A Glimpse into Europe's Geography
European Civilization has been described as unique
Understanding Europe
Geography
Europe is known to be as the second smallest
continent. It consists of "peninsulas, islands, and
varied landforms"
(2012books.lardbucket.org/pdfs/regional-geography-
of-the-world-globalization-people-and-places/s05-
europe.pdf)
It is a peninsula of the Eurasian supercontinent and is
bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the
Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean,
Black, and Caspian seas to the south.
(nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/europe-human-
geography/)
On the other hand, the Alpine region, Central
Uplands, Northern Lowlands and Western Highlands
are the four main landforms. Furthermore, the
physical environment of Europe has provided it with
natural resources needed for various human activities.
It's moderate climates and relative favorable location
are supported by its access to the many rivers and
seas. These and other factors have paved the way to
the development of the Industrial Revolution which
in turn gave rise to highly technical and urban
societies ( 2012books.lardbucket.org/pdfs/regional-
geography-of-the-world-globalization-people-and-
places/s05-europe.pdf)
European Civilization:
one since it is the only civilisation that has imposed
itself on the rest of the world through:
 conquest;
 economic power;
 power of its ideas; and
 it had things that others desired.
(Hirst, J. 2010 Shortest History of Europe . Old
Street Publishing retrieved from b-ok.org)
Significant Contributions of Greece in the World:
A Retrospect
Looking at the origins of philosophy, art, literature,
math, science, medicine, and thinking about politics,
would take us back to ancient Greece.
According to Hirst (2010), during its great days
"Greece was nit one state; it was made up of a series
of little states ; city-states as they are now called.
There was a single town with a tract of land around it;
everyone could walk into the town in a day. The
Greeks wanted to belong to a state as we belong to a
club; it was a fellowship. It was in these small city-
states that the first democracies emerged. They were
not representative democracies; you did not elect a
member of the parliament. All male citizens gathered
in one place to talk about public affairs, to vote on the
laws and to vote on policy.
Hirst furthered that population grew in the said Greek
city-states and they began to send people to establish
colonies in other parts of the Mediterranean. Greek
settlements were established in today's Turkey, along
the coast of North Africa, Spain, southern France, and
southern Italy. Eventually, it was in Italy where the
Romans, described as very backward people, first met
the Greeks and started to learn from them.
In Chapter 4 of his book, Hirst explained that "the
ancient Greeks invented the democratic state. They
also invented politics, a word which comes from their
word for city, polis. There had long been
governments of various sorts; the Greeks invented
government by discussion among all citizens and
majority voting . Theirs was direct democracy in
which all citizens gathered in one place to debate and
determine policy". However, according to the said
author, not all Greek city-states were democracies,
and democracies were always precarious.
(Hirst, J. 2010. Shortest History of Europe)
Russian Federation at a Glance
Russia, is considered as “a major global power with
vast natural resources, a strong military, a large
nuclear arsenal, an educated population, and
significant economic capacity. A country with a rich
history and traditions, Russia is now defining its role
and status in the 21st-century world. “ ( Shiraev, E.
2021)
The President of the Russian Federation
The position was established in 1991, after a
referendum was held. In 1993, the functions of the
president significantly changed.
Being the head of state, the president holds immense
powers and responsibilities. Their Constitution
provides that the president is the guarantor and
protector of the rights and liberties of Russian
citizens. He defines domestic and foreign policy.
Initially the presidential term was four years. An
amendment to the Constitution adopted in 2008
extended the term of the presidency to six years after
2012, with a maximum of two terms.
However in 2020, the terms of presidency were
potentially extended for the incumbent president until
2036.
* The president is mandated to protect the
Constitution as well as the sovereignty and territorial
integrity of Russia. He also coordinates the
functioning of federal institutions and represents
Russia internationally.
* He is the chief executive officer of the State. One of
his major responsibilities is to outline both domestic
and foreign policies. The president is the commander
in chief of the armed forces of the Russian
Federation. In the event of actual or potential
aggression against the country, the president may
impose martial law, a temporary system of
administration of justice under the control of the
military. This system may be established on the whole
territory of Russia or only in one or several areas.
* The president appoints the prime minister. This
must be done with the consent of the State Duma.
* The president appoints the ministers. He has the
right to be present and serve as a chair during the
Government of the Russian Federation’s meetings.
* One peculiar function of the he president of the
Russian Federation is that he is considered as the
chief legislator. He introduces bills to the Duma. The
president also signs bills passed by the Duma into
law. Being the chief legislator, he can issue his own
executive orders, which are mandatory within the
territory of the Russian Federation.
(Shiraev, E 2021. Russian Government and Politics
Third Edition. London: Red Globe Press).
Federal Assembly: Council of Federation
Article 94 The Federal Assembly — parliament of
the Russian Federation shall be the representative and
legislative body of the Russian Federation.
Article 95
1. The Federal Assembly shall consist of two
chambers – the Council of Federation and the
State Duma.
2. The Council of Federation shall consist of
senators of the Russian Federation. The
Council of Federation shall include:
a. two representatives from each
constituent entity of the Russian
Federation – one from the legislative
(representative) and one from the
executive State government body - for
the term of office of the relevant body;
b. the President of the Russian
Federation who has ceased to exercise
his (her) powers upon expiration of his
(her) term of office or before the end
of his (her) term due to his (her)
resignation - for life; the President of
the Russian Federation who has ceased
to exercise his (her) powers upon
expiration of his (her) term of office or
before the end of his (her) term due to
his (her) resignation shall be entitled to
forgo the powers of the senator of the
Russian Federation;
no more than 30 representatives of the
Russian Federation appointed by the
President of the Russian Federation,
 no more than seven of which may be
appointed for life.
3. The number of the senators of the Russian
Federation is defined on the basis of the
number of the representatives of the
constituent entities of the Russian Federation
enumerated in Article 65 of the Constitution
of the Russian Federation and the number of
persons performing the powers of the senators
of the Russian Federation enumerated in items
“b” and “c” of section 2 of the present Article.
4. The post of the senator of the Russian
Federation can be held by a citizen of the
Russian Federation not younger than 30 years
of age who permanently resides in the Russian
Federation and has no foreign citizenship,
residence permit or another document
certifying the right of the citizen of the
Russian Federation to have residence in the
territory of a foreign state. The senators of the
Russian Federation in order established by the
federal law shall be forbidden from opening
and having bank accounts (deposits), keeping
cash assets and valuables in foreign banks
situated outside the territory of the Russian
Federation.
5. Citizens who have done prominent services to
the country in the spheres of state or public
activities can be appointed representatives of
the Russian Federation at the Council of
Federation performing the powers of the
senators of the Russian Federation for life.
6. The representatives of the Russian Federation,
excluding the representatives of the Russian
Federation performing the powers of the
senators of the Russian Federation for life,
shall be appointed for the term of six years.
Jurisdiction of the Council of the Federation
a) approval of border changes between
constituent entities of the Russian Federation;
b) approval of edict of the President of the
Russian Federation on the introduction of
martial law;
c) approval of edict of the President of the
Russian Federation on the introduction of a
state of emergency;
d) deciding on the possibility of using the Armed
Forces of the Russian Federation outside the
territory of the Russian Federation;
e) announcement of elections of the President of
the Russian Federation;
f) impeachment of the President of the Russian
Federation; removal of immunity of the
President of the Russian Federation who has
ceased to exercise his (her) powers;
g) appointment upon presentation of the Russian
Federation of the President of the
Constitutional Court of the Russian
Federation, Vice-President of the
Constitutional Court of the Russian
Federation and the judges of the
Constitutional Court of the Russian
Federation, the Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court of the Russian Federation, deputy chief
justices of the Supreme Court of the Russian
Federation and judges of the Supreme Court
of the Russian Federation vice-presidents and
judges of other federal courts;
h) holding consultations on the candidates
presented by the President of the Russian
Federation for appointment as the Prosecutor
General of the Russian Federation, deputies of
the Prosecutor General of the Russian
Federation, prosecutors of the constituent
entities of the Russian Federation, prosecutors
of military and other specialised prosecution
offices equated to prosecutors of the
constituent entities of the Russian Federation;
i) appointment, upon presentation of the
President of the Russian Federation, the
Chairman of the Accounts Chamber and half
of the general number of the auditors of the
Accounts Chamber and relieving them from
their duties;
j) holding consultations on the candidates
presented by the President of the Russian
Federation for appointment as the heads of the
federal executive government authorities
(including federal ministers) in charge of
issues of defence, state security, internal
affairs, justice, foreign affairs, prevention of
emergencies and elimination of consequences
of natural disasters, domestic security;
k) termination upon proposition of the President
of the Russian Federation in accordance with
the federal constitutional law of powers of the
President of the Constitutional Court of the
Russian Federation, the Vice-president of the
Constitutional Court of the Russian
Federation and the judges of the
Constitutional Court of the Russian
Federation, the Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court of the Russian Federation, vice-
presidents of the Supreme Court of the
Russian Federation and judges of the Supreme
Court of the Russian Federation, presidents,
vice-presidents and judges of the cassation
and appeal courts in the event of them
committing a violation tarnishing the honour
and dignity of judge, as well as in other
situations established by federal constitutional
 law demonstrating impossibility for a judge to
continue discharging of his (her) powers;
l) hearing of the annual reports of the Prosecutor
General of the Russian Federation on the state
of law and order in the Russian Federation.
Source: Constitution of the Russian Federation
(retrieved from rm.coe.int/constitution-of-the-russian-
federation-en/1680a1a237)
Federal Assembly: The State Duma
Article 103
1. The following shall be within the jurisdiction
of the State Duma: a. approval upon
presentation of the President of the Russian
Federation of candidate for the post of
Chairman of the Government of the Russian
Federation;
a.) approval upon presentation of the
Chairman of the Government of the
Russian Federation of candidates for the
posts of deputy chairmen of the
Government of the Russian Federation
and federal ministers excluding those
enumerated in item “e 1 “ of Article 83 of
the Constitution of the Russian
Federation;
b.) deciding the issue of confidence in the
Government of the Russian Federation;
c.) hearing to the annual reports of the
Government of the Russian Federation on
results of its activity, including the points
raised by the State Duma;
d.) appointment and dismissal of the
Chairman of the Central Bank of the
Russian Federation;
e.) hearing of the annual reports of the
Central Bank of the Russian Federation;
f.) appointment upon presentation of the
President of the Russian Federation the
deputy Chairman of the Accounts
Chamber and half of the of the auditors of
the Accounts Chamber and relieving them
from their duties;
g.) appointment and dismissal of the
Commissioner for Human Rights, who
shall act according to federal
constitutional law. The post of the
Commissioner for Human Rights can be
held by a citizen of the Russian Federation
who permanently resides in the Russian
Federation and has no foreign citizenship,
residence permit or another document
certifying the right of the citizen of the
Russian Federation to have residence in
the territory of a foreign state. The
Commissioner for Human Rights in order
established by the federal law shall be
forbidden from opening and having bank
accounts (deposits), keeping cash assets
and valuables in foreign banks situated
outside the territory of the Russian
Federation;
h.) announcement of amnesty;
i.) bringing charges against the President of
the Russian Federation for his (her)
impeachment or against the President of
the Russian Federation who has ceased to
exercise his (her) powers with the aim to
remove his (her) immunity;
2. The State Duma shall adopt decrees on issues
referred to its authority by the Constitution of
the Russian Federation.
3. Decrees of the State Duma shall be adopted
by a majority of the total number of deputies
of the State Duma, unless another procedure
for adopting decisions is envisaged by the
Constitution of the Russian Federation.
Source: The Constitution of the Russian
Federation retrieved from
https://rm.coe.int/constitution-of-the-russian-
federation-en/1680a1a237
The "Government"
The Government or the ‘Cabinet of Ministers’,
exercises its power over the Russian territory.
Composition:
 The Chair of the Government (prime
minister);
 the deputies;
 and federal ministers.
“The president appoints the prime minister with the
approval of the Duma. In theory, the Duma can refuse
the nomination at least three times. After the third
refusal, the president must dissolve the Duma and call
new legislative elections. The government (the
Cabinet) must resign as soon as a new president is
elected. Russian prime ministers are granted
substantial legal powers. In case of disagreements and
tensions with the Duma, the prime minister can
petition the president to dissolve the Duma and call
for new elections. This has never happened to date,
however. Vladimir Putin, after serving two terms as
president, became prime minister in 2008.
In 2012, former President Medvedev replaced Putin
in this role, and in 2020 Mikhail Mishustin (b. 1966)
replaced Medvedev.”

What are the responsibilities of the Government?

According to Shiraev (2021), “the government of the
Russian Federation is responsible for the planning of
and control over the federal financial policy. One of
its major tasks is preparing the federal budget. After
the budget is approved by the lower house of the
legislature (the Duma), the government is responsible
for the budget execution. In addition, the Cabinet also
manages the Russian Federation’s federal property.”
Furthermore, aside from “planning and executing
foreign and defense policies, the government has to
prepare and carry out centralized federal policies in
the fields of public education, healthcare, science,
culture, social services, and environmental protection.
It is also in charge of law enforcement, protection of
the private property of Russian citizens, and the
investigation and prevention of crime.”
(Obtained from: Shiraev, E 2021. Russian
Government and Politics)