UNIT II INTERNETWORKING ‘Two or more devices connected for the purpose of sharing data or resources can form a network. The number of stations may be too great for efficient frame delivery or management of the network, and the network may need to be subdivided. In the first case a device called a repeater or regenerator is inserted into the network to increase the coverable distance. In the second case a device called bridge is inserted for traffic management. When two or more separable networks are connected for exchanging data or resources, they become an internetwork (or internet)Linking a number of LANs into an internet requires additional internetworking devices called Routers and Gateways. These devices are designed to overcome obstacles to interconnection without disturbing the independent functioning of the network. An internet is an interconnection of individual networks. To create an internet, we need internetworking devices called routers and Gateways. Internet - Interconnection of Network. Internet - Worldwide network. Each of these four devices interacts with protocols at different layers of OSI Model. Repeaters act only upon the electrical components of a signal and are therefore active only at the Physical layer. Bridges utilize addressing protocols and can affect the flow control of a single LAN, they are most active at the Data link layer. Routers provide link between two separate but same type LANs and are most active at the Network layer. Finally Gateways provide translation series between incompatible LANs or applications and are active in all of the layers. Connecting devices Tnternetworking devices RepeatersARepeater ( or Regenerator) is an electronic devices that operates on only the physical layer of the OSI model, Signals that carry information within a network can travel a fixed distance. A Repeater installed on a link receives the signal before it becomes too weak or corrupted , regenerate the original bit pattern and puts the refreshed copy back onto the link. A Repeater allows us to extend only the physical length of network. The repeater does not change the functionality of the network in 4. a Application Application Presentation Presentut Seon Session Transport pert 1 Physical Prysieal 'The two sections connected by the repeater in above figure are in reality, one network. If station A sends a frame to station B, all stations including C and D will receive the frame , just as they would without the repeater. The repeater does not have the intelligence to keep the frame from passing to the right side when it is meant for a station on the left. The difference is that, with the Repeater, stations C and D receive a truer copy of the frame than would otherwise have been possible. Application Presentation Session Trusport Network Datalink Physical Bridges Application Presentation Seoston Traeaport Network Data Bink Physical DeviewBBridges operate in both the physical and the Data Link Layers of the OSI Model. Bridges can divide a large network into smaller segments. They can also relay frames between two originally separate LANs. Unlike repeaters, however, bridges contain logic that allows them to keep the traffic for each segment separate. In this way, they filter traffic a fact that makes them useful for controlling congestion and isolating problem links. Bridges can also provide security through this partitioning of traffic. Abridge operate at the Datalink layer giving it access to the physical address of all stations connected to it. When a frame enters a bridge, the bridge not only regenerates the signal but checks the address of the destination and forwards the new copy only to the segment to which the address belongs. As a bridge encounters a packet, it reads the address contained in the frame and compares the address with a table of all the stations on both segments. When it finds a match, it discovers to which ‘segment the station belongs and relays the packet only to that segment. Fig.1) Simple Bridge Bot Be pay 2 42 2-2. a, Apacket from A to D b. A packet [rom A to G Figure a, shows two segments joined by a bridge. A packet from station A addressed to station D arrives at the bridge. Station A addressed to station D arrives at bridge. Station A is on the same segment as station D, therefore the packet is blocked from crossing into the lower segment, Instead the packet is relayed to the entire upper segment and received by station D. In Fig.b. a packet generated by station Ais intended for station G. The bridge allows the packet to cross and relays it to the entire lower segment, where it is received by station G. Types of Bridges To select between segments a bridge must have a look up table that contains the physical addresses of every station connected to it. Simple Bridge Fig.1 shows simple bridge. These are most primitive and least expensive type of Bridge. A simple bridge links two segments and contains a table that lists the addresses of all the stations included in each of them. What makes it primitive is that these address of every station. When ever new station is added, the table must be modified. If a station is removed, the newly invalid address must be deleted. Installation and maintenance of simple bridges are time consuming.ENWI LAN? Multiport Bridge A multiport bridge can be used to connect more than two LANs. Transparent Bridge A transparent bridge or learning bridge builds its table of station addresses on its own as it performs its bridge function. When the transparent bridge is first installed, its table is empty. As it encounters each packet, it looks at both destination and the source addresses. It checks the destination to decide where to send the packet. If it does not yet recognize the destination address it relays the packet to all of stations on both segments. It uses the source address to build its table. Spanning Tree Algorithm Bridges are normally installed redundantly, which means that two LANs may be connected by more than one bridge. In this case, if the bridges are transparent bridges, they may create a loop, which means a packet may be going round and round from one LAN to another and back again to the first LAN. To avoid this situation, bridges today are what is called the spanning tree algorithm. Source Routing Another solution to prevent loops in the LANs connected by bridges is source routing. In this method, the source of the packet defines the bridge and the LANs through which the packet should go before reaching the destination. Bridges connecting different LANs A bridge should be able to connect LANs using different protocols at the datalink layer, such as an Ethernet LAN to a token Ring LAN. However, there are many issues to be considered, some of which are mentioned below. Frame Format Frames sent by different LANs have different formats ( compare an Ethernet frame with a Token Ring Frame) Pay Load SiThe size of the data that can be encapsuled in a frame varies from protocol to protocol (compare the maximum payload size of an Ethernet frame with that of a Token Ring) Data rate Different protocols use different data rates ( compare the 10 Mbps data rate of an Ethernet with the 16 Mbps data rate of a Token Ring) the bridge should buffer the frame to compensate for this difference. Address bit order The bit order of addresses in different LAN protocols os not the same, for ex. A bridge should reverse an address if it is connecting an Ethernet LAN to a Token Ring LAN) Other issues There are other issues that should be resolved , such as acknowledgement, collision , and priority, which may be part of one LAN protocol but not the other. However, there are bridges today that can handle all of these problems and can connect one type of LAN to another. Routers Repeaters and Bridges are simple hardware devices capable of executing specific tasks.Devie A Bus Presentation Session Tramport Network Data tink Physical Application Presentation Network Data ink Physical Device BRouters are more sophisticated. They have access to network layer addresses and contain software that enables them to determine which of several possible paths between those address is the best for a particular transmission. Router operate in the physical, datalink, and network layers of the OSI model.Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected networks. They route packets from one network to any of a number of potential destination networks on an internet. Following figure shows a possible internetwork of fire networks. A packet sent from a station on one network to a station on a neighboring network goes first to the jointly held router, which switches it over to the destination network. If there is no one router connected to both the sending and receiving networks, the sending and receiving networks, the sending router in the direction of the ultimate destination.The router forwards the packet to the next router on the path, and so on, until the destination is reached.Routers act like station on a network, But unlike most stations on a network, But unlike most stations, which are members of only one network, routers have addresses on, and links to, two or more n/w’ s at the same time. In their simplest function, they receive packets from one connected network and pass them to a second connect network. However, ifa received packet is addressed to a node on a network of which the router is not a member, the router is capable of determining which of its connected n/w’s is the best next relay point for the packet. Once a router has identified the best route for a packet to travel, it passes the packet along the appropriate network to another router. That router checks the destination address, finds what it considers the best route for the packet, and passes it to the destination network (if that n\w is a neighbor) or across a neighboring network to the next router on the choosen path: Routing Concepts The job of routers is to forward packets through a set of networks. For example, we want to move a packet from network A to n/w C via router (network). Often, however, more than one pathway exists b/w the point of origin and the point of destination. For Ex: The packet could reach n/w C by going through router D instead of router B, or possibly even going directly from A to C. whenever there are multiple options, the router chooses the pathway. Least - Cost Routing The decision of the least cost routing is bowed on efficiency. i.e., choose the cheapest and shortest pathway. Shortest mean either of two things depending on the protocol. In some cases shortcut means route requiring the smallest no, of relays, or hops, for example, a direct link from A to D would be considered shorter than the route A-B-C-D even it is actually distace (lengthy way) compared to A-B-C-D (in on. of hops points of view). In routing the term shortest can mean the combination of many factors including shortest, cheapest fastest, most reliable and so on.When shortest means thepathway requiring the smallest no. of relays, it is called hop-count routing.One hop routes always equal to one, two hop routes are always equal to two, and so on.Hop count algorithm usually limit the router known by a single router to those within 15 hops.Novell, Apple talk, OSI and TCP/IP protocols use hop count as the basis for their routing algorithm, Other protocol factor a number of qualities relevant to the functioning of a link before assigning a value to a link. These qualities can include speed traffic congestion, and a link medium, When all relevant factors for a particular link are combined a number that represents the value or length of the link is issued. This number represents an assessment of efficiency, not a physical distance thus it is called the symbolic length of the link.We can combine all of the factors affecting a link into one number and call that no. as symbolic length of the link. Non - Adaptive Routing In some routing protocols, once a pathway to a destination has been selected, the router sends all packets for that destination along that one route. In other words, the routing decisions are not made based on the condition or topology of the network. Adaptive Routing Other routing protocols employ a technique called adaptive routing by which a router may select a new for each packet (even packets belonging to the same txion ) in response to changes in condition and topology of the networks. Packet Lifetime Once a router has decided on the pathway, it passes the packet to the next router on that path and forgets about it. The next router, however may choose the same pathway or may decide that a different pathway is shorter and relay the packet to the next router in that direction, This handing - off of responsibility allows each router to contain minimal logic, keeps the amount of control information that must be contained in the frame to a minimum, and allows for route adjustment based on up to the minute appraisals of each link.It also creates the potential for a packets getting stuck in a never-ending loop or bounce in which a packet is passed around from router to router w/o ever actually reaching its destination. Looping packets uses network resources and increases congestion, looping packets must be identified and destroyed. The solution is an added packet field called packet lifetime, or time to live (TTL). After the lifetime packets will be destroyed. Gateways Gateways potentially operate in all seven layers of the OSI model. A gateway is a protocol converter.Deviee A Device Application 6 Presentation Session s Session 1 Network 3 4 Transport sport 4 3 Network Data link z 2 Data ink Physical Physical Arouter by itself transfers, accepts and relays packets only across networks using similar protocols .A gateway, on the other hand, can accept a packet formatted for one protocol (eg. ~ Apple Talk) and convert it to a packet formatted for another protocol. Eg: (TCP/IP), Before forwarding itA gateway is generally software installed within a router. The gateway understands the protocols used by each n/w linked into the router and is therefore able to translate from one to another.In some cases, only modification necessary are the header and trailer of the packetIn othercases, the gateway must adjust the data rate, size and format as well. Fig shows a gateway connecting an SNA network (IBM) to a netware network (Novel) Single and Multiprotocol Router At the n/w layer, a router by default is a single protocol device. In otherwords two LANs are to be connected through a router, they should use the same protocol at the n/w layers for ex both should use IP. Or IPX.1 eeeERS Px Ee JL TAN using FP or IPX prosicol TAN using IP oe TPX provace b, Muttinrotocol router The reason behind this is that the routing table should use on single addressing format. ‘The Multiprotocol routers have been designed to route packets belonging to two or more protocols, For ex: 2 protocol router(ex. IP & IPX) can handle packets belonging to either of the two protocols. In this case router has two tables one for IP and one for IPX. Brouters Abrouter is a single protocol or multiprotocol router that sometimes acts as a router and sometimes as a bridge, When a single protocol brouter receives a packet belonging to the protocol for which it is designed, it routes the packet based on the n/w layer address, otherwise it acts as a bridge and passes the packet using the data link layer address.P table a. Single protocol brow PR Dx lable ble ». Multiprocol brutes Prone 1 depts toe (genonalzed netaorts ‘model comshting of Mineo wparaie actual systems may ret bucorponate thet Sparain nebo ih boise to discuss she services expected stom of te hosts When a multiprotocol brouter receives a packet belonging to one of the protocols for which it is designed, it router the packet based on the n/w layer address. Otherwise, it acts as a bridge and passes the packet using the data link layer address. Standard ETHERNET and ARCNET configuration Ethernet is a family of computer networking technologies for local area networks(LANs) andmetropolitan area networks (MANs). It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1983 as IEEE 802.3, and has since been refined to support higher bit rates and longer link distances. Over time, Ethernet haslargely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as token ring, FDDI, and ARCNET. The primary alternative for contemporary LANs is not a wired standard, but instead a wireless LAN standardized as IEEE 802.11 and also known as Wi-Fi, ‘The Ethernet standards comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical layerin use with Ethernet. The original 10BASES Ethernet used coaxial cable as ashared medium. Later the coaxial cables were replaced with twisted pair and fiber optic links in conjunction with hubs or switches. Over the course of its history, Ethernet data transfer rates have been increased from the original 3 megabits per second (Mbit/s) to the latest 100 gigabits per second (Gbit/s), with 400 Gbit/s expected by early 2017. Systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of data into shorter pieces called framesEach frame contains source and destination addresses and error- checking data so that damaged data can be detected and re-transmitted. As per the OSI model, Ethernet provides services up to and including the data link layer. Since its commercial release, Ethernet has retained a good degree of backward compatibility Features such as the 48-bit MAC addressand Ethernet frame format have influenced other networking protocols. Versions of ETHERNET + 10BaseS (Coaxial Cable) 10Mbps © 10Base2 (Thin-Wire) 10Mbps + 10Base-T (Twisted Pair) 10Mbps + 100Base-T (Fast) 100Mbps * 10/100Base-T (Dual Speed) 10-100Mpbs 1000Base-T (Gigabit + Ethernet) 1000Mbps IMPLEMENTATION OF ETHERNET 10BaseS (Thicknet) -Requires Transceiver to pierce cable, Transceiver connected to host interface card using an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) informally called the transceiver cable. Typically, the cable would run along the wall, Maximum $00 meters line length. 10Base2 (Thin Wire) ~Cheaper, More flexible, Transceiver circuitry moved to interface card. Typically, computers would be directly connected in series. It is more sensitive to electrical interference. 10Base- this Uses wire similar to telephone wire: Twisted pair (category 5 cable)No shielding is required, Acceptable for most office or home use and Maximum 100 meters line length it consists. ETHERNET PROPERTIES Broadcast of ETHERNET consists of Shared bus ,70% speed of light, Best effort delivery,Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) *Carrier Sense Multiple Access Each sender listens for a pause in network traffic before transmitting the signal «Collision Detection Transmitter also listens for foreign signals and If detected, random pause and re- transmit the signal. The Exponential back-off (1st-doubles, 2nd quadruples, etc.) HARDWARE ADDRE: THERNET Ethernet address *Media Access Address (MAC) 48 bit addressing schemeIEEE manages address space for Manufacturers purchase blocks of addresses. «Three types of Ethernet addresses Physical address (unicast address) *Broadcast address (by convention all 1s) +Multicast address (group) Frame format: (framed data) of Ethernet 802.3 specifies one type of frame containing seven field. It doesn’t provide any mechanism for acknowledging received frames, making it an unreliable medium, Acknowledgement must be implemented at higher layers. -Preamble (8 octets) (alternating 1s and 0s) Destination address (6 octets) (48 bit address) ~Source address (6 octets) -Frame type (2 octets) (which protocol)Teewts 4 4 6 2 4 re Preamble | F| 04 SA Lena a. Fos D cs FD Stet of rome. miter Ba. 8A FCS = Frame creck veavence -Frame data (46-1500 octets) (payload) ~Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC) (4 octets) Preamble: this contains seven bytes of alternation o’s and 1’s that alert the receiving system to the coming frame and enable it to synchronize its input timing. The pattern 1010101 provides only alert and timing pulse. State Frame Delimiter(SFD): the second field (10101011 -1 byte) signals the beginning of the frame. This tells the receive that everything that follows is data, starting with the addresses. Destination address: this field is allotted six bytes and contain the physical address of the packets to next destination. the physical address is a bit pattern encoded on its network interface card(NIC). Source address(SA): this is also allotted six bytes and contains the physical address of the last device to forward the packet. ARCNET CONFIGURATION: ‘Attached Resource Computer NETwork is a local area network (LAN) protocol, similar in purpose to Ethernet or Token Ring. sHlistory of ARCNET Late 1970's developed as office automation network for embedded and Created by data point corporation. Although ARCNET’s use as an office automation network has diminished, ARCNET continues to find success in the industrial automation industry because its performance characteristics are well suited for control, Supports Star and bus topology which is suitable for small LAN and Speed - 25Mbps which Uses TOKEN passing method. The configuration is Robust , as the functions of network are such as error checking, flow control, network configuration automatically without software intervention, Provides successful transmission and reception of data packet between two network nodes and Packet length ranging from 0 to 507 bytes Up to 255 nodes in network. Deterministic performanceAnode can only send a message when it receives the "token." And it becomes the momentary master of the network and no one node can dominate the network. By using token passing as the mechanism for mediating access of the network by any one node, the time performance of the network becomes predictable Logical Ring This pass the token to its logical neighbor and can be physically located anywhere on the network to the next highest address to the node with the token. “Automatic Reconfigurations -ARCNET as ability to reconfigure the network automatically if a node is either added or deleted from the network. Addition of node -New node notices that it is never granted the token, it will jam the network with a reconfiguration burst that destroys token passing, Token regenerated by node with highest address. When Token is released to next highest address if not exists that is node deleted. The sequence is repeated by all nodes until each node learns its logical neighbour. Node is deleted: When a node releases the token to its logical neighbour- monitors network activity . Ensure that the logical neighbor responded with either a token pass or a start of a transmission sequence. If no activity was sensed, the node that passed the token infers that its logical neighbor has left the network and immediately begins a search for a new logical neighbor by incrementing the node address of its logical neighbor and initiating a token pass. Special Requirements for networks used for control LANS have become vital in connecting computers with near real time functions such as plant unit, plant and control room computers at the process. Physically these networks are available based on either copper wire or optical fibers. For real time applications, Token bus method is preferred. In this method of media access, a device is allowed to transmit only when it has token with it. Hence the chance of collision and loss of data is less compared to CSMA/CD. Communication through private branch exchangers (PBXS) sets up point to point communication between the two communicating parties, Manufacturing automation Protocol/Technical office protocol (MAP/TOP) developed for network in control MAP protocol especially was developed in 1980 for control network. MAP was developed by General Motors for the purpose of manufacturing automation process.TOP was developed for automating the engineering office, Objectives of MAP/TOP The protocol should allow for the special properties and requirements for local plant and office networks. These MAP/TOP includes quality-assurance measures such as conformity tests, which ensure and certify the ability of protocol products from different manufactures to communicate with one another. SPECIAL REQUIREMENT FOR NETWORKS USED FOR CONTROL A Process Control Network (PCN) is a communications network that is used to transmit instructions and data between control and measurement units and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) equipment. These networks have, over the years, used many of the technologies and topologies utilized in other network applications. However, Process Control Networks (PCNs) have several special requirements that must be ‘met in order for the solution to be acceptable to the industry. These requirements are, in no particular order: Robustness, Determinacy and Compatibility. Robustness includes requirements such as connection redundancy, reduced sensitivity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), and good error checking and correction. H(t), Actuator |—>| Process 4 ¥ ae Network ye CE Controller |+ Fig.11. Networked Control System Determinacy involves assuring that each device is guaranteed access to the network, and in many cases mechanisms to allow priority information (such as alarms) through the system, Compatibility allows SCADA and Distributed Control Systems (DCS) from various manufacturers to communicate with control and measurement equipment from others. Many early PCNs were serial based, using low level standards such as El A RS- 422 and EIA RS-485 with proprietary protocols on top. One of the de facto standards (which is now becoming an open standard) is Modbus, originally from Modicon. Many PCNs used token ring token passing based protocols because they are essentially deterministic. Allen Bradley and Eurotherm utilised such mechanisms. Many of the measurement and control unit manufacturers signed up to the Fieldbus consortium but rather than one standard emerging each manufacturer promoted their own ‘standard’ leading to a myriad, and confusing, range of physical and logical systems. Modern process control networks rely on Ethernet, TCP/IP, and Microsoft Windows technology. SERIAL COMMUNICATION RS232 ‘A popular way to transfer commands and data between a personal computer and a microcontroller is the use of standard interface, like the one described by protocols RS232 (older) or USB (newer). It is dedicated to communication conforming to RS 232 protocol, the hardware for suchinterface is provided on board. An example will be presented showing the processing of commands received through RS 232 interface, and sending of a string of numbers using the same interface. The protocol RS 232 defines the signals used in communication, and the hardware to transfer signals between devices. The time diagram of the typical signal used to transfer character ‘A’ (ASCII: 6510 or 0x41) from device A to device B is given in Fig.12, and would appear on the upper line TX >RX between devices. Fig.12 A signal conforming to RS232 standard ‘The standard defines voltage levels V(0) to be at least +5V at the transmitting end of the line ‘TX, and can be degraded along the line to become at least +3V at the receiving and of the line. Similarly voltage level V(1) must be at least 5 V at TX, and at least D3V at RX. The standard also defined the upper limit for these voltages to be up to+15V. Logic high is transferred as V(0). The microcontroller cannot handle such voltage levels, so typically a voltage level translator is inserted between the microcontroller and the connector where the RS 232 signals are available, ‘The connectors are typically so called D9 connectors, and the electric wiring in between two connectors at devices A and B is shown in Fig.13, for two female type connectors at both devices. 4 RX RX > D9,B Fig.13. Wiring for RS232 communication The standard defines the number of bits to be transferred within one pack, Fig.I3 right, as ight for regular transmission, and nine for special purposes. The duration Tb of each bit defines the speed of transmission and is called the baud rate. The typical baud rate is 9600 bits per second (Baud, Bd), and the time Tb equals 104.16s Other baud rates are also common: 19200Bd, 38400Bd, 57600Bd, and 115200Bd. Other baud rates are standardized, but used less frequently. The beginning of the pack of bits is signaled by a so called “START bit”, which as value 0 by definition, Its duration is equal to Tb. The pack of bits is terminated by so called “STOP bit” with typical duration of Tb, bat can also last cither 0.5, 1.5 or 2 Tb, depending on the application. The complete transmission of a byte at typical baud rate of 9600 Bd therefore takes 1,0416ms. To verify the validity of the transmission the protocol RS 232 provides a so called “parity bit”. A single bit is added by the transmitter before the stop bit, and its value is selected to give either odd or even number of ones in a string. The number of ones in a string can be verified at the receiving end, and if it does not match the required value, the transmission should be repeated. Other, higher level protocols to censure the valid transmission, can be implemented in software. The protocol RS232 also accounts for testing if the receiver is capable of receiving incomingbytes and defines two additional wires called RTS (Request To Send) and CTS (Clear To Send) between devices. SERIAL COMMUNICATION RS 485, Inl983, the Electronics Industries Association (EIA) approved a new balanced transmission standard called RS.485. Finding widespread acceptance and usage in industrial, medical, and consumer applications, RS-485 has become the industry's interface work horse. This application report presents design guidelines for engineers new to the RS- -85 standard that can help them accomplish a robust and reliable data transmission design in the shortest time possible.In a comprehensive way, this document discusses the important aspects of the RS- 485 standard by focusing on the following subjects: bus topology, signal levels, cable type, bus termination, fail safe, bus loading, data rate versus bus length, minimum node spacing, and grounding and isolation STANDARD AND FEATURES: RS-485 is an electrical-only standard. In contrast to complete interface standards, which define the functional, mechanical, and electrical specifications, RS-485 only defines the electrical characteristics of drivers and receivers that could be used to implement a balanced multipoint transmission line. This standard, however, is intended to be referenced by higher level standards, such as DL/T645, for example, which defines the communication protocol for electronic energy- meters in China, specifying RS-485 as the physical layer standard, Key features of RS-485 are. Balanced interface > Multi point operation from a single 5-V supply > -7-V to+ 12-V bus common-mode range > Upto 32 unit loads > 10-Mbps maximum data rate (at 40feet) NETWORK TOPOLOGY of RS-485 The RS-485 standard suggests that its nodes be networked in a daisy-chain, also known as party line or bus topology as shown in figure 14. In this topology, the participating drivers, receivers, and transceivers connect to a main cable trunk via short network stubs. Fig. 14, RS-485 Bus Structure The interface bus can be designed for full-duplex or half-duplex transmission . The full- duplex implementation requires two signal pairs, (four wires), and full-duplex transceivers with separate bus access lines for transmitter and receiver. Fig.15. Full-Duplex Bus Structures in RS-485 v Full-duplex allows a node to simultaneously transmit data on one pair while receiving data on the other pair,In half-duplex, only one signal pair is used, requiring the driving and receiving of data to occur at different times. Both implementations necessitate the controlled operation of all nodes via direction control signals, such as Driver/Receiver Enable signals, to ensure that only one driver is active on the bus at any time. Having more than one driver accessing the bus at the same time leads to bus contention, which, at all times, must be avoided through software control CABLE TYPE RS-485 applications benefit from differential signaling over twisted-pair cable, because noise from external sources couple equally into both signal lines as common-mode noise, which is rejected by the differential receiver input. Industrial RS-485 cables are of the sheathed, unshielded, twisted-pair type. (UTP), with a characteristic impedance of 120 and 22-24AWG. Figure 17 shows the cross-section of four- pair, UTP cable typically used for two full- duplex networks. Similar cables, in two-pair and single-pair versions, are available to accommodate the low-cost design of half-duplex systems, Conductor — Insulation Fig. 17.Example of RS-485 Communication Cable Beyond the network cabling, it is mandatory that the layout of printed-circuit boards and the connector pin assignments of RS-485 equipment maintain the electrical characteristics of the network by keeping both signal lines close and equidistant to another. ACTUATOR SENSOR (AS) INTERFACE AS-Interface is the only worldwide standardized bit-oriented fieldbus. The Actuator/Sensor Interface or AS-Interface, normally abbreviated to AS-i, is a connection system for the lowest process level in automation systems. The cable harnesses previously found at this level are replaced by a single electrical cable, the AS-i cable. Simple command devices, variable speed three- phase motors, light barriers, inductive proximity switches and (over AS-i modules) more complex devices such as process valves are connected over the AS-i cable and the AS-imaster to the controllers at the field level.Fig. 18 Actuator - Sensor Interface AS-INTERFACE IN SIMATIC AS-Interface is the SIMATIC product name for the AS-i technology. Under the name AS- Interface, Siemens produces AS-i master interface modules for programmable controllers, The range of available master interface modules is being permanently extended. Up-to-date information can be obtained from your local Siemens office. ‘The AS-interface is distinguished by several main characteristics: > AS-interface is optimized for connecting binary and analog sensors and actuators. The AS-i cable is used both for data exchange between the sensors/actuators (AS-i slaves) and the AS-i master as well as for power supply to the sensors / actuators. > Simple and cost-effective wiring: simple installation with the “penetration” technique, high flexibility with tree-like wiring. < > Fast reaction times: the AS-i master requires a maximum of 5 ms for cyclic data exchange with up to 31 nodes (with 62 nodes 10 ms). > Nodes (AS-i slaves) on the AS-i cable can be either sensors/actuators with an integrated AS-i connector or AS-i modules to which up to four conventional binary sensors/actuators can be connected. > With’standard AS-i modules, up to 124 actuators/sensors can be operated on the AS-i cabl > If you use AS-i modules with the extended addressing mode, up to 248 actuators and 248 sensors can be operated with one extended master. When using the S-7.A.A profile with 81/80, up to 496 actuators and 496 sensors can be operated. Extended AS-i masters according to Specification V2.II support extremely simple access to analog sensors/actuators or modules operating in compliance with the AS-Interface slave profile 7.3/7.4. Extended AS-i masters according to Specification V3.0 also support the profiles + $-7.5.5 (100 bps bi-directional; 2D/2D0), + S-7.A.5 (50 bps bi-directional; 2DI/2D0), + S-B.A.S (50 bps bi-directional; 20 chats/s), * $-7.4.7 (4DI/4D0), + S-7.A.A (81/80), + S-7.4.8 (1 analog channel; 1 DO), + $-7.A.9 (2 analog channels), + $6.0 (super fast analog). AS-i - OPEN STANDARD FOR NETWORK SYSi (S AT THE PROCI LEVEL ‘The electrical and mechanical specifications for AS-i were compiled by eleven companies active in the field of binary sensors and actuators. The specifications are available for companies with interests in this field. This makes AS-i an open, heterogeneous standard. With AS-interface, Siemens provides a system complying with the AS-i standard. The “Association for Promoting Interfaces with Bus Capability for Binary Actuators and Sensors” (AS-i Association) is responsible for promoting the application and dissemination of the AS-i system; in particular the specification, standardization, certification and general user information. RS-232/RS-485 Actuator and Sensor InterfaceWhen the RS-232/RS-485 extension detects the end-of-frame symbol, it recognizes that the received frame is complete and forwards the frame to the Miniserver. If no end-of frame symbol is specified, a 32 bit period timeout is used to signal end-of-frame. This means that if nothing is received for a period of 32 bits, then the RS-232/RS-485 extension assumes a complete frame has been received and forwards the frame to the Miniserver. ‘The use of check summing is optional. ‘The following checksums can be used: XOR byte, byte-sum, CRC byte, Modbus CRC Checksum Fronius. When transmitting over an RS-232/RS-485 relay, the appropriate checksum is calculated and inserted into the data stream. When receiving with an RS-232/RS-485 sensor, command recognition occurs only when the corresponding checksum has been correctly received. The checksum may not be used for command recognition, ‘All RS-232 and RS-485 communication will be transported via the RS-485 bus to the Loxone Miniserver. Frequent queries of data (more than several times per second) can lead to an overload of information where command execution could be delayed, Please therefore check with the device information whether data must be queried at a high frequency or whether several queries per second are sensible. MONITOR ‘The RS-232/RS-485 Monitor can be activated by ticking 'RS-232/485 Monitor’ in the Miniserver tab. For RS-232/RS-485 extensions each received byte is, by default, displayed on the monitor in ASCII format, By checking 'Hex’, the hexadecimal value of each received byte will be displayed instead SENSOR Whether an RS-232 or RS-485 sensor takes a digital or analogue input can be defined in the Properties window for that sensor by ticking ‘Use as digital input’, or leaving un-ticked as appropriate In the Properties window under ‘command recognition’, a character string can be entered. The digital input places a pulse at the output if the received data contains the command recognition string. For the analogue input, any value can be taken from the received data, ‘The string is interpreted as ASCII characters. sensor can receive up to 512 characters. If checksum is used, command recognition works only if the corresponding checksum has been received correctly. Checksum may not be used for command recognition. ACTUATOR Whether an RS-232 or RS-485 relay takes a digital or analogue input can be defined in the Properties window for that relay by ticking ‘Use as digital input’, or leaving un-ticked as appropriate.In the Properties window under ‘Command when ON' or ‘Command when OFF" , a character string can be entered. Upon activation/deactivation the digital output sends the appropriate string to the RS-232 interface. For analogue output, the value at the relay input can be forwarded (for any input variation) and placed at the RS-232 output. ‘The string is interpreted as ASCII characters. Asensor can receive up to 256 characters. If checksum is used, the appropriate checksum is calculated and inserted into the data stream to be sent. DeviceNet DeviceNet is a network system used in the automation industry to interconnect control devices for data exchange, It utilizes theCommon Industrial Protocol over aController Area Network media layer and defines an application layer to cover a range of device profiles. Typical applications include information exchange, safety devices, and large I/O control networks DeviceNet was ori by Rockwell Automation). It is an application layer protocol on top of the CAN (Controller Area Network) technology, developed by Bosch. DeviceNet adapts the technology from the Common Industrial Protocol and takes advantage of CAN, making it low-cost and robust compared to the traditional RS-485 based protocols nally developed by American company Allen-Bradley (now owned In order to promote the use of DeviceNet worldwide, Rockwell Automation has adopted the "open" concept and decided to share the technology to third party vendors. Hence it is now managed by ODVA, an independent organization located in North America. ODVA maintains specifications of DeviceNet and oversees advances to DeviceNet. In addition, ODVA ensures compliance to DeviceNet standards by providing conformance testing and vendor conformity. ODVA later decided to bring DeviceNet back to its predecessor's umbrella and collectively refer to the technology as the Common Industrial Protocol or CIP, which includes the following technologies: + EtherNet/IP © ControlNet © DeviceNet ODVA claims high integrity between the three technologies due to the common protocol adaptation, which makes industrial controls much simpler compared to other technologies. DeviceNet has been standardized as IEC 62026-3 Architecture ‘Technical Overview Define the OSI seven-layer architecture model the physical layer, data link layer and application layer1, Network in addition to the signal, but also including power, self-powered support network function (generally used in small devices, such as photo detectors, limit switches or proximity switches, etc) 2. Allows three bit rates: 125 Kbit / s, 250 Kbit / s and 500 Kbit / s, the main trunk under different bit rates (trunk) is inversely proportional to the length and bitrate Flat cable network can be used Single network can have up to 64 nodes, node address (MAC ID in DeviceNet called in) by 0-63 5. Duplicate node address detection function 6. Support master - slave (master-slave) and end-to (peer-to-peer) communication architecture, but most of the equipment is operating in the former network architecture Multiple network allows a single master function Can be used in high-noise environments Physical layer Nodes are distributed along a DeviceNet network by the means of a trunkline-dropline topology. ‘This topology allows for ease in wiring and access to the network from multiple taps. In addition, nodes can be easily removed and added to reduce production downtime, increase network flexibility, and decrease troubleshooting time. Since the physical layer is optically isolated from the device, communication power and device power can share the same bus (further reducing the complexity of the network and components within), (Introduction) DeviceNet supports 125 kbit/s, 250 kbit/s and 500 kbit/s data rates. Depending on the chosen cable type, DeviceNet can support communication up to 500 meters (using round, large diameter cable). Typical round cable supports up to 100 meters, while flat-style cable supports Up to 380 meters at 125 kbit/s and 75 meters at 500 kbit/s. (Physical Layer ) Data link layer DeviceNet uses a differential serial bus (Controller Area Network) as its Data Link Layer. Using CAN as a backbone, DeviceNet requires minimal bandwidth to transmit and package messages. In addition, a smaller processor may be selected in the design of the device thanks to the data frame format and the ease at which the processor can parse the data, See below for full format. (The Data Link Layer) CAN Data Frame Format bit > Start of frame > Identifier => RTR bit > Control field > Data field > CRC sequence > CRC delimiter > Acknowledge > Ack delimiter7 bits => End of frame >2 bits => Interframe space Upon transmitting the first packet of data, the Start of Frame receivers on the network. The CAN identifier (denoted from 0-63) and RTR bit combine to set is sent to synchronize all priority, at which the data can be accessed or changed, Lower identifiers have priority over higher identifiers. In addition to transmitting this data to other devices, the device also monitors the data sent. This redundancy validates the data transmitted and eliminates simultaneous transmissions. If a node is transmitting at the same time as another node, the node with the lower 11 bit identifier will continue to transmit while the device with the higher 11 bit identifier will stop. (Introduction & Physical Layer.) ‘The next six bits contain information for specifying the Control Field. The initial two bits are fixed, while the last four are used to specify length field of the Data Field. The Data Field cont: ns from zero to eight bytes of usable data. (Physical Layer.) ‘The following data frame is the CRC field. The frame consists of 15 bits to detect frame errors and maintains numerous format delimiters. Due to ease of implementation and immunity to most noisy networks, CAN provides a high level of error checking and fault confinement, (Physical Layer) Network DeviceNet incorporates a connection-based network. A connection must initially be established by either an UCMM (Unconnected Message Manager) or a Group 2 Unconnected Port From there, Explicit and Implicit messages can be sent and received. Explicit messages are packets of data that general require a response from another device. Typical messages are configurations or non-time sensitive data collection. Implicit messages are packets of data that are time-critical and generally communicate real-time data over the network. An Explicit Message Connection has to be used to established first before an Implicit Message Connection is made. Once the connection is made, the CAN identifier routes data to the corresponding node. (The Network and ‘Transport Layers.) DeviceNet is a low-cost communications link to connect industrial devices (such as limit switches, photoelectric sensors, valve manifolds, motor starters, process sensors, bar code readers, variable frequency drives, panel displays and operator interfaces) to a network and eliminate expensive hardwiring, The direct connectivity provides improved communication between devices as well as important device-level diagnostics not easily accessible or available through hardwired /O interfaces. DeviceNet is a simple, networking solution that reduces the cost and time to wire and install industrial automation devices, while providing interchangeability of like components from multiple vendors DeviceNet is an open network standard,‘The specification and protocol are open - vendors are not required to purchase hardware, software or licensing rights to connect devices to a system. Anyone may obtain the DeviceNet Specification from the Open DeviceNet Vendor Association, Inc. (ODVA) for a nominal reproduction charge. Controller DeviooNet Other coves Nelor Pushbutton Device configuration inpuyOutput Bar Code Scanner Devices Fig.19 Functional diagram of the DeviceNet Any company that manufactures (or intends to manufacture) DeviceNe: products may join ODVA and participate in technical working groups that are developing enhancements to the DeviceNet Specification. Buyers of the DeviceNet Specification receive an unlimited, royalty-free license to develop DeviceNet products. As the scope increased to address complex and sophisticated services (such as high data rate communications between controllers, time synchronization of large numbers of devices scanning at very high speeds), the development of a single standard became delayed. Such a standard for simple devices requires the same level of interchange ability as exists for 120/220 VAC and24 VDC discrete, hardwired I/O. DeviceNet allows the interchangeability of simple devices while making interconnectivity of more complex devices possible. In addition to reading the state of discrete devices, DeviceNet provides the capability to report temperatures, to read the load current in a motor starter, to change the deceleration rate of drives, or to count the number of packages that have passed on a conveyor in the previous hour.Controller Area Network (CAN) is the key to low cost products. The DeviceNet communication link is based on a broadcast-oriented, communications protocol - the Controller Atea Network (CAN).The CAN protocol was originally developed by BOSCH for the European automotive market for replacing expensive, wire harnesses with low-cost network cable on automobiles. As a result, the CAN protocol has fast response and high reliability for applications as demanding as control of anti-lock brakes and ait-bags.Chips are available in a variety of packages with high temperature ratings and high noise immunity, attributes well suited for the industrial automation market as well. But it is consumer and commercial demand for CAN that is the key driver in lowering the price and increasing the performance of CAN chips. DEVICENET FEATURES AND FUNCTIONALITY. letwork Size _|Up to 64 nodes letwork Length{Selectable end-to-end network distance varies with speed Baud Rate Distance 1125 Kbps 500 m (1,640 ft)250 Kbps 250 m (820 ft) [500 Kbps 100 m (328 ft) ata Packets /0-8 bytes [Bus Topology [Linear (trunkline/dropline); power and signal on the same network cable [Bus Addressing Peer-to-Peer with Multi-Cast (one-to-many); Multi-Master and| Master/Slave special case; polled or change-of-state (exception-| ased) ystem Features| * moval and replacement of devices from the network under power ACTUATOR SENSOR (AS) INTERFACE AS-Interface is the only worldwide standardized bit-oriented fieldbus. The Actuator/Sensor Interface or AS-Interface, normally abbreviated to AS-i, is a connection system for the lowest process level in automation systems. The cable hamesses previously found at this level are replaced by a single electrical cable, the AS-i cable. Simple command devices, variable speed three- phase motors, light barriers, inductive proximity switches and (over AS-i modules) more complex devices such as process valves are connected over the AS-i cable and the AS-imaster to the controllers at the field level. Autonomic Manager passive call back Fig, 18 Actuator - Sensor Interface AS-INTERFACE IN SIMATIC AS-Interface is the SIMATIC product name for the AS-i technology. Under the name AS= Interface, Siemens produces AS-i master interface modules for programmable controllers. The range of available master interface modules is being permanently extended. Up-to-date information can be obtained from your local Siemens office. The AS-interface is distinguished by several main characteristics > AS-interface is optimized for connecting binary and analog sensors and actuators. The AS-i cable is used both for data exchange between thesensors/actuators (AS-i slaves) and the AS-i master as well as for power supply to the sensors / actuators. > Simple and cost-effective wiring: simple installation with the “penetration” technique, high flexibility with tree-like wiring. < > Fast reaction times: the AS-i master requires a maximum of 5 ms for cyclic data exchange with up to 31 nodes (with 62 nodes 10 ms), Nodes (AS-i slaves) on the AS-i cable can be either sensors/actuators with an integrated AS-i connector or AS-i modules to which up to four conventional binary sensors/actuators can be connected. > With standard AS-i modules, up to 124 actuators/sensors can be operated on the AS-i cable. > If you use AS-i modules with the extended addressing mode, up to 248. actuators and 248 sensors can be operated with one extended master. When using the S-7.A.A profile with 81/80, up to 496 actuators and 496 sensors can be operated. > ‘Extended AS-i masters according to Specification V2.11 support extremely simple access to analog sensors/actuators or modules operating in compliance with the AS-Interface slave profile 7.3/7.4. Extended AS-i masters according to Specification V3.0 also support the profiles + S-7.5.5 (100 bps biedirectional; 2D1/2D0), + $-7.A.5 (50 bps bi-directional; 2DI/2D0), + S-B.A.5 (50 bps bi-directional; 20 chars/s), + 8-7.4.7 (4DI/4D0), + S-7.A.A (81/80), + S-7.A.8 (1 analog channel; 1 DO), + S-7.A.9 (2 analog channels), + $6.0 (super fast analog). AS-i - OPEN STANDARD FOR NETWORK SYSTEMS AT THE PROCESS LEVEL The electrical and mechanical specifications for AS-i were compiled by eleven companies active in the field of binary sensors and actuators. The specifications are available for companies with interests in this field. This makes AS-i an open, heterogeneous standard. With AS-interface, Siemens provides a system complying with the AS-i standard. The “Association for Promoting Interfaces with Bus Capability for Binary Actuators and Sensors” (AS-i Association) is responsible for promoting the application and dissemination of the AS-i system; in particular the specification, standardization, certification and general user information.