from the Pate, where the velocity is 120 m/s Calculate the velocity gradient ad sheat sess at distances of, 3 and 15 em fom the plate, given the viscosity of the fluid = 6 poise. [Ans. 12/8, 7.18 Ném?; 9/8, 5.385 Nim? ; 3/8, 1.795 Nim?) ‘The weight of a gas is given as 17.658 N/m’ at 30°C and at an absolute pressure of 29.43 N/m’, Deter- [ase Late, 29550 n] m "kek A cylinder of 0.9 m? in volume contains air at 0°C and 39.24 Niem? absolute pressure. The air is compressed t0 0.45 m'. Find (i) the pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process, (pressure and temperature assuming abate process. Take f= 1 fora (Ans. (i) 78.48 Néem’, (ii) 103.5 N/m’, 140°C] Calculate the pressure exerted by 4 kg mass of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 15°C ifthe volume is 0.35 m?. ‘mine the gas constant and also the density of the gas. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. Ans. 97.8 Nem] ‘The pressure ofa liquid is increased from 60 N/cm? to 100 N/em? and volume decreases by 0.2 per cent Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity, [Ans. 2 « 10" Nim’) |. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid which is compressed in a eylinder from a volume of 0.009 mat 70 Nlem? pressure to a volume of 0.0085 m? at 270 Nécm* pressure. (Ans. 3.6 10° Nem] The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is given as 0.0716 Nim. The pressure inside @ droplet of water is to be 0.0147 Nlem? greater than the outside pressure, calculate the diameter of the droplet of water. (Ans. 1.94 min) Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 30 mm diameter when the inside pressure is 1.962 Nim? above atmosphere [Ans. 0.00735 Nim] ‘The surface tension of water in contact with ai is given as 0.0725 Nim. The pressure outside the droplet of| water. [Ans. 1.77 Neem?)