NPTEL – Mechanical Engineering – Continuum Mechanics

Module-5: Constitutive Relations

Lecture-34: Necessity of Constitutive Equations and
the Principle of Material Frame-Indifference

Here, we discuss the need of constitutive relations and also the restrictions imposed by
the principle of material frame-indifference.
Necessity of constitutive relations:
We observe in physical world that different materials respond differently for the same
forces. For example, steel and rubber with same geometry undergoes different deforma-
tions for the same amount of forces. Similarly, response of water or gas is different from
the solids under the action of forces. Though all materials follow the same basic principles
but they do exhibit different behaviors. It shows that the basic principles that we dis-
cussed are not sufficient to characterize the behavior of materials. In fact, we now show
the same argument mathematically.
We have the following basic laws, i.e., conservation of mass, conservation of momenta,
conservation of energy and second law of thermodynamics:
Dρ
+ ρ∇x · v = 0, (1)
Dt
Dv
ρ = ∇x · τ + ρb, and τ T = τ , (2)
Dt
De
ρ = τ : D − ∇x · q + ρQh , (3)
Dt
Dη ρQh 1 q
ρ ≥ − ∇x · q + 2 · ∇x θ. (4)
Dt θ θ θ
In summary, we have five independent equations as second law of thermodynamics is
inequality. On the other hand, we have following 16 unknowns in the equations,

• mass density ρ, (scalar: one unknown)

• velocity v, (vector: three unknowns)

• Cauchy stress tensor τ , (symmetric second-order tensor: six unknowns)

• internal energy e, (scalar: one unknown)

• heat flux vector q, (vector: three unknowns)

• temperature θ, (scalar: one unknown)

• entropy η (scalar: one unknown)

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These unknowns (ρ, v, τ , e, q, θ and η) are also known a state variables as they represent
the state of continuum at every point.

Assuming that the continuum body interaction with external environment is known,
i.e., body forces per unit mass b and heat sources distribution Qh are known1 . Clearly,
the unknowns are more than the equations and hence it is not possible to determine
the unknowns uniquely. Thus, the problem is ill-posed with above governing equations
except for some trivial cases of rigid body motion. In order to make problem well-posed,
we need to specify 11 more equations known as constitutive relations. These constitutive
relations are specified on the basis of mechanical and thermal response of material, i.e.,
these equations are dependent on the internal constitution of the material.
Constitutive relations cannot be chosen arbitrarily and they must follow a set of prin-
ciples and rules imposed by physical laws and material symmetry. Though there is great
reduction in the constitutive relation due to these principles and rules but there are con-
stants in the constitutive relations that cannot be evaluated alone by these principles. So,
finally experiments are needed to obtain the constants in the constitutive relations for a
given material. We now discuss the formulation of constitutive relations.
Constitutive relations and the principle of determinism:
Let B0 be a reference configuration and B be a deformed configuration at an instant of
time t. Let x = χ(X, t) be a map from B0 to B. The constitutive relations can be stated
as eleven implicit functionals of 16 unknown fields in the governing equations, i.e.,
∞
R [ρ(Y , t − p), χ(Y , t − p), τ (Y , t − p), e(Y , t − p), q(Y , t − p),
p=0
∀Y ∈B0
θ(Y , t − p), η(Y , t − p), X, t] = 0. (5)

where p represents the time history and t represent present time. The implicit constitutive
relation indicating that R at material a point X ∈ B0 may also depend on other martial
points Y ∈ B0 . We note that the functional R should be function of velocity, but the
mapping function χ is introduced in the arguments of R as the velocity is material (total)
time derivative of χ.
Notation used in above constitutive relations:

• R represents the eleven implicit relations in terms of sixteen unknown fields at an

instant of time t and at a material coordinate X.

• The letter p = 0 to ∞ indicates total time history

• The symbol ∀Y ∈ B0 shows that the constitutive response at material coordinate

X depends on every point Y in the domain B0 .

The principle of determinism states that the past history of motion and temperature at
all points of continuum body can determine the present state of the body. Furthermore, it
excludes the dependence of behavior on outside of body and future events. Therefore, we
1
The assumption of known body forces and heat source distribution is criticized by L. C. Woods in “The
bogus axioms of continuum mechanics”, Bulletin of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications, 17,
pp. 98-102 (1981). However, the assumption is widely accepted. The framework of continuum mechanics
avoiding this assumption can be seen in I-Shih Liu, “Continuum Mechanics”, Springer, 2002.

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use explicit functional equations such that they depend on history of motion, temperature
and density. This argument is also consistent with physical perception as density, motion
and temperature can be perceived by our physical senses. Thus, we choose density, motion
and temperature as independent variables whereas the Cauchy stress tensor, heat flux
vector, internal energy and entropy as dependent variables. Eleven constitutive relations
in explicit form can be written as
∞
τ (x, t) = τ̂ (ρ(Y , t − p), χ(Y , t − p), θ(Y , t − p), X, t),
p=0
∀Y ∈B0
∞
q(x, t) = q̂ (ρ(Y , t − p), χ(Y , t − p), θ(Y , t − p), X, t),
p=0
∀Y ∈B0
∞
e(x, t) = ê (ρ(Y , t − p), χ(Y , t − p), θ(Y , t − p), X, t),
p=0
∀Y ∈B0
∞
η(x, t) = η̂ (ρ(Y , t − p), χ(Y , t − p), θ(Y , t − p), X, t),
p=0
∀Y ∈B0

where x = χ(X, t). We note that all constitutive relations τ̂ , q̂, ê and η̂ are dependent
on same set of independent variables. The rule of considering same set of independent
variables in the explicit constitutive relations is known as principle of equipresence.
The constitutive equations need to satisfy following three requirements:

• principle of material frame-indifference,

• material symmetry,

• second law of thermodynamics.

These three requirements impose severe restrictions on the constitutive relations. There-
fore, it is useful for practical problems as constitutive relations can be obtained with few
experiments. Before imposing these requirements, we also assume that the material is
simple. We now define simple material or principle of local action.
Simple materials:
In general, the constitutive relations (relation between state variables such as stress, defor-
mation, density, temperature, heat flux, internal energy and entropy) at a point depend
on thermomechanical history of every point in the body. This is known as non-local
property of constitutive relationship. The non-local nature of constitutive relations poses
difficulty in obtaining solution to the thermomechanical problems. However, it is rarely
relevant to many practical problems in the mechanics. Therefore, we assume that the
thermomechanical history of neighbourhood can affect the response at a point but not
the furthest points. This assumption is known as simple material or principle of local
action. Furthermore, we consider first-order approximation of dependent variable to ac-
count for local action. Let X be a material point and Y be a point in the neighbourhood.
Let dX = Y − X. Then, using Taylor’s series approximation, we get
ρ(Y , t − p) = ρ(X, t − p) + ∇X ρ(X, t − p) · dX + o(dX),
χ(Y , t − p) = χ(X, t − p) + F (X, t − p)dX + o(dX), (6)
θ(Y , t − p) = θ(X, t − p) + ∇X (X, t − p) · dX + o(dX),

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where F (X, t − p) is the deformation gradient.

Recall the relation ρ0 (X) = det(F (X, t − p))ρ(X, t − p), where ρ0 (X) is density of
reference configuration, from Lecture-24. Therefore, the history of density and its gradient
can be related to the history of deformation gradient and its derivatives and X as density
of reference configuration is constant. Since the derivative of deformation gradient is not
considered (see Eq.(6)2 ), the ρ(X, t − p) and ∇X ρ(X, t − p) can be directly related to
F (X, t − p) and X. Thus, we drop the argument of density and its derivative from
the constitutive relations. Let us denote gradient of temperature ∇X θ with g. Then,
substituting first-order approximation of independent variables in the general form of
explicit constitutive relations, we get the following response functions for simple material.
∞
τ (X, t) = τ̂ (χ(X, t − p), F (X, t − p), θ(X, t − p), g(X, t − p), X, t),
p=0
∞
q(X, t) = q̂ (χ(X, t − p), F (X, t − p), θ(X, t − p), g(X, t − p), X, t),
p=0
∞
e(X, t) = ê (χ(X, t − p), F (X, t − p), θ(X, t − p), g(X, t − p), X, t),
p=0
∞
η(X, t) = η̂ (χ(X, t − p), F (X, t − p), θ(X, t − p), g(X, t − p), X, t).
p=0

In addition to simple material, we also assume that constitutive relations are not depen-
dent explicitly on time. In other words, we are assuming that material do not experience
aging2 .
The constitutive relations for the simple material with the assumption of no aging can
be written as
∞
τ (X, t) = τ̂ (χ(X, t − p), F (X, t − p), θ(X, t − p), g(X, t − p), X),
p=0
∞
q(X, t) = q̂ (χ(X, t − p), F (X, t − p), θ(X, t − p), g(X, t − p), X),
p=0
∞
e(X, t) = ê (χ(X, t − p), F (X, t − p), θ(X, t − p), g(X, t − p), X),
p=0
∞
η(X, t) = η̂ (χ(X, t − p), F (X, t − p), θ(X, t − p), g(X, t − p), X).
p=0

Despite the assumptions of principle of local action (simple material) and no aging, the
present model includes the most of constitutive relations which are in practice. For
example Hooke’s law for elastic solids and Newton’s law of viscosity for fluids. As noted
earlier, we impose principle of material frame-indifference on constitutive relations.
Principle of material frame-indifference (MFI):
The principle of material frame-indifference postulates that the constitutive relations have
same form in all frames of reference. This is similar to the principle of frame-indifference
for the governing equations. However, the principle of frame-indifference for the gov-
erning equations has been universally accepted but not the principle of material frame-
indifference. There are some works that show the constitutive relations do not have
2
The assumption of no aging can be deduced from the principle of material frame-indifference, see
I-Shih Liu, “Continuum mechanics”, Springer, 2002.

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same form in all frames (see for example Müller, 1972)3 . There are series of discussions
on the aspects of this principle and it has been shown that there are two assumptions
involved in this principle4 . The two assumptions involved are observer-invariance and
form-invariance.
Let τ̂ ∗ and τ̂ be constitutive relations for the quantities τ ∗ and τ , respectively. We
note that the quantities τ ∗ and τ are description of same physical variable from the
frames F ∗ and F , respectively. As stated in previous lectures, the frames of reference
are related by Euclidean transformation. Let l∗ and l be list of independent variables,
that are present in the constitutive relations, observed by F ∗ and F , respectively. Then
the observer-invariance can be written as

τ̂ ∗ (l∗ ) = Qτ̂ (l)QT . (7)

We note that τ̂ ∗ and τ̂ (l) could be different functions. In addition to observer-invariance,

we assume following form-invariance, i.e.,

τ̂ ∗ (l∗ ) = τ̂ (l∗ ). (8)

Substituting Eq. (8) in Eq. (7), we get

τ̂ (l∗ ) = Qτ̂ (l)QT . (9)

This condition (Eq. 9) is known as the principle of material frame-indifference or invari-

ance of constitutive relation under superposed rigid-body motion. It has also been shown
that any two conditions among observer-invariance, form-invariance and invariance of con-
stitutive relation under superposed rigid-body motion (Eqs. (7), (8) and (9)) can imply
other one.

Without debating much on controversy of this principle, in the absence of any experi-
mental evidence, we assume the principle of material frame-indifference as an axiom.
We present a simple example to understand the consequence of principle of material
frame-indifference. In the next lecture, we discuss the consequence of principle of material
frame-indifference on general constitutive relations of simple materials.
Example 1. Let τ be a stress response. Let ρ, v, L and D be density, velocity, velocity
gradient and rate of deformation, respectively. Let the constitutive relation of material be

τ = τ̂ (ρ, v, L).

If the constitutive relation follows the principle of material frame-indifference then the
constitutive relation reduces to
τ = τ̂ (ρ, D). (10)

Proof. Let F ∗ and F be fixed and moving frames. Then they are related by the Euclidean
transformation
χ∗ (X, t∗ ) = Q(t)χ(X, t) + c(t), (11)
3
Müller, I., “On the frame dependence of stress and heat flux”, Archive for Rational Mechanics and
Analysis, 45, pp. 241-250, 1972
4
Jog, C. S., “Foundations and applications of mechanics: continuum mechanics”, Narosa Publishing
House, New Delhi, 2007.

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where t∗ = t − s, Q(t) represents relative rotation between frames and c(t) represents
translation.

Let us assume ρ, v and L be density, velocity, velocity gradient, respectively, in frame

of reference F ; ρ∗ , v ∗ and L∗ be density, velocity, velocity gradient, respectively, in frame
of reference F ∗ .
We also have the relations ρ∗ = ρ, L∗ = QLQT + Q̇QT and v ∗ = Qv + Q̇x + ċ (see
Lectures 31 and 32).
By applying the principle of material frame-indifference to the given constitutive rela-
tion, we get
τ̂ (ρ∗ , v ∗ , L∗ ) = Qτ̂ (ρ, v, L)QT .
Substituting ρ∗ = ρ, L∗ = QLQT + Q̇QT and v ∗ = Qv + Q̇x + ċ in the above equation,
we can write

τ̂ (ρ, Qv + Q̇x + ċ, QLQT + Q̇QT ) = Qτ̂ (ρ, v, L)QT . (12)

Since Q(t) is arbitrary, choosing Q = I, we get

τ̂ (ρ, v + ċ, L) = τ̂ (ρ, v, L).

This relation shows that the stress response cannot be a function of velocity as c(t)
is arbitrary. Let D and W be rate of deformation and spin tensors. Then we have
L = D + W . Of course D and W are symmetric and skewsymmetric part of velocity
gradient. Substitution of relation L = D + W in Eq. (12) yields

τ̂ (ρ, QDQT + QW QT + Q̇QT ) = Qτ̂ (ρ, L)QT . (13)

Note that the velocity v in the argument is removed as we have shown it is independent
of velocity. Since the orthogonal tensor Q(t) is arbitrary, we choose Q(t0 ) = I and
Q̇(t0 ) = −W . Evaluating the above equation at t = t0 , we get

τ̂ (ρ, D) = τ̂ (ρ, L).

Thus, the principle of material frame-indifference reduces the constitutive relation τ =

τ̂ (ρ, v, L) to τ = τ̂ (ρ, D).

References

1. C. S. Jog, Foundations and Applications of Mechanics: Continuum Mechanics,

Volume-I, 2007, Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

2. Z. Martinec, Lecture Notes on Continuum Mechanics

(Link: http://geo.mff.cuni.cz/vyuka/Martinec-ContinuumMechanics.pdf)

3. I-S. Liu, Continuum Mechanics, 2002, Springer, Berlin.

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