FINAL: Moral Theories and Mental Frames (Virtue and Natural Law Ethics)

Ethical Theory
We often sense fairness but how do we judge it? Ethical theories like consequentialism, deontology (e.g.,
Kantianism), and virtue ethics help, but they may not always align with our intuition. They're used in
ethical analysis and consider rules and action consequences.

Deontological theory - what one MUST do, based on duties and obligations.
Teleological theory - the purpose or consequences of moral acts.

Consequentialist theory
The consequentialist theory is a subset of teleological moral theory and focuses on the moral value of
actions, rules, and policies based on their consequences, not intentions. Consequentialism assesses
actions by their outcomes, emphasizing happiness and minimizing suffering, as in utilitarianism by
Bentham and Mill. It's crucial in healthcare ethics but faces uncertainty in outcome prediction.

Deontological theory
Unlike consequentialism, deontological values are the means used to achieve moral ends. Immanuel
Kant's Kantianism is a well-known example. It emphasizes rules, like "do not lie" and "do not kill,"
grounded in rationality and guided by the categorical imperative, promoting universalizability, treating
individuals as ends in themselves, and community involvement in rule-making and adherence. Many
modern Kantians are not absolutist but stress the importance of generally following moral rules,
especially in healthcare where it guides duties to patients.

Virtue ethics
A modern reinterpretation of Aristotle's ethics, centers on living according to reason as the purpose of
human life, leading to flourishing or happiness. This is achieved through the practice of moral virtues,
which are character excellence, and intellectual virtues that prioritize truth and clarity. In healthcare,
virtues like self-control, truthfulness, generosity, compassion, discernment, and integrity are valued.
Virtue ethics guides our "right" behavior towards patients and colleagues, such as doctors and nurses
taking time to explain treatment options to patients.

Casuistry
It is a practical approach to decision-making in specific cases, focusing on case features, comparisons
with similar cases, and prior experiences. It complements other ethical theories like consequentialism,
deontology, and virtue ethics. In clinical ethics, a committee assesses factors and past cases to make
ethical decisions. This approach builds valuable experience for ethical decision-making.

The Four Principles

Beauchamp and Childress' Four Principles in Medical Ethics offer broad guidance:
Autonomy: Respecting informed choices.
Beneficence: Balancing benefits and risks for patient well-being.
Non-maleficence: Avoiding harm not outweighed by benefits.
Justice: Ensuring fair benefit distribution, legal adherence, and rights-based justice. These principles are
flexible, and not ranked hierarchically. Patient autonomy and informed decision-making have gained
significance.

St. Thomas' natural law ethics

It is teleological, posing challenges for non-believers in a Divine Planner. It relies on synderesis and
conscience, innate in humans created in God's image, guiding them toward goodness. It considers
certain moral norms as fixed but adaptable to various cultures. Human laws must align with natural law,
which emphasizes pursuing good and avoiding evil based on rational inclinations.

FINAL: Kant and Rights

Deontology is an ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right from wrong. Deontology is often
associated with the philosopher Immanuel Kant.
Kant's deontology is based on universal moral rules like "Don't lie, steal, or cheat." It's straightforward
and aligns with our sense of ethics but can lead to morally challenging situations. Deontology prioritizes
rule adherence over considering consequences, which can be ethically problematic.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was a reclusive philosopher in Königsberg, known for emphasizing reason in
human knowledge and introducing the idea of synthetic a priori judgments. His moral philosophy, called
deontologism, focused on duty and obligation, introducing the Categorical Imperative as a universal
moral rule. However, it faced challenges when dealing with conflicting duties and defining autonomy,
particularly in cases like abortion. In summary, Kant's life centered around Königsberg, his philosophy
stressed reason and duty, and he grappled with ethical dilemmas.