EXERCISES

FUNDAMENTALS OF
MATERIALS SCIENCE
English version

Universitat de Girona ‐ 2018

 Bllock I

EXERCISE
ES. BLO
OCK I
1. Sort the folllowing com
mpounds acccording to thhe characterr of their cheemical bond
ding,
from moree covalent too more ionic: ClNa, ClK, SiO
S 2, Al2O3, Fe
F 2O3, MgO and Si2N3.

2. Calculate th
he number of
o protons, neutrons
n an
nd electrons of K and Rb
b.

3. Due to therrmal expanssion, a train rail of 50 m in length en

nlarges by 1.5
1 cm in
summer. Calculate thee correspond ding strain, ε,
ε and ε%.

Answer: 3·10
0‐4 and 0.03%
%.

4. A 15 m lonng crane cable is compossed of 100 wires

w of 0.5 mm
m 2
cross sectio
on.
Calculate th
he elongatio
on when thee cable holdss a 600 kg mass.
m
If we perfo
orm the expeeriment, how
wever, we will
w measuree a larger
elongation. Explain thee reason wh
hy.
Young’s mo odulus, E = 200
2 GPa.

Answer: ΔL = 0.88 cm; thee difference iss due to the waviness

w of thee wires.

5. The ennclosed grap ph shows thee

result of a tensile test on a meetal
bar of 1.5 cm2 crosss section an nd 20
cm lenngth.
Calculaate the Younng's modulu us by
fitting the points into a line.

Answerr: 0.41 GPa.

40
6. The figure represents a typical σ(εε) curve of a
particular rubber (ε is the unit strrain). Rubbe
er
If we take a 3 cm widee × 1 mm thick × 20 cm 30

length stripp of this rub bber, calculaate:

a) the uniit strain, ε, the
t elongatio on, ΔL, and the
t
 (M Pa)

20
final lengthh, L, if loadedd with a 80 kg mass
b) the loaad that woulld cause a 25 5% deformaation.
10

0
Answer: a) ε = 2.9; ΔL = 58,
5 L = 78 cm; b) 15.0 kg. 0 1 2 3 4

 Block I

7. A 0.5 kg mass is hung to two sheets of plastic (A and B) that were previously joined
along their entire surface with adhesive. Each sheet is 0.15 mm thick, 0.4 cm wide
and 20 cm long.
Calculate the elongation and the load carried by each sheet.
Material data: EA = 1.2 GPa and EB = 0.8 GPa.

Answer: LA = LB = 0.83 mm, FA = 3.0 N; FB = 2.0 N.

8. Repeat the previous problem supposing that the plastic sheets (A and B) are
perfectly joined one after the other.

Answer: L1 = 1.4, L2 = 2.1 mm; F1 = F2 = 5 N.

9. Calculate the strain of a brick located at a height h in a wall of height H and thickness
g as a function of the material’s density ρ. Plot the result as a function of h.

Material data: density, ρ = 2.5 g/cm3; Young’s modulus, E = 80 GPa.

Calculate the numeric value for h = 5 m; H = 20 m and g = 30 cm

Answer: ε(h) = ρ(H‐h)g/E; ε = 4.7 10‐6.

10. Analyse the curve σ(ε) of a metal alloy. Determine:

a) the yield strength
b) the strain at the elastic limit
c) the Young's modulus
d) the strength
e) the elastic and plastic strain at the maximum of the curve
f) the maximum tensile load that an specimen of a 0.5 cm2 cross section can
withstand
g) if the initial length of the specimen was 30 cm, the specimen’s length once
broken, and the just before failure.
50

40

Metal
30
 (MPa)

20

10


0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15

Answer: f) Fmax = 2450 N; g) Lf(after failure) = 33.6 cm, Lb(before failure) = 33.9 cm.
 Bllock I

11. A 2 mm diaameter indeentation is ob btained with

h the Brinelll hardness test
t using a 5 mm
steel ball and 1,000 kgg load. After quenching and
a temperiing this steeel, the same test
produces ana indentatio on of 1.1 mm
m diameter.
Calculate thhe hardnesss in each casse.
Calculate thhe increase of strength in the treated steel takiing as a refeerence the
strength off the initial steel.
s

Answer: 305
5 HB; 1040 HB
B and 240%.

12. Estimate th
he strength of the follow
wing materials from theeir known haardness:
steel‐1 360
0 HB; steel‐2
2: 150 HB; brass:
b 80 HB
B; glass: 3500
0 HB and aluumina: 2800
0 HB.

Answer: steeel‐1: 1260 MP

Pa; steel‐2: 52
25 MPa; brasss: 300 MPa.

13. A cylindriccal steel bar of 2 cm2 crooss section suffers

s comppression‐ten
nsion load cy
ycles
along its axxis by a 5 tonnes mass. Taking into consideration the attachhed SN curvee,
calculate thhe time it taakes the bar to break.
Calculate what
w the secction would be for a life expectancyy of 1 month.
Frequency y = 10 Hz.

S
Steel

Answer: t = 53
5 minutes; ssection = 5.3 cm
c 2.

14. A cylindriccal steel bar is put throuugh a fatiguee test by

making it rotate
r horizo ontally along its axis. On
ne end is
attached too an engine tthat forces the
t specimeen to
rotate whille the other end holds a load W.
Under thesse condition ns, the tensio
on stress is at
a its
maximum at the top part of the en nd of the speecimen
which is atttached to th he engine, beeing .
htttps://www.twi-gloobal.com/technical-
Calculate thhe time it taakes to breakk. knowledge/job-kno owledge/fatigue-teesting-078/
Data: frequuency = 30 rpm;
r W = 8000 N,
d = 2 cm annd L = 20 cm m.

Answer: 5.81
1 days.
 Bllock I

15. As a result of a bad weelding, theree is a 8 mm long crack att the upper part of the ffixed
point of a cantilever
c beeam with len ngth L and diameter
d d.

a) Calcuulate the maaximum weight, WMAX, th hat can be looaded

at the frree end (thee stress at th
he fixed poin
nt is given by
y
).

b) What would be WMAX if the crack

c is at th
he bottom?

Data: L = 2.5 m, d = 3 cm, KC = 80

8 MPa m½, σy = 720 MP
Pa.
https://www
w.chegg.com/
Answer:: a) 535 N; b) 763 N.

16. Although the specimen n of a materrial containss cracks, it exxhibits a ducctile fracturre.
The yield strength
s is 500
5 MPa. If KC = 12 MPa m½, calculaate the maxim mum length h of
any crack that
t is consistent with this behaviour.

Answer: a < 0.18 mm.

17. In the tensile test of a cylindrical specimen

s off radius R0 an
nd length L0, we have
obtained thhe followingg values for force (N) an
nd elongatio on (mm):

157
708 – 0.6 31416 – 1.2
2 47124 – 1.8 510
051 – 4.8 54978 – 7.8
8

Calculate th
he related values
v of streess and straain. Draw thee graph σ(ε)).
Estimate:
a) the to
oughness
b) the ennergy requirred to deforrm up to fraccture a cylin
ndrical speciimen with
dimensions R and L off the same material.
m

Data: R0 = 5 mm, L0 = 120

1 mm, R = 12 mm and
d L = 80 mm
m.

Answer: a) 36.2
3 106 J/m3; b) 1324 J.

18. The followwing figure sh hows

the expecteed lifetime ofo a Stain
nless ste
eel
stainless stteel due to ccreep
dependingg on the appllied load
for differen
nt temperatu ures. 6 ºC
600
a) Calculatte for 600°C,, 700°C
and 800°C the time req quired
to break if the applied stress is
400 MPa. 700 ºC
b) Do the same
s for 3100 MPa at
600°C.
Determine, approximaately, the
strength att each tempeerature.
8 ºC
800

Answer: a) t(600⁰C)
t = 63.100 h, t(700⁰C) = 20 h, t(8
800⁰C) = 0; b)) t(600⁰C) = 8 · 105 h.
 Block I

19. Describe the problems that may result from a ceiling beam made of a material of:
a) low stiffness
b) low strength.

20. Determine which of the following materials’ hardness gives no information of its
strength: steel, alumina, glass and cement.

21. True or false: “A ductile material is one that has low yield strength”.

22. Describe the two most important mechanical properties when designing:
a) a spring
b) a pressure container.

23. Which of the following mechanical properties is more relevant to make a hammer?:
a) stiffness b) toughness c) hardness, or d) strength

24. True or false:

“The most suitable steel to manufacture a gas cylinder is the stronger one”.

25. List the possible causes of fracture in a structure subjected to stresses lower than its
yield strength.
EXERCISE
ES. BLO
OCK II
1. The concen ntration of vacancies
v in metals incrreases with temperature
t e. In copperr
there are 2.2·10
2 25 at 1000⁰C.

Calculate th
he percentaage of vacanccies with respect to the number of atoms.
Data: mCu = 63.5 g/mol; ρCu = 8.4 g/cm
g 3.

Answer: 0.03
3%.

2. Titanium changes
c from
m hexagonall‐close‐packked structure (HCP) to body‐center
b ed‐
cubic (BCCC) at 882⁰C.
Calculate th
he theoreticcal density of
o the BCC ph
hase.
Repeat thee calculation
ns for the HCCP phase.
Data: aBCC = 0.332 nm, mTi = 47.90 g/mol.

Answer: ρBCCC = 4.42 g/cm3; ρHCP = 4.81 g/cm3.

3. Magnesium m crystallizees as a hexaggonal‐close‐packed struucture (HCP)).

Calculate:
a) the nu
umber of ato oms per unitt cell;
b) the vo
olume of thee cell;
c) the theeoretical density. Comp ntal value, exp
pare it to thee experimen e = 1.74 g/c
cm3.
The cell dim
mensions arre: side lenggth aHCP = 0.3320 nm, heigght c = 1.633
3 aHCP.

Answer: a) 6;
6 b) 0.139 10
0‐27m3; c) 1.7
74 g/cm3..

4. The densitty of aluminiium is 2.70 g/cm

g 3.

Calculate th
he lattice paarameter (aCCC
C ) knowing
g that it crysstallizes according to th
he
Face‐Centeered‐Cubic structure
s (FC
CC).
Calculate th
he distance between tw uring atoms (i.e. the disttance to the
wo neighbou
nearest ato
om).

Answer: aFCCC = 0.405 nm; d = 0.286 nm.

5. Calculate th
he theoreticcal density of
o these ceraamic compou
unds:
MgO, CaO and
a FeO.

They all cryystallize in a “simple cu

ubic” structuure in which
h there
is only onee atom in eacch of the eigght vertices.

Data: aMgO = 0.212, aCaOO = 0.238 and aFeO = 0.21

19 nm.
http://w
www.theochem.unnito.it/crystal_tutoo/ms
Answer: 3.51
1, 3.45 and 5.68 g/cm3 sc2008_ _cd/tutorials/geom
metry/geom_tut.hhtml

6. Calculate how
h many grrams of Zn are
a to be add
ded to 70 g of
o Cu to obtaain a 12% Zn
Z
brass.

Answer: 9.5 g.
 Block II

1,455ºC
L (Liquid)

L+S
1,085ºC

S (Solid)

7. Calculate the weight percentage of SiO2 in mullite (2SiO2·3Al2O3).

Data: mAl = 27.0 g/mol, mSi = 28.1, mO = 16.0.

Answer: XSiO2 = 0.282 = 28.2%.

8. Calculate the approximate chemical formula (CuxZny) of the brass alpha phase that
contains 35% Zn.

Data: mCu = 63.5, mZn = 65.4 g/mol.

Answer: Cu2Zn1.

9. Silicon oxide, or silica, contains an oxygen concentration of 53%. Calculate the

concentration in atomic % and check that this is consistent with its chemical
composition, SiO2.

Answer: 66%.

10. Draw on a graph the approximate evolution of the amount of liquid as a function of
temperature for a Cu‐80Ni alloy.

11. How many grams of Ni should be added to 30 g of Cu so that the alloy starts to
solidify at 1360⁰C. Calculate the grams of liquid at 1320⁰C.

Answer: MNi = 45 g; ML = 36 g.
 Block II

12. What is the composition of a Cu‐Ni alloy so that at 1300°C half of it is in a liquid
state?
What is the concentration of nickel in the solid at this temperature?
And what is it in the liquid?

Answer: XNi = 54%; XL=44% and XS=65%.

13. Calculate the ratio of  and  phases that coexist at 150⁰C in a Pb‐20Sn alloy and the
concentration of Sn in each phase.

327ºC

Liquid
232ºC
+L 61.9
 +L
183ºC

18.3 97.8


Answer: m = 89, m= 11, X = 10, X = 99.

14. Calculate how much solid would be in 60 g of a Pb‐90Sn alloy at 200⁰C.

Answer: 40 g.

15. Calculate, at the temperature just below the eutectic point, the amount of each phase
and its concentration in a Pb‐Sn eutectic alloy.
Calculate the relative thickness of the alpha phase layers compared to those of the
beta phase.

Data: the densities f each phase ρα = 11.3 and ρβ = 7.3 g/cm3.

Answer: m = 45, m= 55, X = 18, X = 98; relative thickness = 0.53

 Block II

16. Calculate the proportion of each phase and its concentration in a Pb‐30Sn alloy for a
slightly higher (184°C) and a slightly lower (182°C) temperature than the eutectic
temperature.
What will the amount of the α proeutectic phase and of the eutectic microconstituent
be?

Answer: m = 73, mL= 27, X = 18, XL = 62; m = 85, m= 14, X = 18, X = 98; m proeutectic = 73,
meutectic microconstituent = 27.

17. Draw the microstructure of two Pb‐Sn alloys at room temperature for:
a) 3 % Sn and
b) 30% Sn.
Tip: Calculate the amount of the  phase in the first case and the eutectic constituent
in the second case.

Answer: m = 100; mE = 27.

18. How many grams of Pb must be added to 100 g Sn so that at 200⁰C 50% of the alloy
is in liquid form?

Answer: 170 or 15 g

19. For a 53% copper concentration, calculate the deviation δ of the corresponding
formula, CuAl2+δ, compared to the stoichiometric formula CuAl2.

660ºC
Liquid

+L 33.2
 548ºC +L

5.7 52.5

(CuAl2)



Duralumin or dural ( Al-Cu)

Answer: δ = 0.087
 Block II

20. Consider an Al‐4Cu alloy.

a) Determine the existing phases and the concentration of Cu in these phases at
525°C and 400°C.
b) Draw the microstructure.
c) At what temperature will the  phase begin to appear?

Answer: a) at 525⁰C a single  phase; at 400⁰C, x = 1.5, x = 53.0; c) at 505⁰C

21. While observing the microstructure of an Al‐Cu alloy, we observe that approximately
one third of the weight of the alloy corresponds to the eutectic constituent. This alloy
might be hypo‐ or hyper‐ eutectic.
Calculate what the Cu concentrations would be if the alloy was:
a) hypoeutectic
b) hypereutectic

Answer: a) 15%; b) 46%

22. Cast irons contain a carbon concentration above 2.1%. Calculate the amount of
eutectic constituent in a Fe‐3C alloy.

1,538ºC
 1,493ºC

1,394ºC Liquid
+L 4.30
1,148ºC
Fe- 2.11
,
+Fe3C
912ºC Fe3C
0.77

Fe- 727ºC
0.02
+Fe3C

Answer: 40%

23. Draw the microstructure of the following three steels at room temperature:
a) Fe‐0.2C, b) Fe‐0.77C and c) Fe‐1.2C.

24. Analyse how the phases evolve when a Fe‐1.2C steel is heated. Establish the
temperature of any major change.
 Block II

25. Calculate the maximum atomic concentration of carbon that austenite and ferrite can
dissolve.

Answer: 9.1% and 0.09%

26. Calculate the mass of the eutectoid microconstituent that appears when cooling 50 g.
of a Cu‐10Al alloy. Describe the atomic packing of the alpha phase.

7.5

 

Aluminium 567ºC
Bronze 
9.4 11.2

Answer: 17 g

27. For a Cu‐13Al alloy, calculate the amount of coexisting phases at:
a) 1000°C
b) 700°C
c) 500°C. Then, calculate the amount of eutectoid microconstituent and
proeutectoid  phase.

Draw the microstructure at the three temperatures previously indicated.

Answer: a) m = 100; b) m = 82, m = 18; c) m = 46, m = 54; mE = 62, m‐pro = 38.

 Block II

28. Calculate the diffusion coefficient of C and H in the ‐Fe at 500°C and 700°C. For each
case calculate the diffusion distance after 1 h.
Assume that these elements enter the ferrite from the external surface of the steel.
Put these values all together in a table.
Data: D0(C) = 2.0·10‐6 m2/s, D0(H) = 8.8·10‐8 m2/s; Q(C) = 84 kJ/mol, Q(H) =
13 kJ/mol.

Answer: at 500⁰C, 4.12·10‐12, 1.16·10‐8 m2/s, 122 m and 6.46 mm; at 700⁰C 6.08·10‐11, 1.76·10‐8,
468 m, 7.96 mm

29. It takes 2.5 hours to harden a steel of thickness d at a given temperature. Calculate
the time that it would take, at the same temperature, to obtain a hardened layer ten
times thicker.
Suppose that the treatment is carried out at a higher temperature, how would the
duration of the treatment vary?

Answer: 250 hours

30. The amount of Sn in two Pb‐Sn alloys is 40% and 80% respectively. During the
solidification of the proeutectic phase, segregation occurs at the solid phases α and β,
respectively. Draw how the concentration of Sn will vary within one grain of each
phase. What will be the concentration on the grain boundary at 183⁰C?

31. Plot how the solute concentration will vary through a crystalline grain in an alpha
brass alloy with 20% of Cu.

1.100
Brass
1.050

1.000
L
950
T (ºC )

900

850
 
800

750

700
0 10 20 30
(Cu) xZn40 50 60 70
 Block II

32. In general, hardening due to the decrease of grain size follows a simple relationship:
y(d) = 0 + k·d‐½, where d is the diameter of the grain and 0 and k are constants that
depend on the material.
Analyse the curve corresponding to a Cu‐30 Zn brass. From this graph determine the
values of the yield strength for diameters of 100 μm, 50 μm and 10 μm.
Then, calculate the values of parameters 0 and k.

Grain size, d (mm)

-1 -2 -3
10 10 5·10
200

150
y (MPa)

100

50 70Cu-30Zn alloy

0
4 8 12 16
-1/2 -1/2
d (mm )

Answer: 62, 81, 150 MPa; k = 12.5 MPa·mm½, 0 = 24.5 MPa.

EXERCISE
ES. BLO
OCK III
1. We want to make a 0.5
0 mm diam meter copperr wire from an 8 mm wiire by a
sequencee of drawingg steps. Each
h drawing sttep reduces the
t diameteer by half.

http://www.kkingwaytechnology.com/elongatioon-of-wire-drawinng-2/

a) Calcuulate the red duction of area for eachh drawing sttep.

b) If theere is risk off fracture when
w the reduction of area reaches 95%,
9 after which
w
step will we
w need to perform a wire w annealing?
c) Wou uld it be neceessary an ad dditional ann
nealing befo
ore achieving the final
diameter?

Answer: a)) 75%; 93.7%

%; 98.4%; 99.6
6%; b) after th
he second row
w; c) No.

2. Calculate for a 301 sttainless steeel wire the m

minimum forrce required
d to pass it
through a drawer in a wire draw wing processs.

Data: assu
ume an initiial diameterr of 5 mm.
220
1.400
u 200

y
1.200 180
160
1.000
140
E longation (% )
STAIN
NLESS 301
 (M P a )

800 120

100
600
80

400 60

40
200
E
Elongation 20
0 0
0 10 20 30
0 40 50 60
Cold workk (%)

Answer: 5.5 kN
 Block III

3. The yield strength of a 1 mm diameter, d1, 301 stainless steel wire is 690 MPa.
From the hardening graph of this metal (previous question), calculate:
a) the percentage of the applied cold working
b) the initial diameter, d0, before being drawn
c) to which diameter, d2, the steel should be cold worked to reach a yield strength
of 1240 MPa.
d) the maximum load that each of the wires (d0, d1, d2) could withstand before
plastic deformation
e) is it possible to draw the wire up to the d2 diameter?

Answer: a) 14% b) 1.08 mm, c) 0.77 mm d) 250, 550 and 570 N.

4. Calculate the grams of Zn that must be added to 80 grams of Cu so that phases 

and  coexist with m = 30% at 700⁰C.

1.100
Brass
1.050

1.000
L
950
T (ºC )

900

850
 
800

750

700
0 10 20 30
(Cu) xZn40 50 60 70

Answer: mZn = 53 g
 Block III

5. Determine the existing phases, their    

fraction and their Zn concentration at 420 60
700⁰C for the following brasses:

Ductility (% Elongation)
Elongation
a) Cu‐20Zn
280 40
b) Cu‐30Zn u

 u (M Pa)
c) Cu‐40Zn
d) Cu‐45Zn
e) Cu ‐50Zn. 140 20
Cu-Zn
Sort these brasses according to their
ductility and yield strength. 20
0 10 30 50
Composition (wt % Zn)

Answer: a) and b) m = 100%, X = X; c) X = 35%, X = 42%, m = 28%; d) m = 100%; e)

X = 48%, X = 58%, m = 80%.

6. A Cu‐15Sn bronze is cooled very slowly so that the phases that appear accurately
follow the phase diagram.

Bronze
Líquid
Liquid
+L

798ºC
+L
 13,5
13.5
 


586ºC 

15,8
15.8 
520ºC



Calculate:
a) m and mL at 800⁰C
b) x and xL at this temperature
c) the amount and concentration of solute in the phases present at room
temperature.
Analyse what the phases at room temperature would be if solidification at 800°C is
performed very quickly.

Answer: m = 87%, mL = 13%, x = 13.5%, xL = 25.5%.

 Block III

7. Cooling rates of 5K/ss and 80 K/ss are achieveed by quencching an aluminium pro ofile
in a streaam of cold aiir or of vapo
orized waterr, respectiveely. The nosee of the TTT
diagram is i located att 10 s and att 350⁰C. If th
he initial tem
mperature iss 500⁰C, whiich
method would
w you chhoose to perrform the qu uench?

Answer: va
aporized wateer.

8. Using thee TTT diagraams of various aluminiu

um samples, calculate thhe minimum m
quenchinng rate (K/s)) for each on
ne. Assume that
t the cooling treatmeent is initiatted at
500⁰C.

Answer: fo
or 6061 t = 17
7 s, T = 360⁰C, v = 8.2 K/s.

660ºC
C
Liq
quid

+L 33.2
2
 548ºC +L
L

5.7 5
52.5

((CuAl2)



Duralum
min or dura
al ( Al-Cu
u)
 Block III

9. State the temperaturre range in which

w the so
olution heat treatment coould be applied
to an Al‐2
2.5Cu alloy.
At what temperature
t e would the solution heaat treatmentt be faster?
Using thee phase diaggram, determmine the maxximum posssible temperrature for thhe
aging treaatment.
Why do you
y think, inn practice, th
his treatmennt is adminisstered at a much
m lower
temperattures?

Answer: 45
50⁰C < TS <61
10⁰C; 610⁰C; 440⁰C.
4

10. Extract frrom the harddening diagrams of a duuralumin, an

nd at various temperatu
ures,
ue of y.
the agingg time that giives the maxximum valu

What temmperature
would yoou choice
for an opttimum
precipitattion
hardening
treatmennt?

Answer: Att T = 260⁰C th

he time would
d be 3.4 min; 230⁰C ‐ 14 min; 175⁰C ‐ 6.8
8 h.

11. Draw on a single grap ph the stresss‐strain currves of copper in the following statees:
a) before cold work k
b) afterr 10% of colld work
c) afterr 30% of cold d work
d) afterr recovery heat
h treatmeent
e) afterr recrystallizzation.

12. Draw on a single grapph the stresss‐strain currves of the fo

ollowing braasses:
a) Cu‐0
0Zn
b) ‐brrass with 10% Zn
c) ‐brass with 20%% Zn
d) ‐ brass
b
e) ‐braass.

13. Draw on a single grap

ph the stresss‐strain currves of repreesentative Ni,
N Cu and All
specimen
ns.

14. Why do you

y think a duralumin
d could not be used for applications at moderate
temperattures, for insstance 300ºC?
 Block III

15. In order to have a functional brass spring, which would be the best state for the
brass: before or after recrystallization? Why? In which case would the spring be
"harder"?

16. For a hypoeutectoid steel, calculate, and plot, as a function of the carbon content:
a) the amount of pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite
b) the total amount of cementite.

1,538ºC
 1,493ºC

1,394ºC Liquid
+L 4.30
1,148ºC
Fe- 2.11
,
+Fe3C

Fe3C
912ºC
0.77

Fe- 727ºC

0.02
+Fe3C

Answer: a) m‐proto = 1‐1.3xC, mpearlite = 1.3xC; b) mFe3C = 0.15xC.

17. Optical microscopy reveals an amount of 90% of perlite in a piece of steel.

Which is the steel carbon concentration in the following cases?:
a) hypoeutectoid steel
b) hypereutectoid steel.

Answer: a) 0.69%; b) 1.36%.

18. Discus the phases that appear during cooling from the liquid state a white iron
sample with xC = 2.5%. Calculate:
a) xL, xγ, mL and mγ at the eutectic temperature
b) mγ, mFe3C and the amount of eutectic constituent just below the eutectic
temperature
c) xγ and mγ at the eutectoid temperature
d) the amount of pearlite at T<730⁰C
e) the total amount of cementite at room temperature.

Answer: a) xL = 4.3%, xγ = 2.1%, mL = 18%, mγ = 82%; b) mE = 18%, mγ = 91%, mFe3C = 9%; c)

mγ = 71%, mFe3C = 29%; d) mperlite = 71%; e) mFe3C = 37%.
 Block III

19. Assuming that all cementite decomposes, calculate the amount of graphite that a
typical malleable cast iron obtained by the heat treatment of white iron would
contain. Give the result as a function of mFe3C.
Calculate the amount of graphite for the particular case of mFe3C = 35%.
In a real case, would the carbon content be higher or lower?

Answer: 2.3%.

20. A low alloy steel with the

TTT diagram of a low alloy steel, x=xE eutectoid carbon content
800
 is cooled at different
700
 Coarse perlite
speeds, v = 103, 5·102, 102,
50, 10, 5 and 1 K/s.
600
Fe3C
Temperature (ºC)

Fine perlite Calculate the critical


500
quench rate when cooling
 from 800°C. The nose of
400 Fe
300
 3C
Bainita the TTT curve is at 550°C
and 3s.

200 TM Plot the approximate

values of hardness as a
Martensite
1 week
100 function of the cooling
1 hour 1 day rate.
2 3 4 5 6
0,5 1 2 5 10 10 10 10 10 10
Which quench rate would
time (s) you recommend?

On the same graph plot the values of the hardness you would obtain if the steel was
a plain carbon steel with the same carbon content.

Answer: vc = 83 K/s. The ideal quench rate is 102 K/s.

21. Describe how the following properties vary when quenching a low alloy carbon
steel:
a) impact energy
b) stiffness
c) hardness
d) strength
e) yield strength
f) density
g) melting point
h) fracture toughness.

22. On a single graph draw the () curves for a plain carbon steel:
a) before quenching
b) after quenching
c) after tempering
d) after tempering for a longer time.

23. Why is the tensile strength of grey cast iron lower than that of a ductile cast iron?
 Block III

24. Imagine some workers broke a drain cover as they were installing it. What kind of
cast iron would it have been made of?

25. Compare the  () curves for samples or common ductile iron, malleable iron and
grey iron with the same carbon content.

26. The damping of vibrations in a grey cast iron sample is more effective when the
graphite sheets are longer. What will the strength be like in this case?
EXERCISES. BLOCK IV
1. Alumina has a particle density (or true density) of 3.98 g/cm3. A 5 × 15 × 20 cm3
isolating brick made of alumina has a mass of 1.49 kg.
Calculate the porosity.

Answer: P = 75%.

2. Calculate the mass of a 2 × 10 × 10 cm3 MgO brick knowing that its porosity is 5%.
Data:  = 3.6 g/cm3 (true density of MgO).

Answer: 684 g.

3. The pores of a clay brick are usually interconnected with the outer surfaces.
Therefore, the pores are filled with water when the brick is submerged. Consider
the case of a 4 × 20 × 15 cm3 brick that weighs 2.22 kg (dry weight). Calculate:
a) the bulk density (or apparent density)
b) the relative increase of mass when the water fills the pores if the porosity is
30%
c) the particle density (or true density).

Answer a) 1.85 g/cm3; b) 16 %; c) 2.64 g/cm3.

4. A cylinder made of glass has an ultimate strength of 140 MPa.

With an abrasive paper, several 0.3 mm depth cracks are graved in an identical
cylinder. In this state, the strength goes down to 23 MPa.
Calculate:
a) the Kc value for glass
b) the depth of the cracks in the glass before scratching it.

Answer: a) 0.71 MPa m½; b) 8.1 microns.

5. In advanced ceramics, resistance is higher and its value is better defined than in
traditional ceramics. Thus, while a clay brick’s bending resistance can vary 30%
around the average value, the scatter may be less than 5% in an advanced ceramic.
In each case calculate the relative variation of the length of the largest crack in the
specimen (a/a).

Answer: a/a = 2 u/u; 60 % and 10%, respectively.

6. The average tensile strength depends on the volume of the specimen according to:
, where k and m are constant parameters of the material.
The tensile strength of a specimen is 250 MPa and m = 15. Calculate the failure
bending stress considering that, in this case, the equivalent volume is lower and
equal to

Answer: 328 MPa.

 Block IV

7. An alumina specimen of 1.5 cm2 section and 13 cm in length breaks under a load of
46·103 N. Calculate its strength.
Calculate the length that the specimen must have to fail at a 10% higher strength.
Data: m = 12.

Answer: 307 MPa; L=4.2 cm.

8. Calculate the surface compression stress of a tempered glass if, after treatment, the
tensile strength of 120 MPa has quadrupled. How do you think the treatment will
affect the compressive strength?

Answer: s = 360 MPa.

9. Analyse the alumina‐silica phase diagram and indicate at what temperature the
first liquid appears in the following bricks:
a) SiO2‐30Al2O3
b) SiO2‐80Al2O3
c) 100% mullite.

Answer: a) 1587⁰C; b) 1.830⁰C; c) 1.830⁰C.

10. Using the phase diagram, calculate the maximum and minimum SiO2 mole fraction,
x, of mullite, xSiO2 · (1‐x)Al2O3.
Compare the result with the approximate expression ⅔SiO2·1Al2O3.

Answer: 33.6% < x < 41.0%

 Block IV

11. For a refractory clay brick, which composition is SiO2‐40Al2O3, and at room
temperature, calculate:
a) the amount of eutectic constituent, mE
b) the amount of proeutectic mullite, mM
c) the total amount of silica.
Schematically draw the microstructure.

Answer: a) 49%; b) 51%; c) 44%.

12. For a SiO2‐30Al2O3 brick calculate the amount of liquid and its composition at
1700°C. At what temperature would the melting be completed?

Answer: ml = 79%, xl = 19%, 1,770⁰C.

13. For an alumina refractory brick of composition given by SiO2‐80Al2O3 calculate:

a) the amount of mullite, mM, and alumina, mA, at 1.825⁰C
b) the amount of liquid, ml, and alumina, mA, and the concentration of SiO2 in the
liquid at 1.830⁰C.
At what temperature would the melting be completed?

Answer: a) mM = 80%, mA = 20%; b) ml = 44%, mA = 56%, xl(SiO2) = 45%; 2.000⁰C.

14. Why does the porosity of a traditional ceramic increase with the silica content?

15. Indicate which of these statements is behind the lack of ductility of ceramics at
room temperature:
a) due to cracks in the structure
b) because of its high hardness
c) because of its high melting point
d) because of the type of chemical bond
e) because of its high stiffness.

16. List the raw materials of traditional ceramics. Explain the role that each of these
play in both the processing and the final structure.

17. Why are glass fibres stronger than the glass from which they are built?

18. Why are refractory ceramics manufactured without feldspar?

19. Which material is more transparent: a) a ceramic or a glass? b) a vitroceramic or a

ceramic?

20. Explain why a vitroceramic is stronger than the same material obtained by
sintering

21. Describe what thermal stresses are like in a thermally tempered glass.

22. Apart from the cost, why are beams made of concrete instead of plain cement?

23. What are the advantages and drawbacks of increasing the water content in
concrete?
 Block IV

24. Is setting a concrete slab in an environment with a 100% humidity possible? (NB:
There is no water evaporation in these conditions).
EXERCISES. BLOCK V
1. Describe how the chemical bonds are in the three families of polymers and how
they determine their characteristic behaviour.

2. Calculate the degree of polymerization of a PE with a molecular weight of

30.000 AMU. Calculate the length of a representative stretched macromolecular
chain. The length of the C‐C is 0.154 nm.

Answer: 1070 and 330 nm

3. What kind of polymer would you use to manufacture an ashtray? A thermoplastic

or a thermoset? Why?
40
4. A vibration damper block made with
an elastomer is subjected to the
hysteresis cycle shown in the enclosed 30
figure.

The dimensions of the block are 10 ×  (MPa)

20
10 × 20 cm3.

Determine the energy dissipated 10

during this cycle.

0
0 1 2 3 4
Answer: 147 kJ. 
5. Cellulose acetate is an amorphous polymer used to manufacture the films of the
negatives used in photography. These films are stored in cold environments
(between 0 and 6ºC) to stabilize the chemical reagents that are used as light
sensing substances. Under these conditions, will these films be brittle?
Justify the answer.
40
6. The attached figure shows a typical
σ(ε) curve for a particular rubber. For Rubber
a 3 cm wide × 1 mm thick strip loaded
with an 80 kg weight, calculate: 30

a) the engineering strain

b) the elongation (the length before
 (MPa)

loading was 20 cm) and 20

c) the load that would cause a 100%
deformation.
10

0
0 1 2 3 4

Answer: a) 2.9; b) L = 58, L = 78 cm; c) 39 kg.
 Blo
ock V

7. Two plastic specimen

ns are madee from the saame polymeer. The only difference
between them is the degree of crrystallinity. Which one will
w be hard
der?

8. Explain why
w thermop
plastics exhibit creep att room temp
perature.

9. The two curves

c in the figure corrrespond to ttwo
polyethyllene tensile tests perforrmed at diffeerent
deformattion rates.
Which onne correspon nds to the hiigher speed?

10. Explain why

w a plasticc bag made of
o PE becom
mes more traansparent when
w melted
d.

11. The Youn ng's modulus of a non‐vulcanized ellastomer inccreases 1000 times wheen it
goes from
m the rubberry state to th
he glassy staate. How does this facto
or vary afterr
vulcanizaation?
Hint: plott the related
d E(T) graph
hs

12. Which of the three cu

urves more accurately
representts the behav
viour of an elastomer?
e

13. How coulld you distin

nguish whetther a plug iss made of po
olyamide orr of epoxy?

14. Why, unliike most adh

hesives, is Araldite
A sold
d in two sepaarate compo
onents that have
h
to be mixxed?

15. “A plasticc is useless below

b its glaass transition temperatu
ure” True orr false?

16. Sort the following

f po
olymers accoording to:
a) stiffn
ness
b) hard dness
Bakelite, polypropyleene, rubber,, and PMMAA.
 Blo
ock V

17. Plastic baags are usuaally made of PE. Some arre made of HDPE
H and so
ome others of
o
LDPE. Ind dicate whichh one has the highest/laargest:
a) degrree of crystaallinity
b) denssity
c) Younng's modulu us
d) strenngth
e) tougghness
f) transsparency
Can we sttate that thee HDPE moleecules are loonger?

18. Plot a rep

presentativee graph of a tensile
t test on a thermo oplastic thatt has its Tg below
b
room tem mperature.
he same graaph, how this test changges when:
Plot, on th
a) the degree
d of cry
ystallinity of the plasticc is increased
d
b) the test
t is perforrmed at a hiigher tempeerature
c) the test
t is perforrmed when the polymerr is at its glaassy state.

19. In a tensiile test, howw does the measured elongation of a thermoplasstic vary wh
hen
we increaase:
a) the test
t speed
b) the temperature
t e
c) the degree
d of cry
ystallinity
d) the amount
a of polymer fillers.

20. An LPDE strip is stretched in thee elastic regiion up to a ε0 strain. Thee stress justt at
the end of
o the test is σ0.
a) Draww schematiccally the evolution of thee applied strress, σ(t), if we keep thee
strain con
nstant (ε = ε0)
b) Draww schematiccally the evo
olution of thee strain, ε(t)), if we keep
p the stress
constant (σ = σ0).

21. How doess the area off the elastic hysteresis cycle
c of rubbber vary witth the speed
d of
the test? And
A under what
w condittions can thee area of thee hysteresis cycle be
minimal??

22. Which of the two currves in the fiigure

correspon ystyrene specimen and
nds to a poly
which to a polypropyylene specimmen?
QUESTIONS: COMPARISON BETWEEN MATERIALS
1. Cylindrical bars of equal dimensions are subject to a tensile effort below the yield
strength. On a single graph compare the evolution in time of the strain for the
following materials: gold, silicon carbide, polypropylene, tin and polyester.

2. Sort the following materials according to the easiness to deform by creep:

polystyrene, polyethylene, thermosetting polymer, iron, alumina and graphite.

3. Sort the following materials in ascending order according to their Young's

modulus: alumina, aluminium, iron, wolfram, epoxy and polyethylene.

4. Name three materials that cannot be strain hardened. In each case explain why.

5. Which phenomenon limits the working temperature of objects made from the
following materials:
a) soft iron magnet
b) duralumin
c) glass
d) a bag of HDPE
e) a bottle of PVC?

6. Which material is more ductile: rubber before vulcanization or plain carbon steel?

7. A cinema specialist has to perform a scene where the hero leaves the building by
jumping through a window. Assuming identical thickness, which material would
you recommend for this window: methacrylate, sodium‐calcium glass, polystyrene
or low density polyethylene.