M2: PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF pg.

53-63

William James Concept of the Self: The Me-Self and the I-Self
• self is divided into two categories: the I-Self and the Me-Self.
• The I-Self refers to the self that knows who he or she is, which is also called the thinking
self. The I-Self reflects the soul of a person or the mind, which is also called the pure ego.
• The Me-Self, meanwhile, is the empirical self, which refers to a person's personal
experiences and is further divided into sub-categories: the material self, social self, and
spiritual self.
• The material self is attributed to an individual's physical attributes and material
possessions that contribute to one's self-image.
• The social self refers to who a person is and how he or she acts in social situations. James
believes that people have different social selves depending on the context of a social
situation. For example, a student may act differently in school and at home with his or her
family.
• The spiritual self refers to the most intimate and important part of the self, which includes
the person's purpose, core values, conscience, and moral behavior. James believes that the
path to understanding the spiritual self requires introspection.

Carl Rogers' Self Theory: The Real and Ideal Self

• Self-concept refers to the image of oneself.
• Psychologist Carl Rogers defines the self as a flexible and changing perception of
personal identity. The self is the center of experience (Rathus, 2017). He suggests that
the self develops from interactions with significant people and awareness of one's own
characteristics and level of functioning.
• According to Rogers, human beings are always striving for self-fulfillment or self-
actualization. When the needs of the self are denied, severe anxiety may arise. Central to
achieving self-actualization is the development of self-concept.
• Rogers suggests two components of self-concept: the real self and the ideal self.
• The real self consists of all the ideas, including the awareness of what one is and what
one can do.
• The ideal self is the person's conception of what one should be or what one aspires to be,
which includes one's goals and ambitions in life.
• In Roger's view, the closer the ideal self to the real self, the more fulfilled and happier the
individual becomes. When the ideal self is far from the real self, the person becomes
unhappy and dissatisfied (Atkinson et al., 2000).
M2: PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF pg. 53-63

Multiple Versus Unified Self & True versus False Self

• Self-understanding in adolescents also includes conceptualizing the self as multiple or
unified and true or false. The construction of multiple selves varies across different
interpersonal and intrapersonal roles and relationships.
• Winnicott has found that the self is composed of the true self and the false self. The function
of the false self is to hide and protect the true self. Researchers have found that
adolescents' perceptions of themselves can change depending on the situation. For instance,
adolescents are more likely to show their false self during dating situations and are likely
to show their true self when they are with their family and close friends. In other words,
adolescents display a false self to impress others. Adolescents develop different selves in
various relational contexts.
• It can be argued that high or healthy self-esteem may result in an overall good personality
but it is not, and should not be, the only source of a person’s healthy perspective of herself
or himself. People with high self-esteem are commonly described as outgoing,
adventurous, and adaptable in a lot of situations. They also initiate activities and build
relationships with people. However, they may also dismiss other activities that do not
conform to their self-concept or boost their self-esteem. There is also a possibility that they
may turn into bullies and experiment on abusive behaviors with drugs, alcohol, and sex.
THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC
• Albert Bandura (2001) posts that human, through their agency, are perceived as
proactive agents of experiences. Agency embodies its endowments, belief system, self-
regulatory capabilities and distributed structures and functions through which
personal influence exercised, rather than reside as a discrete entity. The core features of
agency enable people to play a part in their self-development, adaptation, and self-
renewal.
• The main features of human agency are intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness, and
self-reflectiveness.
o Intentionality refers to acts done intentionally. Intentions center on plans of action
with the anticipation of possible outcomes.
o Forethought enables the person to anticipate the likely consequences of
prospective actions. Through the exercise of forethought, people are guided in their
actions in the anticipation of future events.
o Self-reactiveness involves making choices and choosing appropriate courses of
action, as well as motivating and regulating them.
o Self-reflectiveness gives the person the ability to reflect upon, and the adequacy
of, his or her thoughts and actions. People are not only agents of action but also
self-examiners of their own functioning.
o Efficacy beliefs are the foundation of human agency. Self-efficacy refers to the
individual's belief that he or she is capable to perform a task that influences
M2: PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF pg. 53-63

whether he or she will think pessimistically or optimistically and in ways that are
self-enhancing or self-hindering. Efficacy beliefs also play a central role in self-
regulation, which is the ability of an individual to control his or her behavior
without having to rely on others for help.

THE SELF AS THE CENTRAL ARCHETYPE

• Central to Carl Jung's theory of the self is the concept of archetypes.
• Archetypes are the universal models after which roles are patterned. The archetype
represents the hidden potentialities of the psyche or total personality.
• Jung suggests that the psyche continues to develop throughout life, but it starts to show a
definite form and content during adolescence. According to Jung, archetypes reside in the
personal unconscious (forgotten experiences) that is common to all human beings known
as the collective unconscious. For Jung, there are four major archetypes persona, shadow,
animus anima, and self.
o The persona refers to the social roles that individuals present to others.
o The shadow refers to tie repressed thoughts that are socially unacceptable. This
archetype is often considered the dark side of the psyche.
o The anima is the feminine side of the male psyche whereas the animus is the
masculine side of the female psyche.
o The self is the central archetype that unites all parts of the psyche. The ego is the
individual's conscious perception of the self.

SIGMUND FREUD'S CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND PERSONALITY

• According to Sigmund Freud, the dynamic forces within the self are many and in
inevitable conflict. He argues that the mind is composed of three structures through which
personality is formed: the id, ego, and superego.
o The id refers to the component of the personality characterized by its need to
satisfy basic urges and desires. Freud believes that the id is the pleasure-seeking
side, impulsive, child-like, and demands instant gratification.
o The ego refers to the I and operates on the reality principle and controls the id.
The ego can conform with existing societal considerations.
o The superego refers to the "conscience" and "moral judge" of one's conduct.
Violation of rules leads to feelings of guilt. It strives for perfection rather than
pleasure.
o It appears that the id is the devil within the self, the superego is the angel, and the
ego is the person in the middle. The id, ego, and superego are often in conflict
M2: PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF pg. 53-63

with each other. Freud uses the term “ego strength" to refer to the ego's ability to
resolve the conflict between the three structures. If this constant state of conflict is
unresolved personality problems may arise.
1. The first stage is the oral stage, which lasts from birth up to the first year of life. During
this stage, babies derive pleasure from oral activities, such as sucking and biting.
Overindulgence of oral needs may lead to oral incorporative personality disorder, such as
overeating, smoking, and alcoholism, whereas dissatisfaction may lead to oral aggressive
personality disorder, such as sarcasm and tactlessness.
2. The next stage is the anal stage, which occurs around the second year of life. During this
stage, the child derives pleasure from the elimination of body wastes. Through toilet
training, the child learns the basic rules of society. Anal fixations can lead to anal-retentive
personality disorder, such as having an obsession with cleanliness, or anal expulsion
Personality disorder, such as clumsiness.
3. Freud calls the third stage the phallic stage which usually occurs around ages 3 and 6.
Children during this stage derive pleasure from examining, touching, fondling, or
displaying their genitals. These behaviors are likely motivated by curiosity about the
differences between the anatomy of men and women. Sex curiosity will remain high during
the elementary years, and children will tend to ask questions regarding anatomical
structures, sex, and how babies are made. During this stage, parents and teachers need to
properly educate children about sexuality. Fixations at this stage may lead to abnormal
sexual behaviors in later life.
4. The fourth stage is the latency stage, which lasts from 7 to 12 years of age. At this stage,
sexual energy is repressed because children become occupied with school.
5. The last stage is the genital stage, which starts from adolescence to adulthood. During
this stage, pleasure is again derived from the genital area, and individuals seek to satisfy
their sexual drives from sexual relationships. Sexual problems may result as a
consequence of inappropriate sexual behaviors.

THE ROLE OF ERIK ERIKSON'S THEORY IN UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

• In Erik Erikson's theory, adolescence is a period of identity development. Identity
formation is usually viewed as a process that requires adolescents to distance themselves
from the strong expectations and definitions imposed by parents and other family members.
• To achieve an individual identity, one must create a vision of the self that is authentic which
is anchored on the meaning of his or her goals for the future sense of having a hold of one’s
destiny in an effort to reach personal meaningful goals (Newman & Newman, 2008).
Adolescents try to establish their identity through status symbols, such as having state-
of-the art mobile phones, designer bags and clothes, and other material possessions.
• Erikson's theory proposes that individuals go through eight psychosocial stages of
development. He gives particular emphasis on the development of the ego. The ego is the
positive force that contributes to identity formation and lays the foundation for certain
M2: PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF pg. 53-63

strengths and virtues in life, such as hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care,
and wisdom.
Eight psychosocial stages of development
1. Trust versus mistrust is the first psychosocial stage of development, occurring in the first
year of life. According to Erikson, the child will develop trust if he or she is properly cared
for. If the child is not well cared for, mistrust is likely to develop.
2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of development, which occurs
during the first three years of life. Autonomy means independence of thought and
confidence to think and act for oneself. Children begin to assert their independence during
this stage. Erikson states that if parents allow their children to explore, they will become
more confident and secure in their own abilities. If children are overly protected, they may
become overly dependent on their parents and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own
abilities. Erikson believes that this stage has important implications in the development of
independence and identity during adolescence.
3. Initiative versus guilt is Erikson's third stage of development, which occurs around ages
3 to 5. During this period, developing a sense of responsibility among children leads to the
development of an initiative. A child who is made to feel irresponsible might develop
feelings of guilt.
4. Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of development, which occurs around
elementary school years. During this stage, children face the task of developing knowledge
and skills usually taught in schools. When children are encouraged in their efforts, they
will develop a sense of industry. However, children who receive little or no encouragement
from parents and teachers will doubt their own abilities and are likely to develop inferiority.
5. The fifth psychosocial stage, identity formation versus identity confusion, takes place
during adolescence. At this stage, adolescent. face the task of finding out who they are,
what they are, and what they want in life. They are confronted with many roles and
responsibilities. If parents provide proper support, adolescents will develop a positive
identity. If they are not adequately supported, they will feel insecure and identity confusion
will likely develop. intimacy versus isolation occurs during early adulthood when people
explore personal relationships.
6. During this sixth stage of development, Erikson believes it is vital that people develop
intimate relationships with others. Those who are successful in this stage will likely form
relationships that are stable and successful. Inability to develop intimate relationships
during this stage will lead to mistrust and isolation.
7. Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh stage of development, which occurs during
middle adulthood. Generativity involves a person's desire to contribute to the world by
teaching, leading, and guiding the next generation and doing activities that will benefit the
community. Developing a sense of generativity is important during this stage. Those who
fail to attain this generativity will feel worthless.
8. Integrity versus despair is the final psychosocial stage, which occurs during old age and
is focused on self-reflection in one's life. At this stage, individuals reflect on the important
M2: PSYCHOLOGICAL SELF pg. 53-63

events of their lives. If they are satisfied and proud of their accomplishments, they will feel
a sense of integrity. Those who are unsuccessful in this stage will feel that their life has
been wasted and will experience regrets and despair.