Wastewater Treatment and Recycling

7/24/2018
WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND RECYCLING
Dr. MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

SCHOOL OF WATER RESOURCES
IIT KHARAGPUR

Course Introduction
Week 1- Lecture 1

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COURSE INTRODUCTION
What is Wastewater ?
o Water that has been used in the
home, in a business, or as part of
an industrial process. (Oxford
Dictionary)
o Water that has been used in

washing, flushing, manufacturing
etc. (http://www.dictionary.com)
Image Source: http://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/‐78‐of‐
sewage‐generated‐in‐india‐remains‐untreated‐‐53444
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
Wastewater: A burden or A resource ?
Burden:
As it Contains pollution
Resource:
Generally, > 99% fraction is water
Image Source: https://agriorbit.com/using‐wastewater‐agricultural‐resource/
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
What is Wastewater Treatment ?
Processing of wastewater for removal

of contaminants
Image Source:
https://www.conserve‐energy‐future.com/process‐of‐wastewater‐treatment.php
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
What is Wastewater Recycling ?
Reusing treated wastewater (reclaimed

water) for beneficial purposes
Image Source:
https://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/buildings/wastewater‐recycling
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
Why learn wastewater management ?
To transform the “burden” into “resource”
This Requires:
Engineering/Technological approaches
Social acceptability
Financial / economic viability
Environmental sustainability Image Source: http://www.indiawaterportal.org/events/wastewater‐
management‐india‐iqpc‐23rd‐26th‐may‐2011‐new‐delhi
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
Objectives of learning wastewater treatment and recycling:
o Understanding the value of wastewater as a recourse.
o Recognizing and the available technologies for wastewater treatment and

grasping knowledge on major tools and approaches for wastewater treatment.
o Awareness on modern‐age issues and challenges in wastewater treatment and

recycling.
o Gaining knowledge on tools and techniques suitable for wastewater

reclamation and recycling.
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
What to Study
 Wastewater Generation and Characteristics  Advanced Treatment Processes
 Natural Attenuation of Pollutants  Concept of Wastewater

Recycling
 Treatment Philosophy
 Recycling Requirements
 Wastewater Treatment Units and Processes
 Technology Selection and
 Issues and Challenges with Conventional Decision Making
Treatment
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Sources and Types of Wastewater
Week 1- Lecture 2

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Wastewater
Wastewater is liquid waste, often produced as the byproduct of
many uses of water.
 Household uses
 Industrial uses
 Commercial uses
 Agricultural uses
 Livestock uses
Image Source:
http://techalive.mtu.edu/meec/module21/HouseholdTreatment‐BrittaFilters.htm
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Wastewater Sources
Image Source: Irrigation and Drainage ‐ Sustainable Strategies and Systems, Publisher: INTECH, Editors: M S Javaid, pp.55‐75
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Wastewater Types
 Domestic Wastewater
(Municipal wastewater or sewage)
 Industrial Wastewaters
(Industrial effluents)
 Agricultural wastewater
(Agricultural runoff)
 Stormwater Runoff Image Source: https://www.sswm.info/sswm‐university‐course/module‐6‐disaster‐

situations‐planning‐and‐preparedness/further‐resources/sanitation‐systems
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Wastewater Sources and Types: Domestic
Image Source: Larsen et al, (2016), Emerging solutions to the water challenges of an urbanizing world, Science , 352 (6288), pp. 928‐933
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Wastewater Sources: Industrial
Image Source: https://www.iswa.uni‐stuttgart.de/lsww/arbeitsbereich/iwt/index.en.html
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Wastewater Sources: Agricultural
Image Source: Image Source:

http://www.deeproot.com/blog/blog‐entries/whats‐the‐point‐ https://www.usda.gov/media/blog/2013/04/25/water‐quality‐
of‐non‐point index‐agricultural‐runoff‐streamlined‐and‐accessible
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Pollutants in Wastewater: Point and Non-point Sources
Week 1- Lecture 3

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What is a pollutant ?
 Where it is present ?
 Quantitative aspects ?
 Natural or anthropogenic ?
 Adverse health effect or not ?
Image Source: http://pediaa.com/difference‐between‐pollutant‐and‐contaminant/
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Wastewater Sources: Point vs Non-Point
Source: http://www.ift.org/knowledge‐center/read‐ift‐publications/science‐reports/scientific‐status‐summaries/just‐add‐water.aspx
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Wastewater Sources: Point vs Non-Point
Source: http://ubclfs‐wmc.landfood.ubc.ca/webapp/IWM/course/land‐ Image Source: http://pest.ca.uky.edu/PSEP/6environment.html

use‐water‐4/introduction‐5/
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Wastewater Sources: Point Source Examples
Image Source: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/ Image Source: http://www.indiacelebrating.com/environmental‐

pollution/03pointsource.html issues/sources‐and‐causes‐of‐water‐pollution/
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Wastewater Sources: Non-Point Source Examples

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sediment_runoff_NRCS_ http://www.hoffmanestates.org/government/finance/water‐
2016a.jpg billing/stormwater‐utility‐program
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Wastewater Management: Concept of Treatment and Recycling
Week 1- Lecture 4

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Need of Wastewater Management

 The discharge of untreated or partially
treated wastewater results in
environmental pollution and may have
severe consequences that can be
classified into three groups:
 Adverse human health effects
associated with reduced water quality;
 Negative environmental effects due to
the degradation of water bodies and
ecosystems; and
 Potential effects on economic activities
Source: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002471/247153e.pdf
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Human health effects Sanitation associated risk of diarrhoeal disease
 Sanitation and wastewater‐related diseases
remain widespread in regions with poor
wastewater management.
 In 2012, an estimated 8,42,000 deaths in
middle‐ and low income countries were caused
by contaminated drinking water, inadequate
cleaning and sanitation services
(Source: apps.who.int/iris/ bitstream/10665/150112/1/9789241564823_eng.pdf).
 Improving sanitation and wastewater treatment

is a key intervention strategy to control and
eliminate many diseases, including cholera,
dengue, diarrhoea, helminths etc. Source: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002471/247153e.pdf
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Environmental effects
 The discharge of untreated wastewater pollutes the receiving water body which in turn
affects the amount of water resources available for direct use.
 Lately, water pollution has been increasing in most rivers in India as well as in several
other countries from Africa, Asia and Latin America, mainly due to the release of sewage
and industrial effluents with no (or inadequate) treatment.
 The environmental pollution due to inadequate wastewater management has also a
direct impact on ecosystems and the services they provide. For e.g. eutrophication,
driven by excess nitrogen and phosphorus, can lead to potentially toxic algal blooms and
declines in biodiversity.
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Economic effects
 As the freshwater availability is critical for economic welfare and growth, poor water
quality constitutes an additional obstacle to economic development.
 Poor water quality can directly affect economic activities that use water, such as
agriculture, industrial production, fisheries, aquaculture, navigation and tourism.
 With improper management of wastewater, external costs (externalities) are generated
and the potential benefits of using wastewater are lost.
 An economic argument for improved wastewater management can be made in order to
minimize the negative impacts it can cause and to maximize the benefits it can generate.
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Negative Impacts of Poor Wastewater Management
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Need of Wastewater Treatment

 Recycling wastewater is believe to be the most sustainable approach for
wastewater management, however recycling needs quality of water to be fit for
the designated uses.
 Therefore, the quality of wastewater needs to be improved through suitable

treatment processes before it is recycled.
 Wastewater treatment is the most critical step in wastewater management as

the suitability of wastewater for reuse (or, even disposal) depends on the ability
of treatment steps to reduce the contaminant load to the desired levels
(standards).
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Effective Wastewater Management Cycle

 The prevention or reduction of pollution at
the source (in terms of pollution load and volume of
wastewater produced)
 The removal of contaminants from

wastewater streams
 The use of wastewater (i.e. water reuse)
 The recovery of useful by‐products Image Source:

Source: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002471/247153e.pdf http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/326201521231539309/W
B‐WasteWater‐Resource‐infographic.pdf
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Wastewater Management: Recycling Perspective
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Wastewater Management: Issues and Challenges
Week 1- Lecture 5

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Wastewater Management: Global Scenario
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Wastewater Management: Indian Scenario

Twelfth Five Year (2012–
17) Planning Commission
(now NITI Aayog) Report
on Urban Development
highlights that 4861 cities
and towns in India lack
even a partial centralized
sewerage network and
almost 50% of households
in metropolitan city such
as Bengaluru do not have
sewerage connections.
Source:
https://swachhindia.ndtv.com/is‐decentralized‐waste‐water‐treatment‐and‐
reuse‐system‐the‐way‐forward‐for‐indias‐tail‐end‐sanitation‐challenge‐7358/
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Urban Sanitation Situation in India

With the launch of the Swachh
Bharat Mission (Gramin) on 2nd
Oct 2014, the sanitation coverage
in rural India increased from 39 %
in 2014 to 76 % in January 2018,
(Economic Survey 2017‐18)
Source: Strategic Plan of Ministry of Urban Development for 2011‐2016
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Issues and Challenges

 Increasing water demand and wastewater production with
population growth, urbanization and industrialization.
 Emerging contaminants appearing in municipal and industrial
wastewaters
 Pollution of freshwater resources due to wastewater disposal
(nature’s capacity to withstand pollution load has almost
exhausted)
Wastewater recycling is becoming unavoidable
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Issues and Challenges

 Centralized vs decentralized management
Source: Wastewater Management Strategy: centralized v. decentralized technologies for small communities by Sharon Hophmayer‐Tokich
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Other Major Issues and Challenges

 Lack of awareness
 Lack of finance
??
 Lack of political will
 Environmental footprint
 Energy consumption
 Trained and skilled manpower
 Development of adaptable technologies
 Quality control of treated wastewater
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Wastewater Generation and Quantity Estimation
Week 2- Lecture 6

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Wastewater Generation
 Different sources (Municipal, Industrial, Agriculture etc.)
produce different quantities of wastewater.
 The characteristics of wastewater also differs based on

its sources.
 Industrial effluents are generally perceived as the most

polluted type of wastewater.
 The un‐sustainable management of wastewater in urban

as well as rural areas presents a major challenge.
Image Source:
http://www.gomantaktimes.com/opinion/india‐among‐top‐5‐countries‐using‐
dirty‐wastewater‐farms‐837
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Quantitative Estimation of Wastewater

 Wastewater quantities generated from Industries depends on type
of industry and production capacities.
 Estimation of agricultural runoff depends on type of crop, cropping

pattern, irrigation supplies, and precipitation (generally non‐point).
 Municipal Wastewater quantity estimation is typically done based on

number of inhabitants, and water use practices.
 Often, standard guidelines (e.g. CPHEEO) are followed for the

purpose of estimating city’s sewage quantity. Available at:
https://www.sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachm
ents/CPHEEO%202012%20Manual%20on%20sewerage%20an
d%20sewage%20treatment.%20Part%20A%20Engineering.pdf
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Need for Quantity Estimation of Sewage
 It is necessary to ascertain the quantity of sewage and storm water so that the drainage
system can be designed accordingly.
 An over‐estimation of the quantity may lead to uneconomical and hydraulically inefficient

sewer system. On the other hand, an under‐estimation may lead to inadequate design.
 Since design period for sewers include future years, physical estimation of design flow is not
possible. And hence, the possible sewage discharge is estimated using forecasted population
up‐till design period and engineering estimates of per capita sewage generation.
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Quantity Estimation of Sewage: Separate vs Combined

 The flow in sewer line (either separate or combined)
occurring during dry seasons is referred as Dry Weather
Flow (the actual flow of sanitary sewage
 Dry Weather Flow depends on the quantity of water

used, type of area served, weather conditions and
infiltration in the sewers, if any.
 Since, there are fluctuations in the pattern of water

consumption, there will be fluctuations in Dry Weather
Flow also.
Image Source: https://www.pressherald.com/2018/01/07/a‐legacy‐problem‐
combined‐sewer‐stormwater‐overflows‐challenges‐portland/
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Quantity Estimation of Sewage
Week 2- Lecture 7

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Quantity Estimation of Sewage: Input components

 Water discharged from households
 Industrial effluents (from some small scale industries), if discharged into sewer
 Used water discharged from the various public places such as, schools, cinemas, hotels, and
commercial complexes.
 Private water supplies (water drawn from wells, tube wells, lake, river, etc. by individuals/industries)
to fulfil water demand, if discharged in to sewers
 Entry of rainwater/groundwater into sewers through leaky / faulty joints or cracks in sewers.
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Quantity Estimation of Sewage: Steps

 Fix the design period: Based on useful life of structures and equipment employed, taking into account
obsolescence as well as wear and tear.
 Estimate the design population: Using standard population forecasting methods.
 Estimate the per capita sewage generation: Based on recommended water use and wastewater
generation pattern
 Estimation of peak flow: considering fluctuations is dry weather flow
 Accounting for additional inflows, if any: from sources other than domestic sewage
 Estimating cumulative design flow
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Fixing the design period:
CPHEEO recommended design

period of various sewerage
components (CPHEEO, 2012)
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Population forecasting methods:
Estimation of design population:
 Arithmetic Increase Method
Factors affecting population change:  Geometric Increase Method
 Incremental Increase Method
 Birth rate (causes an increase)
 Logistic Curve Method
 Death rate (causes a decrease)  Growth Composition Analysis Method
 Master Plan Method
 Migration (causes either an increase or a decrease)
 Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
 Annexation (causes an increase)  Simple Graphical Method
 Comparative Graphical Method
 Ratio Method
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Population Forecasting Methods
Week 2- Lecture 8

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Population forecasting: Arithmetic Increase Method
Based on the assumption that the population increases at a constant rate
dP/dt=constant=k; Pt= P0+kt
 Better applicable to large and established cities.

 It will give lower population estimate than actual value if used for small, average or comparatively new cities.
 In this method the average increase in population per decade is calculated from the past census reports. This
increase is added to the present population to find out the population of the next decade.
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Population forecasting: Arithmetic Increase Method
Example:
Population forecasting for Gangtok
Source:
Detailed Project Report for Strengthening of the Distribution
Network of Gangtok Water Supply

Population forecasting: Geometric Increase Method
Based on the assumption that the percentage growth rate is constant

Pt = Po (1+ k/100)t
dP/dt=kPt; lnPt= lnP0+kt (A special case, exponential growth)
 More applicable to relatively new cities with unlimited scope of expansion.

 May produce too large results for rapidly grown cities in comparatively short time, therefore must be used with
caution.
 In this method the average increase in population per decade is calculated from the past census reports. This
increase is added to the present population to find out the population of the next decade.
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Population forecasting: Geometric Increase Method
Example:
Source:

Population forecasting: Incremental Increase Method
Based on the assumption that the growth rate is progressively increasing or decreasing
Pt= P0+kt+{t(t+1)/2}.I
 Suitable to cities of moderate size and age.

 The population for a future decade is worked out by adding the mean arithmetic increase to the last known
population as in the arithmetic increase method, and to this is added the average of incremental increases
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Population forecasting: Incremental Increase Method
Example:
Source:

Population forecasting: Logistic Growth Method
 Based on the assumption that the growth rate of population due to births, deaths and migrations takes place under
normal situation and it is not subjected to any extraordinary changes like epidemic, war, earth quake or any natural
disaster, etc.,
 The population follows the growth curve characteristics of living things within limited space and economic
opportunity.
 The curve is S‐shaped and is known as logistic curve which gives complete trend of growth of the city right from
beginning to saturation limit of population of the city.
 This method is applicable for very large cities with sufficient demographic data.
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Population forecasting: Logistic Growth Method
If at time 0, t1, and t2 the population is Po, P1 and P2, then
K = {2PoP1P2 – P12(Po+P2)}/(PoP2‐P12) Image Source: http://math.andyou.com/161
And, r = 2.3 log10 {Po(K‐P1)/P1(K‐Po)} /t1

Population forecasting: Growth Composition Analysis Method / Demographic Method
 Population is estimated based on annual birth rate, death rate and migration rates.
Pt = Po + Po.t(rb‐rd)+t.Rm
 The estimation of migration rate is difficult and depends on various factors such as development and job
opportunities, economic factors, social facilities etc.
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Population forecasting: Master Plan Method / Zoning Method
 Some cities are planned and regulated by local bodies according to a master plan, where the city is divided into
various zones such as residence, commerce and industry.
 The population densities are fixed for various zones in the master plan.
 Accordingly population estimates can be made based on the zone sizes and planed population densities.
 By this method it is very easy to access precisely the design population.

Population forecasting: Graphical Method
Simple Graphical Method
 In this method, a graph is plotted from the available data, between time and population.
 The curve is then smoothly extended upto the desired year.
 This method gives very approximate results and should be used along with other forecasting methods.
Comparative Graphical Method

 In this method, the cities having conditions and characteristics similar to the city whose future population is to be
estimated are selected.
 It is then assumed that the city under consideration will develop, as the selected similar cities have developed in
the past.
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Population forecasting: Ratio Method
 In this method, the local population and the country's population for the last four to five decades is obtained from
the census records.
 The ratios of the local population to national population are then worked out for these decades.
 A graph is then plotted between time and these ratios, and extended upto the design period to extrapolate the
ratio corresponding to future design year.
 This ratio is then multiplied by the expected national population at the end of the design period, so as to obtain
the required city's future population.
 The accuracy of the method depends on accuracy of national population estimate.
 The method does not consider the abnormal or special conditions which can lead to population shifts from one city
to another.

Population forecasting: Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
 In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out, and is then subtracted from the
latest percentage increase to get the percentage increase of next decade.
 This method is applicable only in such cases where the rate of growth of population shows a downward trend.
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Quantity Estimation of Sewage Flow
Week 2- Lecture 9

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o Fixing the design period
o Estimating the design population
o Estimate the per capita sewage generation
o Estimation of peak flow
o Accounting for additional inflows/outflows
o Estimating cumulative design flow
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Population Density:
Where a master plan containing land use pattern

and zoning regulations is available for the town,
the anticipated population can be based on the
ultimate densities and permitted floor space index
(FSI) provided for in the Master Plan. In the
absence of such information on population the
In cities where Floor Space Index (FSI) or Floor Area Ratio (FAR)
following densities are suggested for adoption limits are fixed by the local authority this approach may be used
(CPHEEO, 2012). for working out the population density.

Population Density: Example from CPHEEO Manual
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Per Capita Sewage Generation
 The entire spent water of a community should normally contribute to the total flow
in a sanitary sewer. However, the observed Dry Weather Flow quantities usually are
slightly less than the per capita water consumption, since some water is lost in
evaporation, seepage into ground, leakage etc.
 In arid regions, mean sewage flows may be as little as 40% of water consumption
and in well developed areas, flows may be as high as 90%.
 However, the conventional sewers shall be designed for a minimum sewage flow of
100 litres per capita per day or higher as the case may be
Source: CPHEEO Manual, 2012
Peak Flow Estimation

 The flow in sewers varies from hour to hour and Contributory Peak Factor
also seasonally. But for the purpose of hydraulic Population
design estimated peak flows are adopted. The
Up to 20,000 3.00
peak factor or the ratio of maximum to average
flows depends upon contributory population. Above 20,001 to 50,000 2.50
Above 50,001 to 7,50,000 2.25

 The peak factors also depend upon the density of
population, topography of the site, hours of Above 7,50,001 2.00
water supply and therefore individual cases may
be further analysed if required. The minimum A typical design thumb rule:
flow may vary from 1/3 to 1/2 of average flow. Maximum daily flow = Average annual daily flow x 2
Maximum hourly flow = Maximum daily flow x 1.5
= Annual average daily flow x 3
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Accounting for Additional Inflows/Outflows

Inflow due to infiltration:
 Since sewers are designed for peak discharges, allowances for groundwater infiltration
(through joints) for the worst condition in the area should be made. The infiltration inflow
in sewers depends upon the soil permeability and is difficult to estimate precisely.
 CPHEEO (2012) recommends the adjacent table for estimating infiltration inflow which
shall be limited to a maximum of 10% of the design value of sewage flow.
Ground Water Infiltration

Institutional needs for potable water
Inflow from commercial institutions:
 Industries and commercial buildings often use
water other than the municipal supply and
may discharge their liquid wastes into the
sanitary sewers.
 Estimates of such flows have to be made

separately based on their water consumption
as recommended by CPHEEO (2012) in the
Table here.
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Inflow from unaccounted private water supplies:
 Households using water from tube wells, rivers and lakes, private boring etc.
discharges additional sewage to municipal sanitary systems.
 Additionally, few industries may also use private water sources and discharge
effluents to public sewers.
 Provisions for such inflows can only be made by estimated these through field
surveys and observations.

Losses due to water not entering the sewerage system:
 Water used for gardening, horticulture, air coolers, sprinkling over the roads, and many other
such processes which typically don’t generate sewage
 The water losses through leakage in distribution line and house connections also don’t
contribute to sewage generation
Image Sources: https://houseandgardenningaddicts.wordpress.com/2010/06/16/recycle‐grey‐water‐for‐garden/

https://india.smartcitiescouncil.com/article/see‐how‐cities‐are‐improving‐water‐management‐through‐automated‐meters
http://www.usenterprises.co.in/mobile‐sprinkling‐unit‐supplier.htm
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National Status of Wastewater Generation & Treatment

 During 2015,the estimated sewage generation in the country was
61754 MLD as against the developed sewage treatment capacity of
22963 MLD. Because of the hiatus in sewage treatment capacity,
about 38791 MLD of untreated sewage (62% of the total sewage) is
discharged directly into nearby water bodies
 The five states of Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi &
Gujarat account for approximately 50% of the total sewage
generated in the country. Maharashtra alone accounts for 13% of
the total sewage generation in the country. Source: http://sulabhenvis.nic.in/Database/STST_wastewater_2090.aspx
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 35
National Status of Wastewater Generation & Treatment

 Maharashtra, Gujarat, Delhi , Uttar Pradesh & Gujarat account for
67% of the total sewage treatment capacity installed in the country.
 No sewage treatment plant has been established in seven states/UTs

viz. Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Daman Diu, Nagaland , Assam
& Tripura.
 The capacity of STPs installed in the two states viz. Himachal

Pradesh, Sikkim is adequate to treat the total quality of sewage
generated in these states.
Source: http://sulabhenvis.nic.in/Database/STST_wastewater_2090.aspx; http://cpcb.nic.in/upload/Latest/Latest_123_SUMMARY_BOOK_FS.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Sewage Quantity Estimation: Practice Problems
Week 2- Lecture 10

IIT KHARAGPUR
37
Practice Problem: Sewage Estimation

 Estimate the average and maximum hourly flow of sewage for a community of 10,000
persons. Assume average water consumption = 200 lpcd, and 80% of water consumption
goes to the sewer.
38
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24‐07‐2018
Practice Problem: Assessment of Infiltration into sewers

 The average domestic wastewater flow was estimated at 300 lpcd for a town with 50,000
sewered population. The sanitary sewer systems for the city includes 100 kms of 4‐in house
sewers, 22 kms of 6‐in building sewers, 56 kms of 8‐in street laterals, 15 kms of 12‐in
submains, and 12 kms of 18‐in mains.
Estimate the infiltration flow rate and its percentage of the average daily and peak hourly
domestic wastewater flows, if assumed infiltration flow rate is 1250 L/(d.km) per inch of pipe
diameter. Assume peaking factor as 3.
39
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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20
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Wastewater Characteristics: Quality Parameters
Week 3- Lecture 11

IIT KHARAGPUR
Wastewater Characterization: Quality Parameters

• pH
• Temperature
• Colour
• Turbidity
• Conductivity
• Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• BOD (Carbonaceous BOD and nitrogenous BOD)
• COD
• Acidity / Alkalinity
• Hardness
• Solids (Total, suspended, dissolved, fixed, volatile)
• Nutrients (Nitrogen, phosphorous)
• Metals (Fe, Al, As, Cr, Zn, Ni, Co etc.)
• Fecal Coliform
• … and many more
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Water Quality Parameters

pH
 pH of fresh waters typically ranges between 6.5‐8.0,
however could vary from around 4.5 to over 10.0 in
certain cases.
 pH of wastewater vary according to the source of its
generation
 Extremes of pH may adversely affect aquatic ecology in
surface water bodies. The range of pH suitable for
Image Source :
fisheries is considered to be 5.0‐9.0, though 6.5‐8.5 is http://tellmewhyfacts.com/science/pH+Balance+of
+Your+Body
preferable.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 3

Temperature
 The effect of temperature (or change in temperature), is
very critical on living organisms.
 Aquatic population can withstand only tolerable limits of
temperature which varies for species to species.
 Some key constituents of a water or pollutants changes
forms based on temperature.
 The rate of most of the biochemical reactions are also a Image Source :
factor of temperature. http://www.athletesheart.org/2013/12/new‐usa‐
triathlon‐water‐temperature‐safety‐guidelines/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Colour
 Colour is important from the standpoint of aesthetics. If water looks , people avoid
using coloured waters, even though it might be safe from the public health aspect
 Often caused by organic substances such as algae or humic compounds.
Apparent colour: caused by suspended matter.

True colour: caused by dissolved or colloidal, such as vegetable or organic extracts.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 5

Colour: Measurements
 Standard Colour Solutions Method: The colour produced by 1 mg/l of platinum (as
K2PtCl6) and 0.5mg/l of cobalt (as CoCl2•6H2O) is taken as the standard one unit of
colour.
 Dilution Multiple Method: Measured by successive dilutions successive dilutions of
the sample with colour‐free water until the colour is no longer detectable
comparing with distilled water. The total dilution total dilution multiple is
calculated and used to express the colour degree.
 Spectrophotometric Method:
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Wastewater Characteristics: Quality Parameters (cont.)
Week 3- Lecture 12

IIT KHARAGPUR

Turbidity
 An optical characteristic or property, which in general terms describes the clarity, or
haziness of the water
 It is caused by the presence of very fine suspended particles (typically not filterable
by routine methods).
Image Source :
http://steinhardtapps.es.its.nyu.edu/nyuhudson/?page_id=168
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Turbidity
 The existence of turbidity in water will affect its acceptability to consumers (in case
of recycled water) and it will also affect markedly its utility in certain industries.
 The particles forming the turbidity may also interfere with the treatability of waters
especially in the case of the disinfection process, as there is a risk that
pathogenic organisms could be shielded by the turbidity particles and hence
escape the action of the disinfectant.
Source : Parameters of Water Quality ‐ Interpretation and Standards, EPA (2001)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 9

Turbidity: Measurements
 If a beam of light is passed through a turbid sample, its intensity is reduced by
scattering. The quantity of light scattered is dependent upon the concentration and
size distribution of the particles.
(a) In turbidimetry, the intensity
of light transmitted is
measured.
(b) In nephelometry the intensity
of the light scattered at 900
is measured.
Source : http://community.asdlib.org/imageandvideoexchangeforum/2013/07/30/instrumentation‐for‐turbidimetry‐and‐nephelometry/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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5
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Conductivity
 It is the ability of water to carry an electrical current.
 Absolutely pure water is a poor conductor of electricity.
 Water shows significant conductivity when dissolved salts are present. Over most
ranges, the amount of conductivity is directly proportional to the amount of salts
dissolved in the water.
 A conductivity sensor measures how much electricity is being conducted through a
centimeter of water. Specific conductivity is expressed as siemens per centimeter
(S/cm).
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 11

Acidity and Alkalinity
 The acidity and alkalinity of water is an indicator of its capacity to react with a acids
or base. The concept of acidity is opposite that of alkalinity and is also based on the
carbonate system.
 The acidity of a water source is generally attributable to the carbonate molecules
H2CO3 and HCO3‐ and sometimes to strong acids releasing H+.
H+ + OH‐  H2O
H2CO3 + OH‐  HCO3‐
HCO3‐ + OH‐  CO32‐
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Acidity and Alkalinity
• Alkalinity is a function of the carbonate (CO32‐), bicarbonate (HCO3‐) and hydroxide (OH‐)
content of water.
• When there are mostly acidic carbonate molecules in solution (H2CO3, HCO3‐, and H+), the pH
is correspondingly acidic (< 7)
• If the carbonate molecules in solution are mostly HCO3‐, CO32‐, and OH‐, the pH is
correspondingly basic (> 7).
• Alkalinity can exist down to pH 4.5 because of the fact that HCO3‐ is not completely
neutralized until this pH is reached.
• The amount of acidity or alkalinity present is expressed in terms of CaCO3.
• Total Alk = [HCO3‐] + 2[CO32‐] + [OH‐] ‐ [ H+ ]
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 13

Acidity and Alkalinity: Measurements
 Acidity of water can be determined by titration with sodium hydroxide solution.
The amount of sodium hydroxide required for the sample (pH below 4.5) to reach
pH 4.5 (methyl orange end point) is a measure of mineral acidity while the amount
of sodium hydroxide to reach pH 8.3 (phenolphthalein end point) is a measure of
total acidity.
 Titration with a standard acid to an end point of 8.3 pH is reported as
phenolphthaline alkalinity (or caustic alkalinity) and titration to an end point of
approximately 4.5 is reported as total alkalinity.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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7
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Hardness
• Caused by the presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions as Hydrogencarbonate ‐ Ca(HCO3)2,
Mg(HCO3)2 ; Sulphates‐ CaSO4, MgSO4 ; Chloride ‐ CaCl2, MgCl2 etc.
 Temporary hardness – Bicarbonates of Ca & Mg
 Permanent hardness – Sulphates/chlorides/nitrates of Ca & Mg
Image Source :
https://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tamop412A/2011_0009_
Stundl_Laszlo‐Fisheries_and_Aquaculture/ch07s02.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 15

Hardness: Calculations
• Convert each ions as
mg/L of CaCO3
• Do an ion balance
• Estimate equivalence of
Ca2+ and Mg2+
• Express in mg/L as
CaCO3
Source : Handbook of Environmental Engineering Calculations by Li and Lin
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
 The water/wastewater stream system both produces and consumes oxygen. It
gains oxygen from the atmosphere (phase transfer) and from plants as a result of
photosynthesis, while respiration by aquatic animals, decomposition, and various
chemical reactions consume dissolved oxygen in water.
 Natural stream purification processes require adequate oxygen levels in order to
provide for aerobic life forms. As dissolved oxygen levels in water drop below 4.0
mg/l, aquatic life is put under stress.
 DO levels that remain below 1‐2 mg/l for a few hours can result in large fish kills.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 17

Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Measurements
 Winkler Method:
The Winkler method involves filling a sample bottle (BOD Bottle) completely with water (no
air is left to bias the test). The dissolved oxygen is then "fixed" using a series of reagents
that form an acid compound that is titrated. Titration involves the drop‐by‐drop addition of
a reagent that neutralizes the acid compound and causes a change in the colour of the
solution. The point at which the colour changes is the "endpoint" and is equivalent to the
amount of oxygen dissolved in the sample. The sample is usually fixed and titrated in the
field at the sample site. It is possible, however, to prepare the sample in the field and
deliver it to a lab for titration.
Several modified Winkler methods were also created to respond to interfering contaminant.
The Azide‐Winkler method, which addresses the issues with iodine present, is the most
popular of these. Source : https://archive.epa.gov/water/archive/web/html/vms52.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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 Azide‐Winkler Method:
Source : https://www.fondriest.com/environmental‐measurements/equipment/measuring‐water‐quality/dissolved‐oxygen‐sensors‐and‐methods/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 19

 Meters and Probes:
Currently, the most popular method for DO
measurements is with a DO meter and sensor.
Optical as well as Electrochemical DO sensors are
available in the market.
Most meters and probes also measure temperature,
and give standard analog output as well as digital
outputs in the smart sensor platforms.
The meter/probe must be calibrated from time to
time to ensure the accuracy of the measurements.
Source : https://www.fondriest.com/environmental‐measurements/equipment/measuring‐water‐
quality/dissolved‐oxygen‐sensors‐and‐methods/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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10
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Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Fluctuations Temp. vs Saturation DO
 DO levels fluctuate seasonally and over a 24‐hour period.

 DO vary with water temperature and altitude. Cold water
holds more oxygen than warm water and water holds less
oxygen at higher altitudes.
 Aquatic animals are most vulnerable to lowered DO levels in
the early morning on hot summer days when stream flows
are low, water temperatures are high, and aquatic plants
have not been producing oxygen since sunset.
 In smaller, shallower streams, DO changes more horizontally
along the course of the waterway. However, in larger, deeper Source :
rivers, some vertical stratification of DO might also occur. https://archive.epa.gov/water/archive/web/html/vms52.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 21

Week 3- Lecture 13

IIT KHARAGPUR
22
11
24‐07‐2018

Biochemical (or Biological) Oxygen Demand (BOD):
 Organic matter (pollutants) present in water serves as substrate (food source) for the
microorganisms present there. Often many of such compounds are broken to less
complex organic substances and ultimately to simple compounds such as carbon dioxide
and water.
 The wastewater receiving rivers and streams have some background DO, and aerobic
microorganism present, consume the DO for decomposing the organic matter into simpler
compounds. However DO keeps on getting replenished by natural atmospheric transfer
and from photosynthesis.
 The amount of oxygen required by aerobic microorganisms to decompose the organic
matter in a water sample (generally polluted) is typically referred as Biochemical Oxygen
Demand or Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 23

BOD:
 BOD is a time dependent parameter, as oxygen
consumed by bacteria would increase with the
progress of time.
 When BOD levels are high, dissolved oxygen (DO)
levels decrease because the oxygen that is available
in the water is being consumed by the bacteria.
 If the quantity of organic waste present is
sufficiently large, the rate of bacterial uptake of
oxygen will outstrip that at which the DO is
replenished, and ultimately the receiving water will
become anoxic / anaerobic. Source: http://web.deu.edu.tr/atiksu/toprak/ani4024.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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BOD: Carbonaceous and Nitrogenous BOD
 The oxygen demand could also arise from nitrification
requirements where the nitrogenous waste such as ammonia is
converted to nitrates by autotrophic bacteria using oxygen as
an energy source.
 The requirement of DO for the process is called Nitrogenous
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (NBOD) while requirement of
oxygen for degrading carbonaceous organic matter is referred
as Carbonaceous Biochemical Oxygen Demand (CBOD).
 Generally, the nitrifiers have slower growth rates and do not
flourish until the food supply for the heterotrophic (CBOD
consuming) microbes has diminished, therefore NBOD does not Source:
https://www.tankonyvtar.hu/en/tartalom/tamop412A/2011_0009
become discernable until approximately 7 days of incubation _Juhasz_Csaba‐Environment_and_Land_Use/ch11s04.html
have occurred.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 25

BOD:
 BOD is a time dependent parameter, as oxygen consumed by bacteria would increase with
the progress of time.
o BOD5: Quantifies the oxygen consumed in a sample within a five‐day period
o Ultimate BOD (UBOD or BODu): Quantifies the oxygen required for the total biochemical
degradation of organic matter.
 Generally the five‐day period is not long enough for complete oxidation, but it provides
sufficient time for microbial acclimatization and for substantial oxidation.
 The BOD test is a standardized test where final DO (say after 5 days) is subtracted from the
initial DO to know the oxygen consumed during the period of incubation.
Source: http://web.deu.edu.tr/atiksu/toprak/ani4024.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
 COD is measure of organic materials in a wastewater in terms of the oxygen required to
oxidize the organic materials chemically.
 Chemical oxygen demand is measured as a standardized laboratory assay in which a closed
water sample is incubated with a strong chemical oxidant, potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7),
which is used in combination with boiling sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
 COD along with BOD are two different ways to measure how much oxygen the water will
consume when it enters the recipient. In both the COD and BOD tests, the organic material
concentration is calculated from the oxidant consumption necessary for the oxidation of
the organic material.
 Since biologically on biodegradable organic matter can be oxidize while chemically almost
all oxidizable matters could be oxidized, COD values are always higher than BOD.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 27

Dichromate COD Chemistry:
 When organic matter is oxidized by dichromate in sulfuric acid, most of the carbon is
converted to CO2. Hydrogen present is converted to H2O. The reaction is illustrated using
the primary standard, potassium acid phthalate (KHP):
 Dichromate ions (Cr2O7‐2) form orange‐coloured solutions.

 Chromic ion (Cr+3) turns the solution becomes green.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Theoretical COD:
KC8H5O4 + 7.5 O2  8 CO2 + 2 H2O + KOH
CxHyOz+ ¼∙(4x+y‐2z)∙O2  x∙CO2 + y/2∙H2O
So, COD = 8(4x+y‐2z)/(12x+y+16z) g COD/g
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 29

Week 3- Lecture 14

IIT KHARAGPUR
30
15
24‐07‐2018

Solids:
 It refers to the mass of solids present in the water. The Total Solids (TS) mass present in the water
could be in suspended (TSS) or dissolved (TDS) state, and could be volatile (TVS) or fixed (TFS) by
nature. Based on these different measures of solids are estimated.
 Inorganic salts in water often remains in dissolved stats and are non‐volatile even at high
temperatures, therefore contributes to Fixed Dissolved Solids (FDS). While, Fixed Suspended Solids
(FSS) are inorganic particles suspended in the liquid; such as undissolved salt crystals and silt
particles.
 Organic compounds are often volatile when gets burn at high temperature. The dissolved organics in
the liquid, e.g. sugars, fatty acids etc. constitutes Volatile Dissolved Solids (VDS), while suspended
organic matters, and especially microorganisms constitute Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS).
 The sum of FDS and VDS is referred to as Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), and similarly sum of VSS and
FSS is called Total Suspended Solids (TSS).
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 31

Solids: Measurements
Source:
Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse by Metcalf & Eddy
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Fecal Coliform: Most Probable Number (MPN):
 MPN is most commonly applied parameter for microbiol
quality testing of water. Fecal coliforms act as an indicator for
fecal contamination of water. Very few fecal coliform bacteria
would indicate that a water probably contains no
disease‐causing organisms, while microbiolly contaminated
water will exhibit the presence of large numbers of fecal
coliform bacteria and high MPN values.
 Fecal coliform are indicator organisms and are usually not
pathogenic by themselves. Pathogens are typically present in
such small amounts it is impractical monitor them directly. Image Source:
https://ietbuildinghealth.com/blog/sewage‐testing‐
 The separate estimates could be obtained for total and fecal methods/total‐and‐fecal‐coliform/
coliform bacteria, if needed

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 33

Fecal Coliform: Most Probable Number (MPN): Test Procedure
Source: : AWWA, WEF, APHA, 1998, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Metals:
 Metals, in small/trace quantities in water are useful for sustainability of biological
life, while, when present in excess, they become toxic and imposes human health as
well as environmental risk .
 Both municipal and industrial wastewater usually contains various metals, however
industrial discharges, at time, may have excessively high metal concentrations
depending on industrial processes.
 Metals are determined using flame atomic absorption, electrothermal atomic
absorption, inductively coupled plasma, or IPC/mass spectrometry.
 Some of the metals are also classified as priority pollutants.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 35

Metals (Classified as priority pollutants):
Source: Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Metcalf and Eddy, Indian Edition, 2003
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 37

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Nutrients:
 Nutrient pollution in water refers to excess nitrogen and phosphorus in the water and is one
of world's most widespread, and challenging environmental problems.
 Nutrient pollution has impacted many streams, rivers, lakes, bays and coastal waters for the
past several decades, resulting in serious environmental and human health issues, and
impacting the economy.
 Too much nitrogen and phosphorus in the water causes algae to grow faster than
ecosystems can handle resulting in large growths of algae (algal blooms). This harm water
quality, food resources and habitats, and decrease or eliminate the oxygen that fish and
other aquatic life need to survive. Some algal blooms are harmful to humans because they
produce elevated toxins and bacterial growth that can make people sick if they come into
contact with polluted water, consume tainted fish or shellfish, or drink contaminated water.
Source: https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/problem
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 39

Nutrients: Measurements
 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found in organic forms (not immediately available for plant
use) and inorganic forms (immediately available for plant use). Organic forms of nutrients
are eventually converted to inorganic forms. Typically, all forms of nutrients are measured in
surface water even if they are unavailable for plant use in the short term.
 The forms of phosphorus that are usually measured include Total Phosphorus (TP), Total
Dissolved Phosphorus (TDP) and the inorganic component, Orthophosphate (PO4).
 The forms of nitrogen that are usually measured include Total Nitrogen (TN) or Total Kjeldahl
Nitrogen (TKN), and the inorganic forms of Nitrate (NO3), Nitrite (NO2) and Ammonium
(NH4).
 Standard chemical procedure or field chemistry kits are typically used for the measurement
of nutrients. Source: http://www.pfra.ca/doc/Water%20Quality/Water%20Quality%20Protection/using_field_chem_kits_final.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Emerging Pollutants
 These include various compounds such as,
pesticides, pharmaceuticals and personal care
products, antimicrobials and antibiotics,
hormones, phthalate plasticizers, surfactants
etc..
 These are generally unregulated group of
chemicals which are, persistent, anthropogenic
and toxic in nature, and have become
identifiable with the new techniques for
identification and separation, in the field of
chemical analysis.
Source: Contaminants of Emerging Concern, Bhandari et.al., 2009, ASCE Publications
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 41

Emerging Pollutants
Source: Contaminants of Emerging Concern, Bhandari et.al., 2009, ASCE Publications

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
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Wastewater Characteristics: Practice Problems
Week 3- Lecture 15

IIT KHARAGPUR
43
Practice Problem: COD Calculation

 Glycine (CH3.NH2.CH.COOH) undergoes following reaction in the presence of oxygen.
CH3.NH2.CH.COOH + 3O2 = 3CO2 + NH3 + 2H2O
Calculate theoretical COD of 890 mg/L glycine solution.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Practice Problem: Solids Estimation

 Solid analyses performed using an influent water sample volume of 50 ml resulted in
following observation. Determine the concentration (in mg/L) of: a) total solids b) total
volatile solids c) total suspended solids d) volatile suspended solids e) total dissolved solids.
Weight of evaporating dish = 54.6423 g;

Weight of evaporating dish plus residue after evaporation at 105oC = 54.7184 g;
Weight of evaporating dish plus residue after ignition at 550oC = 54.6818 g;
Weight of Whatman glass fiber filter = 1.5434 g;
Weight of Whatman glass fiber filter and residue after drying at 105oC = 1.5625 g;
Weight of Whatman glass fiber filter and residue after ignition at 550oC = 1.5531 g;
Assume no loss in weight of dish and filter after drying or ignition.
. MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 45
Practice Problem: BOD Estimation

 A series of dilutions were prepared in 300 mL BOD bottles using settled raw sewage and
unseeded dilution water. The dilution range, initial DO, and final DO were recorded as
under.
Bottle # mL Seed Initial DO Final DO Depletion
1 3 7.95 5.20 2.75
2 6 7.95 3.85 4.10
3 9 7.90 2.40 5.50
4 12 7.85 1.35 6.50
Determine the BOD of each test sample and the average BOD.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Fate and Transport of Contaminants Discharged in River
Week 4- Lecture 16

IIT KHARAGPUR
Fate and Transport of Contaminants

What happens when wastewater is discharges in natural environment ?
Pollutants undergo different processes:

 Transport
Advection, Diffusion, Dispersion, Leaching
 Phase Transfer / Relocation
Sorption‐desorption, Volatilization
 Transformation / Degradation
Biotic, Abiotic and Photo degradation
Image Source : http://www.gangaaction.org/actions/issues/industrial‐waste‐management/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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20‐08‐2019
Fate and Transport of Contaminants in Rivers

Natural Purification (or Self‐Cleansing) in Rivers
 Always present in surface water and is able to
remove or reduce most of the conventional
pollutants
 A series of physical, chemical and biological
processes takes care of sediments and
decomposable organic waste and relives stream of
its pollution burden.
 This process is known as self purification or natural
purification process.
 The rate and extent with which these processes
occur depend on many variable like flow rate,
turbulence, nature of river bed, type of biota
present, and variations in sunlight and
temperature.
Image Source : https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1995/circ1133/images/fig51.jpeg
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Natural Purification in Rivers

In rivers, solid matters and soluble substances are reduced or changed by:
 Dilution
 Sedimentation
 Filtration
 Adsorption
 Sediment transport
 Hydrolysis
 Biodegradation (oxidation)
Source : http://ngojwg.org/study3‐2‐e.html
 Photodecomposition
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 4
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Major processes:
Filtration Sediment Transport
Reareation
Image Sources : http://ngojwg.org/study3‐2‐e.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 5

Major processes:
Sediment Transport Sorption and decomposition
Image Source : http://ngojwg.org/study3‐2‐e.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 6
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Natural Purification in Rivers: Process Classification

Physical Processes: Purifying effect caused by the hydraulic characteristics of the river water
・Dilution, sedimentation, filtration, aeration, sediment transport
Physicochemical Processes: Purifying effect caused by the flow and the river bed material
・Adsorption, aggregation, (oxidation and reduction)
Biological (or Biochemical) Processes: Purification action arising as microorganisms in water
・Adsorption, oxidation, decomposition and synthesis of organic matter
・Uptake of organic matters and nutrient by plants and sedimentation
Photochemical Processes: Purification action by the sunlight
・Photo‐degradation of organic matter
Image Source : http://ngojwg.org/study3‐2‐e.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 7
Factors Affecting Natural Attenuation

 Temperature and Sunlight
 Temperature affects the rates of dilution, sedimentation, chemical and biological activities. It also
influences the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water body. Sunlight regulates temperature as well
as offers photodegradation opportunities.
Hydrography
 The velocity, depth, and surface expanse controls the turbulence, stratification, distribution of
sediments, DO, and microorganism etc. The degree of turbulence governs the re‐aeration rate for
dissolved oxygen, which eventually affects the rate and extent of biodegradation. It also affects
dilution, sediment transport, and high turbulence could retards algal growth.
Nature of River Bed and Biota Present

 These affects the sorption ‐ desorption, nutrient uptake and kinetics and extent of biodegradation of
organic matter incoming with the wastewater.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 8
4
20‐08‐2019

Natural Purification in Rivers: Effects on DO and BOD
Week 4- Lecture 17

IIT KHARAGPUR
Zones of Pollution in a River Stream

1. Clean Zone
2. Decomposition
Zone
3. Septic Zone
4. Recovery Zone
1. Clean Zone Image Source : CC&S, 2005, Figure 18.7. Sources from ‐ https://www.unc.edu/courses/2005fall/envr/051/001/05watpol.htm
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 10
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1. Clean Zone
 This zone indicates that water body in its original conditions with the DO near its
saturation value. The normal aquatic life prevail. However certain pathogenic
organisms may also be present, especially if it has received waste inflows in the
upstream.
2. Decomposition Zone
 This zone occurs till certain distance just below the wastewater discharge point,
and is usually dark and turbid due to sludge deposits at the bottom. DO is
reduced significantly, while increased CO2 makes this zone more de‐oxygenative.
 This zone is unfavourable for aquatic life; though certain fish species feeding on
fresh organic matter and certain worms (Limondrilus and Tubifex) may occur with
the sewage fungi such as sphaerotilusnatans.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 11

3. Septic Zone
 DO is at minimum level, and hence, fish population is usually absent. Sludge
warms and mosquito larvae are present at significant levels.
4. Recovery Zone
 In this zone the water quality starts improving with the water body trying to
regain its original sate. BOD degrades while DO rises, and the organic matter is
mineralized forming nitrates, sulphates, phosphates and carobnates.
 The presence of algae becomes prominent and protozoa, rotifers, crustaceans and
macroscopic plants like sponges, bryozons reappear. Organisms like tubifex,
mussels and snails flourish at the bottom.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 12
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Indices of self-purification
 The stages of a river stream can be determined by physical, chemical and
biological analysis of the water with the following usual indices:
a. Physical indices: Colour, Turbidity, and Suspended Solids
b. Chemical indices: DO, BOD, COD and Dissolved Solids
c. Biological indices: MPN, Colony Forming Units (CFUs), different micro and macro organisms.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 13
The DO Deficit of a Polluted River Stream

 The oxygen deficit (D) at any time in
a polluted water body is defined as
the difference between the actual
DO at that time and the saturated
DO at the same water temperature.
Oxygen Deficit (D) =

Saturation DO ‐ Actual DO
 This can also be estimated by

identifying the rates of de‐
oxygenation and reoxygenation.
 For the water body to be clean, the Image Source:

Kumar et al (2015). Impact of Point Source Contamination on Eutrophicated Water Bodies using Streeter Phelps
oxygen deficit has to be near zero. Oxygen Sag ‐ Reaeration Model. International Journal of Innovations in Engineering and Technology (IJIET) , 6(2), 2015
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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7
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De‐oxygenation:
 The DO content in a polluted water body goes on reducing due to the breakdown of
organic matter.
 If the amount of organic matter (BOD) present at a given time is Lt, the rate of change
of the BOD can be given by:
Where, KD is the BOD reaction rate constant, which is also known as de‐
oxygenation coefficient (or constant), as consumption of DO is proportional to the
amount of organic matter degraded. KD depends on the nature of organic matter
and temperature.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 15

Re‐oxygenation:
 It is the process by which atmosphere supplies oxygen to the water body. The rate of
re‐oxygenation depends on:
 The oxygen deficit (directly proportional)
 Depth of the receiving water (decreases with the increasing depth)
 Condition of the water body (a running stream has more rate of re‐oxygenation
than a quiescent pond)
 Temperature of water
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 16
8
20‐08‐2019
The DO Deficit Equation (The Streeter-Phelps Equation)
 Where:
o Dt is the DO deficit in mg/L after t days.
o Lo is the ultimate first stage BOD of the mix at the point of waste discharge in mg/L.
o Do is the initial oxygen deficit of the mix at the point of mixing in mg/L.
o KD is the de‐oxygenation coefficient (analogous to the BOD rate constant). The typical values of KD(20) can
be between 0.1 to 0.2, and it can be defined for other temperatures as:
o KR is the re‐oxygenation rate and can be determined from field tests by using the equation:
for a river with the average stream velocity of v m/s and the average stream depth of y m. It can be
defined for other temperatures as:
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 17

BOD and DO Variations in Streams Receiving Wastewater
Week 4- Lecture 18

IIT KHARAGPUR
18
9
20‐08‐2019
DO and BOD post Wastewater Discharge in a River

 The general assumption is that the rate of oxygen consumption (oxygen demand) is
directly proportional to the present concentration of degradable organic matter.
 The amount of oxygen consumed at any point of

time t (BOD exerted) will be equal to the ultimate
BOD (L0) minus existing BOD at time t (Lt).
Therefore,
 BOD exerted = BODt = L0 – Lt = L0 (1 – e‐KDt)

Image Source:
https://www.pdhsource.com/wp‐content/uploads//Introduction‐to‐
 So, 5‐Day BOD i.e. BOD5 = L0 – L5 = L0 (1 – e‐5KD) Water‐Pollution.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 19

 The DO changes due to de‐oxygenation (proportional to the organic matter present, say
Lt) and re‐oxygenation (proportional to the DO Deficit, say Dt).
 Let’s assume that the saturation value for

DO remains constant [d(DOs )/dt = 0].
 So, the rate of change of DO deficit (Dt) at any time,
or
Image Source:
or + Kannel et al. (2007). Application of QUAL2Kw for water quality modeling and
dissolved oxygen control in the river Bagmati. Env. Monit. Ass. 125. 201‐17.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 20
10
20‐08‐2019

• The equation of the form are typically solved by multiplying
Integration Factors ( ) throughout the equation. Therefore, an
could be used for solving + .
• Multiplying the , the equation converts to
 + )
 +
 
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 21

• The equation could be integrated to obtain:
 
 ‐ 1  1
 1 
 o
o
Lo is the ultimate first stage BOD of the mix at the point of waste discharge in mg/L.
Do is the initial oxygen deficit of the mix at the point of mixing in mg/L.
o Dt is the DO deficit in mg/L after t days.
o KD is the de‐oxygenation coefficient
This is the Streeter Phelps Equation (DO sag equation). o KR is the re‐oxygenation rate
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 22
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Critical Stretch in a River Receiving Wastewater Discharge

• The most critical point in a river would be where DO is minimum. This can be obtained by setting up first
derivative of the Streeter Phelps Equation to zero. This leads to:
 =0
And the critical (max.) oxygen deficit is:
 10
Image Source:
Kumar et al (2015). Impact of Point Source Contamination on Eutrophicated Water
The constant is called self‐purification constant (f). Bodies using Streeter Phelps Oxygen Sag ‐ Reaeration Model. International Journal of
Innovations in Engineering and Technology (IJIET) , 6(2), 2015
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 23
The Self-Purification Constant of Various Water Bodies
Value of KR(20) Value of self‐purification

Sl. No. Types of water body
per day constant f
1 Small ponds and back waters 0.05‐0.10 0.5‐1.0

2 Sluggish streams, large lakes and impounding reservoirs 0.10‐0.15 1.0‐1.5
3 Large streams of low velocity 0.15‐0.20 1.5‐2.0

4 Large streams of normal velocity 0.20‐0.30 2.0‐3.0
5 Swift streams 0.30‐0.50 3.0‐5.0
6 Rapids and waterfalls Over 0.5 Over 5.0
Source: Sewage Disposal and Air Pollution Engineering, S.K. Garg, Khanna Publishers
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 24
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Application and Limitations of the Streeter Phelps Equation

• The Streeter Phelps Equation aims at formulating working principles to describes how the DO
varies in a stream with distance (or time) from the source by the degradation of organic matter.
• The classical Streeter Phelps equation assumes that a single BOD input is distributed evenly at the
cross section of a stream and that it moves as plug flow.
• Only carbonaceous BOD is considered as DO sink, while only re‐aeration is taken as DO source.
• Further, the factors such as the removal of BOD by sedimentation, conversion of suspended BOD
to soluble BOD, sediment oxygen demand, and algal photosynthesis and respiration are not
included.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 25
Attenuation of Pollutants on Land or Subsurface Application

• The contaminants discharged along with wastewater on soil surfaces (for irrigation or disposal purpose) or
groundwater meet various fates similar to surface stream disposal.
• The adsorption becomes much more prominent for contaminates applied to land, while transport processes
such as advection, diffusion & dispersion becomes less effective. Rather, leaching and subsurface transport
becomes more Pertinent. However, surface runoff during rain/floods could transport the contaminates to
the surface water bodies.
• The decomposition of organic matter also depends on the availability of microbial consortia and the bio‐
availability of organic matter present in the waste.
• The wastewater disposal in groundwater has relatively lower mobility and much lesser chances of natural
transformations compared with that disposed in surface waters.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 26
13
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Natural Purification: Practice Problems
Week 4- Lecture 19

IIT KHARAGPUR
27
Practice Problem: Dilution

 The sewage of a town is to be discharged into a river stream. The quantity of sewage produced per day is 9
million liters, and its BOD is 350 mg/L. If the discharge in the river is 250 L/s and BOD is 6 mg/L, find out the
BOD of the diluted water.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 28
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Practice Problem: Dilution

 The sewage of a town is to be discharged into a river stream. The quantity of sewage produced per day is 9
million liters, and its BOD is 350 mg/L. If the discharge in the river is 250 L/s and BOD is 6 mg/L, find out the
BOD of the diluted water.
(9  10 ) 6
o Sewage Discharge Q   104.167l / s

24  60  60
S
o BOD of sewage = C  350mg / L

s
o Discharge of the river = Q  200l / s

R
o BOD of the river = C  6mg / L

R
CS QS  C R QR (350  104.167)  (6  200)

o BOD of the diluted mixture = C    123.81mg / L
QS  QR 104.167  200
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 29
Practice Problem: DO Deficit

 A city discharges 1500 L/s of sewage into a stream whose minimum rate of flow is 6000 L/s. The
temperature of sewage as well as water is 20°C. The DO content of sewage is zero, and that of stream is 90%
of the saturation DO. Find the initial DO deficit. Assume instantaneous mixing of the sewage and stream.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 30
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20‐08‐2019
Practice Problem: DO Deficit

 A city discharges 1500 L/s of sewage into a stream whose minimum rate of flow is 6000 L/s. The
temperature of sewage as well as water is 20°C. The DO content of sewage is zero, and that of stream is 90%
of the saturation DO. Find the initial DO deficit. Assume instantaneous mixing of the sewage and stream.
o DO of the stream = 90% saturation DO at 20°C  Saturation DO at 20°C = 9.17 mg/L

= 0.9x9.17 = 8.25 mg/L
o Discharge of the stream = 6000 liters/sec
o DO of the sewage = 0 mg/L
o Discharge of sewage = 1500 liters/sec
(DO Q )  (DO Q ) (8.25  6000)  (0  1500)
stream stream sewage sewage
  6.6 mg/L
o DO of the mix at start point (i.e., at t =0) = Q Q 6000  1500
stream sewage
o Dₒ = Initial DO deficit = [Saturation DO – DO of the mix] = 9.17 – 6.6 = 2.57 mg/L

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 31
Practice Problem: BOD estimation

 The ultimate BOD (L0) of a wastewater sample is estimated as 87% of COD. The COD of this wastewater is
300 mg/L. Considering first order BOD reaction rate constant k (use natural log) = 0.23 per day and
temperature coefficient θ = 1.047, what will be the BOD value (in mg/L, up to one decimal place) after three
days of incubation at 27oC for this wastewater. (GATE Civil Engineering, 2018).
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 32
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20‐08‐2019

 The ultimate BOD (L0) of a wastewater sample is estimated as 87% of COD. The COD of this wastewater is
300 mg/L. Considering first order BOD reaction rate constant k (use natural log) = 0.23 per day and
temperature coefficient θ = 1.047, what will be the BOD value (in mg/L, up to one decimal place) after three
days of incubation at 27oC for this wastewater. (GATE Civil Engineering, 2018).
Assuming the data is given for temperature at 20°C,

1
300 /
0.87 300 261 27 1
.
261 1
20 0.23
261 0.614 160.254
1.047
27
 0.23 1.047 0.317
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 33
Practice Problem: BOD rate constant estimation

 For a wastewater sample, the three−day biochemical oxygen demand at incubation temperature of 20° C
(BOD3, 20°C) is estimated as 200 mg/L. Taking the value of the first order BOD reaction rate constant as 0.22
day−1 , the five−day BOD (expressed in mg/L) of the wastewater at incubation temperature of 20° C (BOD5,
20°C) would be ________ (GATE Civil Engineering, 2016).
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 34
17
20‐08‐2019

 For a wastewater sample, the three−day biochemical oxygen demand at incubation temperature of 20° C
(BOD3, 20°C) is estimated as 200 mg/L. Taking the value of the first order BOD reaction rate constant as 0.22
day−1 , the five−day BOD (expressed in mg/L) of the wastewater at incubation temperature of 20° C (BOD5,
20°C) would be ________ (GATE Civil Engineering, 2016).
3 20 200
20 0.22
Since, 1  200 1 . 0.483
200
414.078 414
0.483
5 20 1 414 1 . . /
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 35

 Two waste streams A and B, having identical ultimate BOD are getting mixed to form a stream C. The
temperature of the stream A is 20°C and the temperature of the stream C is 10°C. It is given that:
• The 5−day BOD of stream A measured at 20°C = 50 mg/L
• BOD rate constant (base 10) at 20°C = 0.115 per day
• Temperature coefficient = 1.135
• The 5−day BOD of the stream C at 10°C, is _____ (GATE Civil Engineering, 2017).
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 36
18
20‐08‐2019

 Two waste streams A and B, having identical ultimate BOD are getting mixed to form a stream C. The
temperature of the stream A is 20°C and the temperature of the stream C is 10°C. It is given that:
• The 5−day BOD of stream A measured at 20°C = 50 mg/L
• BOD rate constant (base 10) at 20°C = 0.115 per day
• Temperature coefficient = 1.135
• The 5−day BOD of the stream C at 10°C, is _____ (GATE Civil Engineering, 2017).
For stream A, Since both A and B streams have same ultimate BOD, the
resulting mixture C, should also have the same ultimate BOD.
5 20 50 /
0.115 10 For stream C,
1.135 10
1.135 0.0324
1 10
5 10
 50 .
1 10  68.12 1 10 68.12 1 10 .
.
(while considering base 10) . /
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 37

 The 2−day and 4−day BOD values of a sewage sample are 100 mg/L and 155 mg/L, respectively. The value
of BOD rate constant (expressed in per day) is _________ (GATE Civil Engineering, 2016).
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 38
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20‐08‐2019

 The 2−day and 4−day BOD values of a sewage sample are 100 mg/L and 155 mg/L, respectively. The value
of BOD rate constant (expressed in per day) is _________ (GATE Civil Engineering, 2016).
Assuming the temperature to be same and taking the BOD rate constant as k,
2 1
4 1
Dividing the above two equations,
Solving above, . .
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 39

Engineered Treatment of Wastewater: Concept of Mass Balance
Week 4 - Lecture 20

IIT KHARAGPUR
40
20
20‐08‐2019
Engineered System for the Treatment of Wastewater

 Due to excessive increase in the pollution load from municipal and industrial wastewater discharges,
the natural purification is not turning effective for the self‐purification of rivers or other
environmental mediums. This is leading to the pollution of the rivers in India as well as may parts of
the world.
River Ganga River Yamuna River Damodar River Gomati
 Therefore, there is a need to put through an engineering system that can remove or reduce the
pollutants before the wastewater is released in the environment or reused.
 This is usually done through a set of processing units which treats the wastewater and produces the
clean (or less polluted effluent). Image Sources: http://kanigas.com/10‐most‐polluted‐rivers‐of‐india/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 41
Engineered System for the Treatment of Wastewater

 These engineered treatment processes mainly works following standard
physicochemical and/or biochemical principles (filtration, adsorption,
biodegradation etc.) and utilizes engineered controls to drive these processes (or
reactions) at enhanced/optimum rates to the extent desired.
 The mass of contaminants present in the water is either physically removed, or
chemically / biochemically transformed to some non‐toxic forms/species.
 Varity of treatment units have been devised which focus on the treatment of either
general or specific type of contaminants present in water / wastewater.
 The various treatment units are often some sort of tank where treatment
process/reaction takes place. The reaction units are usually mentioned as Reactors.
 These engineered treatment systems are often designed based on the Concept of
Mass Balance.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 42
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Concept of Mass Balance

 Mass Balance is an application of conservation of mass: mass can neither be
produced nor destroyed.
 The accounting of all mass in a process/system confined under a control volume is
referred as mass (or material) balance.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 43
Concept of Mass Balance

 The mathematical way of describing the mass balance is with mass conservation
equations which state/assume that
“what goes into the system must either come out of the system somewhere else, get
used up or generated by the system, or remain in the system and accumulate.”
Mass accumulation = Mass Input – Mass output + Mass generation – Mass consumption
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 44
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Principle of Conservation of Mass

or degraded
dm/dt = mf (in) – mf (out) ± dm/dtreaction

Source: (Adopted from) http://www.cee.mtu.edu/~reh/courses/ce251/251_notes_dir/node3.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 45
Concept of Mass Balance: Control Volume

 A mass balance is only meaningful in terms of a specific region of space usually
called the Control Volume, which has boundaries across which the terms mass flux
in and mass flux out could be determined.
 For the transformation reactions, the mass of contaminants present in the control
volume, at any given time, is considered as the amount of that substance available
for reaction.
 In wastewater treatment systems, usually the volume of specific reactor units (tank
sizes) are considered as control volume.
 With‐in the control volume, the flow of the mass could follow a completely mixed
flow model or the plug‐flow model.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 46
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Mass Balance: Application in Specific Cases
Week 4- Lecture 21

IIT KHARAGPUR
47
Specific Conditions for the Mass Balance

 Flow conditions
 Batch processes
 Continuous flow
 Mixing conditions
 Completely mixed systems
 Plug flow systems
 Type of contaminant
 Conservative
 Non-conservative
 Changes with respect to time

 Steady State
 Unsteady State
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 48
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Batch Reactors vs Continuous Flow Reactors

 In batch reactors, a batch of reactants are loaded and
thereafter allowed to stay till the pre‐fixed reaction times. In
between, no mass/material is added or withdrawn. Therefore,
there is no mf (in) or mf (out) in mass balance equation.
Zero (0)
 In continuous flow reactors, there is a continuous inflow to and Inflow Outflow
outflow from control volume. Therefore, the rate of mass flux Continuous
Q m3/s Q m3/s
in and out has to be considered in mass balance.
Image Source: (adopted and modified) http://cyberfrogdesign.uk/test/amtech/what‐is‐continuous‐process‐and‐why‐is‐it‐important/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 49
Completely Mixed vs Plug Flow Systems

 In completely mixed reactors, the content within the control volume remains in
completely mixed (homogeneous) state. Such system often needs a stirring device to
ensure the mixing in the reactors and are commonly known as Continuous Stirred
Tank Reactor (CSTR). CSTRs are simply well‐mixed tanks which are used to model
well‐mixed environmental reservoirs. In CSTRs, the concentration of a substance in
outflow remains equal to that in the reactor.
 In plug flow reactors (PFRs), the fluid is mixed in the radial direction, but mixing does
not occur in the axial direction. PFRs are analogous to pipes, typically used to model
rivers, canal etc. in which fluid is not mixed in the upstream‐downstream direction.
In PFRs, each plug of fluid is considered a separate entity, and time passes as the
plug flows downstream. Therefore, there is an implicit time dependence even in
steady‐state PFRs. However, time and downstream distance are interchangeable as
usually the velocity of the fluid in the PFR is constant.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 50
25
20‐08‐2019
Completely Mixed vs Plug Flow Systems
Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) Plug Flow Reactors (PFR)
Source: http://www.cee.mtu.edu/~reh/courses/ce251/251_notes_dir/node3.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 51
Conservative vs Non-Conservative Contaminants

 Conservative (Non‐degradable / Non‐reactive) Pollutants, normally do not
transformed to other substances in the receiving water, and tend to be stable and
long‐lived (persistent). These include, but are not limited to, salts and metals. Since
these compounds do not undergo transformation, (dm/dt)reaction becomes zero.
Zero (0)
 Non‐Conservative (Degradable /Reactive) Pollutants, are transformed to other
substances (generally smaller compounds) through physical, chemical, or biological
processes in the receiving water. The rate of transformation depends on the
physical, chemical, and biological conditions occurring within the receiving water
environment. These primarily include organic matters.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 52
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20‐08‐2019
Conservative vs Non-Conservative Contaminants
Knowledge of the conservative or non‐conservative nature of a pollutant can be

important, especially when determining reaction fate of the contaminants
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 53
Steady vs Unsteady State

 In steady state, conditions do not vary with time. Therefore rate of change of mass
with respect of time becomes zero.
Zero (0)
 Steady state does not mean that reactions involving mass transformation
(degradation) are not occurring, therefore (dm/dt)reaction term still remains valid,
and contaminant could be degraded with progressing time within the control
volume, however, the contaminant concentration (mass) does not change with
respect to time in inlet or outlet, or at any given point in control volume.
 In unsteady state, conditions could vary with time at same (fixed) location in the
control volume. Therefore, the term dm/dt is not taken as zero.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 54
27
20‐08‐2019
Reaction Kinetics in Steady/Unsteady State

 Irrespective of whether the system is in unsteady (transient) or steady state, the
transformation reactions occur for degradable (reactive) compounds and their mass is
reduced with the progressing times. The rate at which reaction occurs (dC/dt) depend on
the reaction kinetics.
 When this net rate of contaminant mass reduction becomes equal to the contaminant mass
inflow, the net mass of the contaminant becomes stable (constant), and the reactor is said
to have achieved Steady state.
 The rate of reaction for nth order of reaction kinetics is expressed as dC/dt = k.Cn, where C is
the concentration of contaminant and k is the rate constant.
 The first order kinetics (dC/dt = k.C) is one of the most popular model for rate estimation in
environmental chemistry.
 A few other kinetic models (e.g. Monod kinetics) are also used depending on the type of
reaction and nature of the contaminants.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 55
Steady vs Unsteady State

 Continuous flow reactors usually operate under steady stated conditions, except
during start‐up when the parameters changes with time (transient state) and tries
to attain equilibrium. If flow and inflow contaminant concentration do not change
much over the time, the continuous flow reactors will eventually attain steady state
and could be operated in the steady state for long.
 On the other hand, batch reactors are intended to operate under kinetic conditions,
and are stopped as soon as equilibrium is achieved. As there won’t be any further
mass transfer or decay post equilibrium in a batch reactor (due to lack of reactants
or physicochemical limitations), it is of no use to run it longer.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 56
28
20‐08‐2019
Mass Balance of Contaminates in Reactors

V, C
Qin, Cin Qout, Cout
dm/dt = mf(in) – mf(out) ± dm/dt|reaction

Measuring total mass is difficult in environmental systems. Working with concentrations (C) is more feasible.
o Rate of change of mass: dm/dt = d(C.V)/dt =V.dC/dt [considering V constant]
o Mass Flux in: mf(in) = ∑Qin.Cin = Qin.Cin
o Mass Flux out mf(out) = ∑Qout.Cout = Qout.Cout
o Nate Rate of Reaction dm/dt|reaction = V.dC/dt|reaction
Substituting above terms in mass balance equation: V.dC/dt = Qin.Cin ‐ Qout.Cout ± V.dC/dt|reaction
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 57

Mass Balance in Reactors: Application and Practice Problems
Week 4- Lecture 22

IIT KHARAGPUR
58
29
20‐08‐2019
Mass Balance: In a Continuously Mixed System

V, C
Qin, Cin Q, C
In a CSTR with same rate of inflow and out flow (Qin=Qin=Q), the Cout = C.
If the order of reaction is n and rate constant is k, then dC/dt|reaction= kCn
Final mass balance equation  V.dC/dt = Q.Cin ‐ Q.C ± V. kCn
o Steady State; Ist Order decay at rate constant k: C = Cin . 1/[1+kV/Q]
o Unsteady State; Conservative Pollutant; Initial conc. zero: C = Cin .[1-exp{-(Q/V)t}]
o Unsteady State; Ist Order decay at rate constant k, No inflow concentration: C = C0 .exp[-{(Q/V)+k}t]
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 59
Mass Balance: In a Plug Flow System

dx
A
Q, Cin Q, Cout
x x+dx
Mass balance for the plug shown above: V. dC/dt = QC(x) – QC(x+dx) ±V. dC/dt|reaction
In Steady State [dC/dt = 0]: QC(x+dx) – QC(x) = ±V. dC/dt|reaction
Q[C(x+dx) – C(x)] = ±A.dx. dC/dt|reaction
[C(x+dx) – C(x)]/dx = ±(A/Q). dC/dt|reaction
dC/dx= ±(A/Q). dC/dt|reaction
o Steady State; Ist Order decay at rate constant k: dC/dx= -(A/Q). kC
dC/C= -(kA/Q). dx
C = Cin . exp(-kV/Q) = Cin . exp(-kt)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 60
30
20‐08‐2019
Mass Balance: In a Batch Systems

In batch systems, the rate of inflow and out flow is zero (Qin=Qin=0). Substituting the terms:
V.dC/dt = Qin.Cin ‐ Qout.Cout ± V.dC/dt|reaction
The mass balance equation reduces to: V. dC/dt = ±V. dC/dt|reaction
o For nth Order decay at rate constant k: dC/dx= -kCn
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 61
Application of Mass Balance in Wastewater Treatment

 The wastewater treatment essentially targets the removal of the mass of various
contaminants present in it, so that there concentrations could be lowered to the level of
desired limits. It is important to have an understanding on how the contaminants mass is
getting removed (transported or transformed) and where is it going. This can be obtained
with a detailed mass balance for any specific contaminant considering all of it’s fate and
transport processes.
 The concepts of mass balance is widely used for the design and optimization of various
treatment units.
 It is also used to predict the degree of treatment or final effluent concentrations of the
various pollutants being treated in a unit with specific process and dimensions.
 The mass balance concepts can also be used for assessing the extent of pollutant removal
and accumulation of intermediate or by‐products of chemical or biological transformations.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 62
31
20‐08‐2019
Practice Problem: First Order Rate Constant

 A pollutant is following first order decay in the lake water and its half−life was determined to be 120 days.
Calculate the rate constant and the time required to achieve 10% of its initial concentration.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 63
Practice Problem: First Order Rate Constant

 A pollutant is following first order decay in the lake water and its half−life was determined to be 120 days.
Calculate the rate constant and the time required to achieve 10% of its initial concentration.
Let’s consider the lake as batch system as no inflow and outflow information is provided.
For first Order decay at rate constant k: dC/dx= -kC  C= C0e-kt
Half life is 120 days, i.e. C remains C0/2 in t=120 days. C0/2= C0e-k(120)
1/2= e-k(120)
ln (1/2)= -k (120)
k= - ln(0.5)/120 = -(-0.693)/120 = 0.693/120
Rate constant, k= 0.00577 d-1
Time required for achieving 10% of its initial concentration (C= 0.1C0) is say t. 0.1C0= C0e-0.00577(t)
t = - ln(0.1)/0.00577 = 399 days
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 64
32
20‐08‐2019
Practice Problem: Decay in Steady State CSTR & PFR

 A 400 m3 CSTR receives water from a single inlet at 40 m3/h flow containing 20 mg/L of total Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbon (TPAHs). Determine the steady state TPAHs concentration in the single exit stream,
if TPAHs are degraded at first−order kinetics with k=0.27 h−1. What should be the volume of a
corresponding plug flow channel if the same degree of pollutant reduction is needed (with unchanged flow
rate and ‘k’).
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 65

 A 400 m3 CSTR receives water from a single inlet at 40 m3/h flow containing 20 mg/L of total Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbon (TPAHs). Determine the steady state TPAHs concentration in the single exit stream,
if TPAHs are degraded at first−order kinetics with k=0.27 h−1. What should be the volume of a
corresponding plug flow channel if the same degree of pollutant reduction is needed (with unchanged flow
rate and ‘k’).
Generic mass balance equation: V.dC/dt = Qin.Cin ‐ Qout.Cout ± V.dC/dt|reaction
For a Steady State, CSTR (Cout = C) with first order decay dC/dt|reaction= -kC; 0 = QCin – QC – V.kC
(Q+kV)C = Q.Cin
C= Cin {Q/(Q+kV)}
C= Cin {1/(1+kV/Q)}
The Steady State TPH conc. C = 20mg/L. {1/(1+0.27 h-1*400 m3/40 m3h-1)}
= 20mg/L. (1/3.7) = 5.4 mg/L
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 66
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20‐08‐2019

 A 400 m3 CSTR receives water from a single inlet at 40 m3/h flow containing 20 mg/L of total Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbon (TPAHs). Determine the steady state TPAHs concentration in the single exit stream, if TPAHs are degraded
at first−order kinetics with k=0.27 h−1. What should be the volume of a corresponding plug flow channel if the same
degree of pollutant reduction is needed (with unchanged flow rate and ‘k’).
For a Steady State, PFR with first order decay dC/dt|reaction= -kC; 0 = QCin – QCout – V.kC
Cout= Cin e‐kV/Q
For the same degree of treatment (i.e. Cout = 5.4 mg/L); ln(Cout/Cin) = ‐kV/Q
V = ‐Q/k.ln(Cout/Cin)
Volume of the PFR Required = - (40 m3h-1/0.27 h-1) ln (5.4/20)
= 194 m3
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 67
Practice Problem: Start-up of a CSTR

 A 500 m3 size CSTR pre− filled with clean water started receiving water from a waste stream containing a
100 mg/l of a conservative pollutant at a flow rate of 50 m3 /day. An outflow channel was also started
simultaneously to ensure the passage of extra water in the pond. Calculate the pollutant concentration in
the outflow as a function of time after start?
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 68
34
20‐08‐2019
Practice Problem: Unsteady State

 A 500 m3 size CSTR pre− filled with clean water started receiving water from a waste stream containing a
100 mg/l of a conservative pollutant at a flow rate of 50 m3 /day. An outflow channel was also started
simultaneously to ensure the passage of extra water in the pond. Calculate the pollutant concentration in
the outflow as a function of time after start?

For a CSTR (Cout = C) with conservative pollutant dC/dt|reaction= 0; V.dC/dt = QCin ‐ QC
dC/(Cin‐C) = (Q/V).dt
ln(C‐Cin) = - (Q/V).t + I
Initial condition: at t=0, C= 0; ln(0‐Cin) = - (Q/V).0+ I  I = ln (‐Cin) ln(C‐Cin) – ln (‐Cin) = - (Q/V).t
ln(C‐Cin/‐Cin)= - (Q/V).t
C‐Cin/‐Cin= e(Q/V).t
C‐Cin = ‐Cin e(Q/V).t
C= Cin(1‐ e(Q/V).t) = 100 (1‐e0.1t)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 69
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 70
35
27‐08‐2018

Basics of Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Week 5- Lecture 23

IIT KHARAGPUR
Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Image Source : http://www.moneycontrol.com/gestepahead/powering/article/state‐of‐ Image Source : http://keranews.org/post/wichita‐falls‐drops‐wastewater‐reuse‐

wastewater‐treatment‐in‐india‐961633‐2.html project
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 2
1
27‐08‐2018
Objectives of Wastewater Treatment

o Wastewater collected from various communities must be ultimately returned to the
receiving waters or applied to land or reused after making it safe for the purpose,
ensuring no danger to human health or damage to the environment.
o The objective of wastewater treatment is to extract and remove various pollutants and
toxicants including suspended and dissolved materials as well as pathogens present in
the wastewater so that its quality is improved to reach the permissible level of water
to be discharged/reused.
o The degree of treatment required depends on the characteristics of the raw

wastewater and the desired quality of treated water for disposal or reuse, which is
eventually governed by state regulated wastewater discharged standards or water
quality standard for recycling/reuse.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Wastewater Discharge Standards: The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986
Source : http://cpcb.nic.in/GeneralStandards.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 4
2
27‐08‐2018
Wastewater Discharge Standards: Environment (Protection) Amendment Rules, 2017
Source : http://envfor.nic.in/sites/default/files/Sewage%20Treatment%20Plants.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Wastewater Reuse Standards

US‐EPA/USAID Guidelines
WHO microbiological quality guidelines for wastewater use in agriculture
Source :
WHO (2006), A compendium of standards for wastewater reuse in the Eastern Mediterranean Region
(http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/116515/dsa1184.pdf;jsessionid=0CBE6A6098376FF
9A870FADD88AD6949?sequence=1)
Source : EPA, Process Design Manual: Guidelines for Water Reuse, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1992:
Report No. EPA‐625/R‐92‐004 (cited in) Guidelines and Standards for Wastewater Reuse
(https://cgi.tuharburg.de/~awwweb/wbt/emwater/documents/lesson_d1.pdf)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 6
3
27‐08‐2018
Wastewater Reuse Standards: Irrigation

FAO guidelines for trace metals in irrigation water FAO guidelines for interpretation of water quality for irrigation
Source :
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665
/116515/dsa1184.pdf;jsessionid=0CBE6A609837
6FF9A870FADD88AD6949?sequence=1
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 7
Wastewater Treatment Processes

o A typical wastewater treatment plant consists of several treatment steps encompassing
unit operations and unit processes.
o Treatment units (methods) in which the application of physical forces predominate are
called Unit Operations. Here primarily physical separation of the pollutant occurs (e.g.
screening, grit chamber, sedimentation etc.).
o Treatment units (methods) in which chemical or biological reactions predominate are

called Unit Processes. In such units, the pollutant is chemically or biologically
transformed to usually smaller compounds (e.g. biodegradation or chemical
degradation steps).
o Since, the municipal as well as industrial wastewaters contain physical as well as

chemical pollutants, often a combination of several unit operations and unit
processes are needed for the complete treatment of wastewater.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 8
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Municipal Wastewater Treatment: Typical Processes
Preliminary and primary treatment

are grouped under primary treatment
in several references
Image Source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e0j.gif

(Cited Source) Asano T., Smith R.G. and Tchobanoglous G. (1985)
Municipal wastewater: Treatment and reclaimed water characteristics.
Irrigation with Reclaimed Municipal Wastewater ‐ A Guidance Manual,
G.S. Pettygrove and T. Asano (eds). Lewis Publishers Inc., Mississippi
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Municipal Wastewater Treatment: Stages

Primary Treatment
o Preliminary treatment – for screening of large floating material and removal of grits.
o Primary treatment ‐ the physical settling of insoluble solids from a wastewater

stream, usually called primary settling.
o Secondary treatment ‐ the biological treatment system followed by secondary

clarification for the separation of biological solids from the main wastewater stream
o Tertiary (or Advanced) treatment ‐ Any treatment following secondary treatment,

usually for the removal of nutrients, high TDS, microbial pollutions etc.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 10
5
27‐08‐2018
Wastewater Treatment Plants

Nagpur Wastewater Treatment Plant South Bend Wastewater Treatment Plant, Indiana

http://vilindia.com/waste‐water/200‐mld‐waste‐water‐treatment‐project‐in‐nagpur/ https://www.southbendin.gov/government/content/treatment‐plant
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 11

Wastewater Treatment Units: Screening
Week 5- Lecture 24

IIT KHARAGPUR
12
6
27‐08‐2018
Screening
o Screening is the first unit operation in a
wastewater treatment plant.
o A screen is a device with openings, generally

of uniform size, used to retain suspended or
floating coarse materials (pieces of cloths,
wood, leaves, plastics, rags, papers etc.) found
in the influent wastewater.
o These materials must be removed at the

beginning of treatment process, otherwise
could damage subsequent process equipment
e.g. pumps, valves, pipe lines, impellers,
thereby reducing overall treatment process Image Source : http://industrialwatertreatments.com/screening/
reliability & effectiveness.

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 13
Features of the Screen

o The screening element may consist any of
the following:
 Parallel bars or rods,
 Gratings
 Wire meshes
 Perforated plates
o The openings are usually rectangular or

circular, however could be of any shape.
o Depending on the size of opening, the Image Source : https://www.wateronline.com/doc/wwema‐window‐slots‐vs‐holes‐in‐

preliminary‐treatment‐screening‐0001
screens may be coarse, medium or fine.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 14
7
27‐08‐2018
Types of Screens
Screening
Coarse Screens (Bar racks or Bar Screens) Fine Screens Micro Screens
6 to 150 mm < 6mm < 0.5 µm
Hand Mechanically Static wedgewire Drum Step

cleaned cleaned
Chain driven Reciprocating Rake Catenary Continuous Belt
Source : Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, p: 315; Metcalf &Eddy, 2003
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 15
Coarse Screens
o Coarse screens, usually bar screens or bar racks
and sometimes used in conjunction with
comminuting devices, have clear openings
ranging from 6 ‐ 150 mm (0.25 ‐ 6 in).
o They serve more as protective devices,

specifically used to remove rags and large objects
that might damage other appurtenances.
o A bar screen is composed of vertical or inclined

bars spaced at equal intervals with relatively large
openings of approx. 25 mm (may be in the range
of 15 mm to 40 mm) across the channel through
which wastewater flows. Image Sources : https://aosts.com/types‐wastewater‐screening/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 16
8
27‐08‐2018
Coarse Screen: Bar Racks
Image Sources : https://www.aboutcivil.org/preliminary‐treatment‐process‐of‐waste‐water.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 17
Coarse Screen: Cleaning

o Bar screens are usually hand cleaned, and sometimes
provided with mechanical devices.
o These cleaning devices are rakes which periodically
sweep the entire screen removing the solids for further
processing or disposal. Some mechanical cleaners utilize
chains/cables to move the rake through screen openings.
Screenings are raked to a platform with perforations
which permits the drainage of water back to the unit.
o Hand cleaned racks are set usually at an angle of 450 to
increase the effective cleaning surface.
o Mechanically cleaned racks are generally erected almost
vertically. Such bar screens have openings 25% in excess Image Sources:
of the cross section of the sewage channel. Their area is http://www.astim.web.tr/urunler.php?kat_1=6512bd43d9ca
a6e02c990b0a82652dca&kat_2=c9f0f895fb98ab9159f51fd0
usually half of that required for hand raked screens. 297e236d&kat_3=d3d9446802a44259755d38e6d163e820
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 18
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27‐08‐2018
Medium Screens
o Medium bar screens have clear openings of around 12 mm. Bars are usually
10 mm thick on the upstream side and taper slightly to the downstream
side.
o These mechanically raked units are used before all pumps or treatment
units such as the stabilization ponds. The bars used for the screens are
rectangular in cross‐section usually about 10 mm × 50 mm and are placed
with the larger dimension parallel to the flow. A weir on the side of the
screen may be used as an overflow bypass.
Sources : CPHEEO (2012) Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Part A: Engineering
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 19
Fine Screens
o Fine screens are mechanically cleaned devices
using perforated plates, woven wire cloth or
closely spaced bars with clear openings of
typically less than 6 mm (Commonly available in
the opening size ranging from 0.035 to 6 mm).
o Fine screens are generally used for pre‐treatment

of industrial wastes to remove materials which
tend to produce excessive scum or foam.
o Fine screens are not normally suitable for sewage

because of the clogging possibilities.
o Fine screens may be of the drum or disc type, Image Sources : https://engineeringcivil.org/articles/environmental‐
engineering/wastewater‐screening‐classification‐screens‐complete‐list‐
mechanically cleaned and continuously operated. wastewater‐treatment/attachment/perforated‐fine‐screen‐water‐online/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 20
10
27‐08‐2018
Micro Screens
o Not used as preliminary treatment,
but suspended solids are removed
using micro screens from secondary
effluent and stabilizing pond
effluent.
o Not very popular due to

disadvantages including improper
removal of solids and inefficiency in
handling solids fluctuations. Image Sources : http://www.huber.co.uk/products/screens‐and‐fine‐
screens/ultra‐fine‐screens.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 21
Comminuting Devices (Grinder)

o A comminuting device is a mechanically
cleaned screen that shred the coarse solid
materials and return these materials into the
wastewater flow.
o These devices cut the retained solids, thus
enabling them to pass along with the sewage.
The solids from the comminuting devices may
lead to more scum in the digester.
o They are recommended for smaller sized STPs Image Sources : https://franklinmiller.com/white‐
papers/grinders‐shredders‐comminutors‐evolving‐technology/
of up to 1 MLD.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 22
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27‐08‐2018
Location and Housing of Screens

o Screening devices are usually located where they are readily accessible as it
requires frequent inspection and maintenance. Where screens are placed in
deep pits or channels, it is necessary to provide sufficiently wide approaches
from the top and ample working space for easy access and maintenance.
o The screen chamber to house the screening equipment depends on the type
of equipment and the climatic conditions. Screen house (chamber) can be
omitted for hand cleaned screens if climatic conditions are not severe.
o Mechanically cleaned screens generally need suitable housing to protect the
equipment, and ensure proper operation. Ventilation of the housing is
necessary to prevent moisture accumulation and corrosive atmosphere.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 23
Hydraulics of Screens
o Screens are provided to remove the materials which would impede the flow
in the treatment plant. Hence, continuous cleaning arrangement can keep
the interference of the solid materials to a minimum.
o On the other hand, periodic cleaning arrangements may cause surges of high
flow after cleaning.
o Usually, the base of the screen is placed a few centimeters below the invert
of the base channel and the grade of the influent conduit is steepened
immediately preceding the screen.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 24
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27‐08‐2018
Velocity through the Screens

o The velocity through the screen should be such that maximum amount of
screenings (preferably 100%) are retained without undue deposition.
o Velocities of 0.6 to 1.2 m/s through the open area for the peak flows have
been used satisfactorily. The velocity should not be less than 0.3 m/s to
prevent the deposition of solids.
o A velocity of 0.8 m/s is appropriate for considerable amounts of storm water
while preventing grit decomposition at the bottom of the screen
o A straight channel succeeding the screen assures good velocity distribution
across the screen and maximum effectiveness of the device.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 25
Head Loss through the Screens

o Head loss depends on the quantity and nature of screenings accumulated.
o Head loss can be calculated using the following formula:
.
where:
is the head loss in meters.
is the velocity through the screens in meters/second.
is the before the screen in meters/second.
The value of is usually 0.15 and should not exceed 0.3 for clogged hand screen.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 26
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27‐08‐2018

o Another approach to determine head loss through a bar rack is by Kirschmer’s equation:
Types of bars/screens Values

of
where:
Sharp edged rectangular bar 2.42
h is the head loss in meters. Rectangular bar with semicircle 1.83
is the bar shape factor. upstream
Circular bar 1.79
is the maximum width of bar facing the flow in meters.
Rectangular bar with both u/s 1.67
is the minimum clear spacing between bars in meters. and d/s face as semi‐circular
is the velocity head of flow approaching rack in meters and is calculated as:
is the angle of inclination of rack with the horizontal. Sources : CPHEEO (2012) Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Part A: Engineering
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 27

o For fine screens head loss is given by:
where:
• is the discharge in ⁄
• is the coefficient of discharge (usually taken as 0.6)
• is the effective submerged open area in .
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 28
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Disposal of Screening
o The quantity of screening varies depending on the type of screen as well as
sewer system and its characteristics. Quantity of screening removed by bar
screen mostly ranges between 0.0035 to 0.0375 m3 / 1000 m3 of wastewater
treated, with an approximate typical value of 0.015 m3/1000 m3 of
wastewater.
o Screenings is usually disposed off along with municipal solid waste on
sanitary landfill. It can also be brought back to the wastewater after passing
it through grinders or disintegrator pumps. Other options include
incinerating (for large sewage treatment plant) or burring at the plant site
(for smaller plants).
Source : Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, p: 315; Metcalf &Eddy, 2003
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 29

Wastewater Treatment Units: Grit Removal and Equalization
Week 5- Lecture 25

IIT KHARAGPUR
30
15
27‐08‐2018
Grit Removal
o Grit chamber is usually the second unit operation intended
to remove grit from the wastewater.
o Grit is the heaviest material in wastewater and includes
substances such as sand, coffee grounds, gravel, cinders etc.
(specific gravity between 2.4‐2.65, much higher than organic solids).
o Grit removal is necessary to protect the moving mechanical
equipment and pump elements from abrasion and abnormal
wear and tear. Removal of grit also reduces the frequency of
cleaning of digesters and settling tanks.
o Grit is non‐putrescible and possesses a higher hydraulic
subsidence value than organic solids, therefore can be
separated from organic solids by differential sedimentation Image Source :
in a grit chamber and sedimentation tank. https://water.me.vccs.edu/concepts/stoverview.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 31
Grit Removal
o Both quality and quantity of grit varies depending upon:
Types of street surfaces encountered Relative areas served

Types of inlets and catch basins Climatic conditions
Construction and condition of sewer system Sewer grades
Ground and ground water characteristics Industrial wastes
Amount of storm water diverted through over flows points Social habits
Night soil and other solids admitting to sewers (through dumping chutes or pail depots)
o This is usually limited to municipal wastewater and generally not required for industrial
effluent treatment plant, except some industrial wastewaters which may have grit.
Source : CPHEEO (2012) Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Part A: Engineering
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Grit Chamber: Types and Classification

o In a Grit Chamber, the wastewater passes into a wide basin, which slows the wastewater's
velocity. The slower flow causes grit to settle out.
o There are various types of Grit Chamber, depending on flow and design:
As per CPHEEO Manual: As per Metcalf &Eddy (2003): As per EPA fact sheet:
i. Velocity controlled V shaped i. Horizontal Flow Grit Chamber‐ i. Aerated Grit Chambers
longish grit channels of rectangular or square ii. Vortex Type (paddle or jet
ii. Square shaped chambers configuration. induced vortex) grit removal
with entry and exit on ii. Aerated Grit Chamber – system
opposite sites and mild selective removal of grit with iii. Detritus tank (short term
hopper spiral flow aeration tank sedimentation basins)
iii. Vortex type conical chambers iii. Vortex Type Grit Chambers‐ iv. Horizontal flow grit chambers
where the centrifugal action cylindrical tank with centrifugal (velocity controlled)
plummets the grit to the and gravitational forces as the v. Hydrocyclones (cyclonic inertial
bottom cause of separation. separation)
Sources : CPHEEO (2012) Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Part A: Engineering; Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, p: 315; Metcalf &Eddy, 2003;
https://www3.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/final_sgrit_removal.pdf
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Design of Grit Chamber

o Variations of sewage on hourly basis and typical values of minimum, average and peak
flows and the flow through velocity are essential for design of grit chambers.
o The Grit chamber can be designed considering it as a sedimentation basin and the grit as
discrete particles settling at their own settling velocities, which depends on the size and
specific gravity of the grit particles and viscosity of the sewage.
o As per CPHEEO Manual, the minimum size of grit is 0.2 mm with a preferable range of 0.10
to 0.15 mm while the specific gravity of the grit particles for design is 2.65.
o The settling velocity for discrete particles is given by the general equation (Transition Law):
, • is the settling velocity in ⁄
• is the Newton coefficient of
.
• is the acceleration due to gravity in ⁄
Drag, approximated as . • is the mass density of the grit particle in ⁄
• is the Reynolds Number (from 1 • is the mass density of the liquid in ⁄
to 1000) • is the size of the particle in
Sources : CPHEEO (2012) Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Part A: Engineering; Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, p: 315; Metcalf &Eddy, 2003
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o The settling velocity for particles with Reynolds Number < 1 is given by Stoke’s Law:
where,
• is the settling velocity in ⁄
• is the acceleration due to gravity in ⁄
• is the mass density of the grit particle in ⁄
• is the mass density of the liquid in ⁄
= • is the size of the particle in
• is the kinematic viscosity of the sewage in ⁄
• is the specific gravity of the grit particles (dimensionless)
o When particle size exceeds 1 mm and Reynolds number is above 1000, is assumed to be
.
0.4, and the settling velocity is given by Newton’s Law: .
o The settling velocity may also be given by Hazen’s modified equation for grit particles in
the transition zone, as: where,
• and are measured in ⁄ and respectively, and
. • T is the temperature in .
Sources : CPHEEO (2012) Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Part A: Engineering; Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, p: 315; Metcalf &Eddy, 2003
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o The efficiency of an ideal settling basin is expressed as the ratio of the settling velocity of
the particles to be removed ( ) to the Surface Overflow Rate ( ): = /
o The surface overflow rate (SOR, ) is the ratio of the flow of sewage to be treated in an
ideal settling tank to the plan area of the tank, i.e., / and is equivalent to the settling
velocity of the particles removed completely in an ideal settling tank.
o The surface areas for the grit chamber is calculated on the basis of the SOR taken as critical
settling velocity for the desired particle size removal.
Settling velocities and surface overflow rates for ideal grit chamber at 100C
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o In practice, the SOR should be diminished to account for the non‐ideal basin performance
due to turbulence and short‐circuiting resulting from eddy, wind and density currents. For a
real basin with a indicated efficiency of grit removal and basin performance, surface area
could be determined from: where,
• η : Desired efficiency of removal of grit particle
η = 1 – [1+nvs / (Q/A)] -1/n • vs : Settling velocity of minimum size of grit particle to be removed
• Q/A : Design surface over flow rate applicable for grit chamber to be designed
• n : An index which is a measured the basin performance.
[n are 1/8, 1/4, 1/2 and 1 for very good, good, poor and very poor performance]
o To achieve 75% removal efficiency in grit chamber, design SOR (= Q/A) will be 66.67%,
58.8%, 50% and 33.3% of the settling velocity of the grit particles to be removed with very
good, good, poor and very poor tank performance respectively. In practice, values of two
thirds to one half are used in design depending upon the type of the grit chamber.
o Typically, at average flow, detention time in a grit chamber should not exceed 60 seconds.
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o The optimum velocity of flow through the grit chamber also depends on the scouring
process. The critical velocity for scour (vc) beyond which particles of a certain size and
density once settled, may be again placed in motion and reintroduced into the stream, may
be calculated from modified Shields’ formula:
vc = Kc √(g(Ss -1)d) where Kc = 3 to 4.5 (a value of 4.0 is usually adopted for grit particles).
o There should be min. two units of manually cleaned grit chambers, while for mechanically
cleaned chambers, a manually cleaned chamber should be provided as a by pass.
o For velocity controlled grit chambers, head loss varies from 0.06 m to 0.6 m depending on
the device used for velocity control.
o Depending on the interval of clearing, additional depth for storage of grit shall be provided.
Further, a free board of 150 to 300 mm is recommended. Bottom slopes are based on the
type of scraper mechanism used.
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Clearing of the Grit

o Grits can be removed manually or mechanically, however manual clearing should be
avoided except in the case of very small STPs (< 1 MLD) where velocity controlled channels
can be cleared by the operator using a shovel.
o In mechanical clearing, equipments are provided for collection as well as washing of grit
(mostly by agitation mechanisms), and can be operated on either a continuous or
intermittent basis.
o The settled grit on the floor is collected by scrapper blades or ploughs and elevated to the
ground level by various mechanisms such as bucket elevators, jet pump, screws and air lift.
o In intermittently (normally once or twice a day) operated type, sufficient storage capacity
to hold the grit between intervals of grit elevation should be provided.
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Disposal of Grit
o Clean grit is odourless and may be disposed by dumping
or burying or by sanitary landfill.
o If not washed, grit particles may contain organic matter

which adds odour and is not suitable for disposal.
o However, the ultimate method of disposal depends on

the quantity and other characteristics of the particles
and further on the availability of the land for dumping
or burial.
o The odorous grit particles are preferably buried, unless

washed. Image Source : https://www.evcsl.com/industrial‐
services/cdenviro‐dmax‐mobile‐grit‐screenings‐separation‐unit
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Equalization Tank (Optional)

o For domestic and industrial wastewater streams with significant variations in
wastewater flow and/or characteristics, equalization tank is provided to ensure
consistent flow and quality of influent to the subsequent treatment units, thereby
avoiding hydraulic or organic shock loading.
o It is often not needed when the inflow source and quantity does not vary significantly,
such as large STPs.
o The objectives of providing equalization tank includes:

 to balance fluctuating flows or concentrations,
 to assist self neutralization, or
 to even out the effect of a periodic "slug" discharge from a batch process
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Equalization Tank: Benefits

o Shock loading eliminated or minimized, hence biological processes are enhanced.
o Effluent from biological treatment have better quality and improved thickening.
o Effluent filtration surface area requirements are reduced with improved filter
performance and more uniform filter back‐wash cycles.
o In chemical treatment, chemical feed control and process reliability are improved due
to damping of mass loading.
o Provides protection against higher level of toxic loads.
o Risk of plant failures are reduced.
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Equalization Tank: Design Considerations

o Generally of three types:
o Flow through type
o Intermittent flow type
o Variable inflow/constant discharge type
Image Source : https://www.aireo2.com/en/applications/equalization‐basin/
o The optimum location of the equalization tank varies according to collection system,
wastewater to be handled, land requirements and availability and type of treatment
required.
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IIT KHARAGPUR 43
Equalization Tank: Design Considerations

o Volume Requirements for the
Equalization Basin are obtained from
an inflow cumulative volume diagram
where cumulative inflow volume is
plotted against the time of the day.
Typical wastewater treatment plant incorporating in‐line flow equalization
Source: Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
o Other factors considered for design
include:
o Basin geometry,
o Basin construction,
o Mixing and air requirements,
o Operational appurtenances and
Typical wastewater treatment plant incorporating off‐line flow equalization
o Pumping systems. Source: Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Metcalf & Eddy, 2003
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Wastewater Treatment Units: Primary Sedimentation
Week 5- Lecture 26

IIT KHARAGPUR
45
Primary Sedimentation in Wastewater Treatment
Image Source : https://www.lenntech.com/wwtp/wwtp‐overview.htm
o After removal of larger floating and suspended materials (through screening) and heavier
grit materials (in grit chamber), the wastewater is typically directed to Primary Clarifier
(Sedimentation) for the removal of suspended organics as well as finer inorganic solids.
o Sedimentation is essentially a phase separation operation for separating liquid and

solids.
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Sedimentation / Settling / Clarification

To settle out the suspended materials due to gravity. Suspended material may be:
o The particles originally present in source waters, such as clay or silts.

Plain (or primary) Settling
o The flocs created through coagulation‐flocculation process

Chemical added settling (coagulant assisted settling)
o Biomass produced in biological treatment units (wastewater treatment)

Secondary Settling
Settling is accomplished by decreasing the velocity of water to a point below which it no

longer supports the transport of the particles, therefore gravity removes them from the flow.
47
Types of Settling
o TYPE I ‐ Discrete (or Free) settling: The particles settle without interaction and
occurs under low solids concentration. A typical occurrence of this type of
settling is the removal of sand particles.
o TYPE II ‐ Flocculent settling: This is defined as a condition where particles initially

settle independently, but flocculate in the depth of the clarification unit. The
velocity of settling particles are usually increasing as the particles aggregates.
The mechanisms of flocculent settling are not well understood.
o TYPE III ‐ Hindered (or Zone) settling: Inter‐particle forces are sufficient to hinder
the settling of neighbouring particles. The particles tend to remain in a fixed
positions with respect to each others. This type of settling is typical in the settler
for the activated sludge process (secondary clarifier).
o TYPE IV ‐ Compression settling: This occurs when the particle concentration is so

high that so that particles at one level are mechanically influenced by particles Image Source :
A Numerical Model of Flow and Settling in
on lower levels. The settling velocity then drastically reduces. Sedimentation Tanks in Potable Water
Source : http://www.it.uu.se/research/project/jass/material/sett98.pdf Treatment Plants. Ph.D. Thesis by A. H. Ghawi
48
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Sedimentation Theory
Forces acting on a particle under discrete settling:
FB
Gravity Force = m.g = ρp.(πd3/6) .g FD FD
Buoyancy Force =mw.g = ρw.(πd3/6) .g
Drag Force: =(1/2) ρvs2. CD.A
Force balance (at Steady State):

Gravity Force ‐ Buoyancy Force = Drag Force
For spherical particle under laminar flow conditions (CD = 24/Re , and Re = ρvd/µ): FG
vs = g(ρp‐ρw)d2/18µ
For transition flow conditions (CD = 24/Re + 3/Re1/2 + 0.34):
49
Sedimentation Theory
Ideal settling of discrete particle
Assumptions
 The flow is laminar flow.
 Impurities particles are
evenly distributed on the
whole area of the tank
 The case of entrance and
exit does not affect the
sedimentation efficiency
 The settled particles Image Source : http://www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/myounes/uploads/course%20materials/Sanitary/part%20iv.pdf
does not resuspended
50
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Sedimentation Basin Zones

Inlet zone
o The inlet or influent zone should provide a smooth transition of water and should
distribute the flow uniformly across the inlet to the tank.
o The normal design includes baffles that gently spread the flow across the total inlet of the
tank and prevent short circuiting in the tank.
o The baffle could include a wall across the inlet, perforated with holes across the width of
the tank.
Settling Zone
o The settling zone is the largest portion of the sedimentation basin.
o This zone provides the calm area necessary for the suspended particles to settle.
51
Sedimentation Basin Zones

Sludge zone
o Located at the bottom of the tank, provides a storage area for the sludge before it is
removed for additional treatment or disposal.
o High flow velocities near the sludge zone should be minimized.
o Sludge is removed for further treatment from the sludge zone by scraper or vacuum
devices which move along the bottom.
Outlet Zone
o The basin outlet zone or launder should provide a smooth transition from the
sedimentation zone to the outlet from the tank.
o This area of the tank also controls the depth of water in the basin.
o Weirs are set at the end of the tank to control the overflow rate and prevent the solids
from leaving the tank before they settle out.
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Sedimentation Basin Types

Intermittent and Continuous Types:
o The intermittent tanks, also called quiescent type tanks, are those which store water for a
certain period and keep it in complete rest.
o In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only reduced and the water is not
brought to complete rest as is done in an intermittent type.
Rectangular or Circular Types:

o Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan.
o Long narrow rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are generally preferred to the circular
tanks with radial or spiral flow.
Source : https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105104102/Lecture%206.htm
53
Sedimentation Basin Types

Intermittently and Continuous Types:
o The intermittent tanks, also called quiescent type tanks, are those which store water for a
certain period and keep it in complete rest.
o In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only reduced and the water is not
brought to complete rest as is done in an intermittent type.
Rectangular or Circular Types:

o Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan.
o Long narrow rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are generally preferred to the circular
tanks with radial or spiral flow.
Source : https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105104102/Lecture%206.htm
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Wastewater Treatment Units: Primary Sedimentation
Week 5- Lecture 27

IIT KHARAGPUR
55
Rectangular Sedimentation Basin
Image Source : http://www.thewatertreatments.com/wastewater‐sewage‐treatment/zones‐

sedimentation‐basin/
Image Source : http://www.orazio.it/index.php/sedimentation‐tank‐design‐parameters/
Image Source : Fair and Geyer, Water Supply and Wastewater Disposal, McGraw Hill, 1964
56
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Circular Sedimentation Basin
Image Source : http://www.thewatertreatments.com/wastewater‐sewage‐treatment/zones‐

sedimentation‐basin/
Image Source : https://theconstructor.org/environmental‐engg/types‐of‐sedimentation‐

tank/14711/
Image Source : Fair and Geyer, Water Supply and Wastewater Disposal, McGraw Hill, 1964
57
Settling Model
Consider a particle of dia d, which is just removed with a settling velocity of vs. in a settling
basin of size V = l*b*h. In that case:
vs = h/t = h/(V/Q) = (h*Q)/(l*b*h) = Q/(l*b) = Q/A
where:
t = detention time = V/Q
A = surface area of the basin = l*b
vs = settling velocity of the particle
The volume of water flowing in a unit time per unit surface area of the settling basin is
known as Surface Overflow Rate (or Overflow Rate). Flow Rate (m3 / s)
OverflowRate 
vo = Q/A (m3/m2/s). settling surface area (m2 )
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Settling Model
o If a particle is settling with vertical speed vs, its vertical fall over the
length of the tank will be: h = vs*t
o Further, a Critical Settling Speed (vc) can be defined for which all
particles of specific diameter get just collected. So, the vertical fall (h)
in time t would be equal to the depth of the settling basin (H).
vc = H/t = H/(V/Q)= Q/A = vo (equal to overflow rate)
o For the particle selling with speed vs faster than vc, h ≥ H and all such
particles get collected leading to 100% collection efficiency.
o For particles settling with speed vs slower than vc, h < H and particle
may or may not hit the bottom, depending on the level at which it
enter the basin. In such case, the collection efficiency = h/H (= vs/vc).
Image Source : http://www.dartmouth.edu/~cushman/courses/engs37/Settling.pdf
59
Settling Velocity Distribution

o The sizes of the numerous particles present in the wastewater is not essentially same, and a large gradation of
particle sizes are typically observed in the most wastewater suspensions. In order to determine the removal
efficiency of sediments, it is necessary to consider entire range of particles having different settling velocities.
o The distribution of settling velocity for a water or wastewater

suspension can be determined from a column settling test, and
a velocity settling curve may be constructed based on the data.
o For a given flow rate Q, particles having vs ≥ vc (= Q/A, or vo)

will be completely removed, while remaining particles will be
removed in the ration of vs / vc .
o The total fraction of particles removed η

where, is fraction of particles with vs ≥ vc
And, is removed fraction of particles with vs < vc Source : Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, p: 315; Metcalf &Eddy, 2003
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Discrete or Flocculent Settling

o For real settling basins, the assumptions of ideal discrete
particle settling may not hold true, as suspended particles in
water or wastewater exhibit a natural tendency to
agglomerate. Particularly in wastewaters, the suspended
solids are not usually discrete particles and various light and
small particles agglomerate and grow in size as they come
in contact. Such flocculation leads to Flocculent or Type II
sedimentation where the mass of the particles increases
and they settle faster. Due to the flocculated settling, the
sediments removal efficiency is increased.
o However, the models to describe such settling

mathematically, are absent. Settling-column analysis is
usually performed to determine the settling characteristics
of flocculated particles. Source : http://kuliah.ftsl.itb.ac.id/wp‐content/uploads/2016/10/Sedimentasi.pdf
61
Settling Basin Efficiency

o Similar to that of Grit Chamber, the efficiency of real settling basin is reduced to account
for the non‐ideal basin performance due to turbulence and short‐circuiting resulting from
eddy, wind and density currents. The efficiency of a real basin is given as:
where,
η = 1 – [1+nvs / (Q/A)] -1/n • η : Desired efficiency of removal of sediment particle
• vs : Settling velocity of minimum size of particle to be removed
• Q/A : Design surface over flow rate for the sedimentation basin
• n : An index which is a measured the basin performance.
o The value of n is chosen as 0 for the best possible performance, 1/8 for very good
performance, 1/4 for good performance, 1/2 for poor performance and 1 for very poor
performance.
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Factors Affecting Sedimentation

o Shape, Size, Density and Nature of particles
o Viscosity, density and temperature of water
o Surface overflow rate
o Velocity of flow
o Inlet and outlet arrangements
o Detention period
o Effective depth of settling zone
63
Design of Primary Clarifier

 Step 1: Compute critical settling velocity (for the smallest size particle to be removed).
 Step 2: Equate critical settling velocity to overflow rate incorporating basin efficiency,
and compute surface area.
 Step 3: Fix the dimensions (length and width, or dia), and select an appropriate
depth/detention time.
 Step 4: Checks for the adequacy of design criteria (overflow rate, depth detention time,
solid loading rate, weir loading, scouring velocity etc.).
 Step 5: Design inlet, outlet and sludge withdrawal arrangement.
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Recommended Design Parameters
Source: CPHEEO (2012) Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Part A: Engineering
65
Recommended Dimensions of Sedimentation Basin

Description Dimensions
Range Typical
______________________________________________________
Rectangular
Depth, m 3-5 3.5
Length, m 15-90 25-40
Width, m 3-24 6-10
Circular
Diameter, m 4-60 12-45
Depth, m 3-5 4.5
As per CPHEEO Bottom Slope, mm/m 60-160 80
______________________________________________________
Rectangular: Tank dimensions: L:B = 3 to 5:1.
Length = 30 m (common) maximum 100 m; Width= 6 to 10 m.
Circular: Diameter not greater than 60 m. generally 20 to 40 m.
Depth: 2.5 to 5.0 m (3 m).
Bottom Slopes: Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular 8%.
Source: CPHEEO (1999) Manual on Water Supply and Treatment Systems
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Inlet and Outlet Arrangements

Typical Inlet Designs Typical Outlet Designs
Sources: CPHEEO (1999) Manual on Water Supply and Treatment Systems; https://esemag.com/wastewater/improving‐wastewater‐optimization‐through‐flow‐distribution/ ;
http://www.orazio.it/index.php/sedimentation‐tank‐design‐parameters/
67
Alternates to Sedimentation Tanks

Plate and Tube Settlers (Lamella Clarifier):
 Water flows up through slanted tubes or along slanted plates,
and particles settles out in the tubes or plates and drifts back
down into the lower portions of the sedimentation basin.
 Clarified water passes through the tubes or between the plates

and then flows out of the basin.
 These are compact units and therefore usually requiring only 65‐
80 % of the area of conventional clarifiers. Also energy inputs
are lower due to absence of mechanical or moving parts.
 High chances of clogging, and therefore regular maintenance is

needed.
Image Source: http://www.thewatertreatments.com/wastewater‐sewage‐treatment/clariflocculator/
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Plate and Tube Settlers
Image Sources: https://www.pvccoolingfill.com/products/lamella‐clarifier‐inclined‐tube‐settler.html; https://www.brentwoodindustries.com/water‐wastewater‐

products/tube‐settlers/; https://www.ovivowater.com/fr/application/municipal/municipal‐drinking‐water/clarification‐sedimentation‐2/inclined‐plate‐separator/
69
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35
Supplementary material for week 5
Q. 1.
Finding the terminal settling velocity of a sphere in water: Find the terminal settling velocity of spherical
particle with diameter 0.5 mm and specific gravity of 2.65 settling through water at 20ᴼC.
Solution:
i. Assuming laminar flow, with
𝜌𝑤 = 998.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑠
𝜇 = 1.002 × 10−3 𝑁. 2 𝑎𝑡 20℃
𝑚
The terminal velocity from the Stokes equation is given by,
𝑔(𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌𝑤 )𝑑2
𝑣𝑡 =
18𝜇
9.81𝑚/𝑠(2650 − 998.2)𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × (5.0 × 10−4 )2 𝑚2

𝑣𝑡 =
18 × 1.002 × 10−3 𝑁. 𝑠/𝑚2
𝑣𝑡 = 0.22 𝑚/𝑠
ii. Checking Reynolds number:
𝑣𝑡 ∅𝜌𝑤 𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
𝑚
0.22 × 5.0 × 10−4 × 998.2𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑠
1.002 × 10−3 𝑁. 𝑠/𝑚2
𝑅𝑒 = 112
Which indicates transitional flow
iii. The Coefficient of drag is given by
24 3
𝐶𝐷 = + + 0.34
112 1121/2
𝐶𝐷 = 0.84
iv.
4 (2650 − 998.2)
𝑣𝑡 2 = × 9.81 × × 5.0 × 10−4
3 0.84 × 998.2
𝑣𝑡 = 0.11 𝑚/𝑠
With 𝑣𝑡 = 0.11, repeat steps ii, iii, and iv
Re = 55, CD = 1.18, vt = 0.10 m/s
Q. 2.
A grit chamber is designed to remove particles with a diameter of 0.2 mm, specific gravity 2.65. Settling
velocities for these particles range between 0.016 m/s to 0.022 m/s. A flow-through velocity of 0.3 m/s
will be maintained by a proportioning weir. Determine the dimensions of the grit chamber for a maximum
wastewater flow of 10,000 m3/day.
Solution:
For the problem, let us assume a rectangular cross-section, Ax with depth (d) = 1.5 × width (w) of maximum
flow, i.e. Ax = w × 1.5w = 1.5 w2 – Eq 1.
We know, Ax = Q/vh = 10,000/0.3 (Convert numerator and denominator into same units)
= 0.39 m2
Using Eq 1., w = 0.51 m and depth, d = 0.76 m
Let us assume a settling velocity of, vt = 0.019 m/s (Average of the range, 0.016 m/s to 0.022 m/s)
Therefore, the detention time for the grit chamber, td = d/ vt = 0.76/0.019 = 40 s
Therefore, the length of the grit chamber, L = td × vh = 40 s × 0.3 m/s = 12 m
i.e. the design dimensions of the grit chamber, L = 12 m, w = 0.51 m, d = 0.76 m
Q. 3.
A settling analysis is run on a type -1 suspension. The column is 1.8 m deep and the concentration vs. time
data is mentioned in the table below.
Time
0 60 80 100 130 200 240 420
(min)
Conc.
300 189 180 168 156 111 78 27
(mg/L)
What will be the theoretical removal efficiency in a settling basin with a loading rate of 25 m3/m2/day?
Solution:
Step 1: From the tabulated data, mass fraction remaining and settling velocity is calculated.
Consider C0 = 300
Time
60 80 100 130 200 240 420
(min)
Conc. C1
189 180 168 156 111 78 27
(mg/L)
Mass
fraction 0.63 0.60 0.56 0.52 0.37 0.26 0.09
remaining
Vt × 102
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.55 1.0 0.83 0.48
m/min
Step 2: Plot mass fraction remaining vs. settling velocity
Step 3: Given value of vo = 25 m3/m2/day = 1.74 × 10-2 m/min
Step 4: Determine x0 from graph = 54 % (approximately)
Step 5: Determine Δx.vt, by graphical integration
Δx vt Δx.vt
0.06 1.50 0.09
0.06 1.22 0.07
0.10 1.00 0.10
0.10 0.85 0.09
0.10 0.70 0.07
0.06 0.48 0.03
0.06 0.16 0.01
Σ Δx. vt = 0.46
𝛥𝑥.𝑣𝑡
Step 5: Determine overall removal efficiency, X = 1 – x0 +Σ = 0.54 + 0.46/1.74 = 0.72
𝑣𝑜
= 72 %
29‐08‐2018

Secondary Treatment Processes: Introduction to Biological Treatment of Wastewater
Week 6- Lecture 28

IIT KHARAGPUR
Secondary Treatment of Wastewater
Image Source : http://techalive.mtu.edu/meec/module21/WhattoRemove‐WW.htm
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 2
1
29‐08‐2018
Secondary Treatment of Wastewater

o After removal of the floating and settleable impurities in preliminary and primary
treatment, the removal of organic matter is targeted in the secondary treatment
steps.
o Biological treatment processes, which rely on the ability of microorganism to

decompose the soluble (and suspended) organic matter, are commonly used all over
the world for the secondary treatment of domestic as well as industrial wastewaters.
o There are several biological reactors are available in different configurations, which are
used either in single stage or in multi stage for the removal of organic matters from
wastewater.
o Although physico‐chemical alternatives to biological treatment are also available, those

are rarely used owing to their higher cost and energy footprints.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Types of Microorganisms
Nutritional Requirements: Autotrophic (CO2 , Heterotrophic, or Mixotrophic
or HCO3‐)
Energy Requirements: Phototrophs or Chemotrophs
Temperature Range: Psychrophilic: within 15 to 30°C

Mesophilic: within 30 to 45°C
Thermophilic: within 45 to 70°C.
Oxygen Requirements: Obligate Aerobic (Aerobes): In the presence of oxygen

Obligate Anaerobic (Anaerobes): In the absence of oxygen
Facultative: Works in either conditions
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 4
2
29‐08‐2018
Basics of Biological Processes in Wastewater Treatment

o Removal of organic matter (carbon) present in wastewater is achieved along with
nutrients such as nitrogenous and phosphate rich compounds, with the help of
microorganisms.
o Microorganisms uptake the soluble organic carbon and nutrients in wastewater and
generate new cells which gradually settle down as sludge. In the process, part of
organic carbon is converted into gas.
o It involves a sequence of steps including mass transfer, adsorption, absorption and

biochemical enzymatic reactions
o Two distinct metabolic phases:

o Respiration (catabolism) and
o Synthesis (anabolism)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Basics of Biological Processes: Metabolism

o Metabolism refers to the utilization of the organic material, either as a source of energy
or as a source of matter for the synthesis of cellular mass.
o When organic material is used as an energy source, it is transferred into stable end
products, the process is known as catabolism.
o When organic material is transformed and incorporated into cell mass, it is known as
anabolism.
o Anabolism is an energy consuming process and it is only possible if catabolism occurs at

the same time to supply the energy needed for the synthesis of the cellular matter.
o The processes of catabolism and anabolism are interdependent, however their

occurrence is simultaneous.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 6
3
29‐08‐2018
Biological Treatment Process: Respiration

Aerobic respiration
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor for the
oxidation
Anaerobic respiration (mixed system)
C6H12O6 + 4 H2O → 2 CH3COO− + 2 HCO3− + 4 H+ +
4 H + energy
CH3COOH → CH4 + CO2 + energy
SO42‐, NO2‐, NO3‐, CO2 and organic compounds acts as
an electron acceptor
Metabolic end products of the respiration are true
inorganics like CO2, H2O, NH3 and H2S
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 7

o Energy derived from the respiration are used by the microorganisms to synthesize new
cells and cell components through enzyme catalyzed reactions.
o Heterotrophic microorganisms derive energy required for cell synthesis exclusively through
oxidation of organic matter and autotrophic microorganisms derive the energy for
synthesis either from the inorganic substances (chemoautotrophs) or from photosynthesis
(photoautotrophs).
o Energy is also required by the microorganisms for maintenance of their life activities.
o In the absence of any suitable external substrate, the microorganisms derive this energy
through the oxidation of their own protoplasm. Such a process is known as endogenous
respiration (or decay).
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 8
4
29‐08‐2018
o Metabolic end products of the endogenous respiration are same as that in primary
respiration.
o The metabolic processes in both aerobic and anaerobic processes are almost similar, the
yield of energy in an aerobic process, using oxygen as electron acceptor, is much higher
than in anaerobic condition.
o This is the reason why the aerobic systems liberates more energy and thus produce more
new cells than the anaerobic systems.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Principles of Biological Wastewater Treatment

o Under suitable environmental conditions soluble organics in presence of micro‐organisms
undergoes oxidation (aerobic or anaerobic) generating gasses, few metabolites and new
cells.
o New cells agglomerate together to form sludge, which eventually settle down owing to
higher specific gravity than water.
o Biological treatment systems typically have two stages viz. biological reactor for reaction
and sedimentation tank.
o The rate of substrate utilization and growth in cell mass depend upon environmental
conditions and the type of reactor employed in the process, viz. Batch and Continuous
process.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 10
5
29‐08‐2018

Biological Treatment of Wastewater: Microbial Growth and its Kinetics
Week 6- Lecture 29

IIT KHARAGPUR
11
Microbial Growth
o In the presence of food (carbon source),
nutrients and appropriate physiological
conditions, microorganisms grow (multiply,
leading to increase in the number of active
cells)
o The growth requirement may vary from

species to species.
o Maintaining the appropriate quantity of

active microbial mass (biomass) is essential
for biological treatment of wastewater.
Image Source : http://generalbacteriology.weebly.com/bacterial‐growth.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 12
6
29‐08‐2018
Microbial Growth: Requirements

Nutritional Requirements For Microbial Growth
 Carbon source: For metabolism and synthesis of new cells –

Depends on type and nature of microbes.
 Minerals: Principle elements – N, S, P, K, Mg, Ca, Fe, Na, etc.

Trace elements – Zn, Mn, Mo, Se, Co, Ni, Cu, etc.
 COD : N : P ratio: 100:10:1‐5 (for aerobic);

350:5:1 (for anaerobic)
The nutrient requirement is lower for anaerobic process due to

lower growth rate of microorganisms as compared to aerobic
process. Image Source : Fundamentals of Microbiology, by Pommerville
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 13

Carbon and Energy Sources
Image Source : Microbiology, by Robert W. Bauman
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 14
7
29‐08‐2018

Temperature
o Temperature controls the rate of biochemical
reactions and the integrity of protein structures,
therefore, affects enzymatic activities.
o Enzyme activities increases with increasing
temperature, however high temperature kills
microorganisms by denaturing enzymes, by inhibiting
transport carrier molecules or by change in
membrane integrity.
o Various microbial species typically shows
characteristic temperature dependence and possesses
its own cardinal temperatures i. e. minimal, maximum
and optimal growth temperatures. Image Source : Microbiology, by Robert W. Bauman
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 15

Temperature
Minimal, maximum & optimal

growth temperatures for:
 Psychrophiles
 Mesophiles
 Thermophiles
 Hyperthermophiles
Image Source : Microbiology, by Robert W. Bauman
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 16
8
29‐08‐2018

Other Requirements
 pH (Neutrophiles vs Acidophiles vs Alkalinophiles)
 Oxygen (aerobic vs anaerobic vs facultative)
 Osmotic pressure
 Hydrostatic pressure
 Associations and Biofilms (attached growth vs suspended growth)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 17

Biological Treatment of Wastewater: Microbial Growth Kinetics
Week 6- Lecture 30

IIT KHARAGPUR
18
9
29‐08‐2018
Microbial Growth Kinetics

Food and Nutrients + Microbial cells  New cells + Energy + Reaction products
Batch Processes:
Limited food and nutrient supply
Continuous Processes:
Renewed food and nutrient supply
Image Source : https://www.cs.montana.edu/webworks/projects/stevesbook/contents/chapters/chapter002/section002/black/page001.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 19
Microbial Growth Kinetics: Batch Processes

 Initially, a batch process contains growth substrate
(say, at concentration S), viable microbial cells (say,
concentration X), and all other requires nutrients
and oxygen in excess.
 With time, substrate S is utilized for cell growth.
 Therefore, over time a decrease in S (negative dS/dt)

and a corresponding increase in X (positive dX/dt) is
observed.
 The growth rate and pattern changes with the Image Source :
https://www.cs.montana.edu/webworks/projects/stevesbook/contents/cha
pters/chapter002/section002/black/page001.html
progress of time depending on the levels of S and X.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 20
10
29‐08‐2018
Microbial Growth Phase in a Batch Process

 Lag phase – Not much growth as microbes
takes time to acclimatize.
Acceleration phase
 Log (or Exponential) phase ‐ Cell growth
proceeds at near exponential rate
Deceleration phase
 Stationary phase ‐ Rate of decay becomes
nearly equal to rate of growth, leading to
near zero net growth
 Death phase – Viable cell concentration

decreases as more cells loose viability or are
destroyed by lysis while growth is restricted Image Source : Captured from ‐ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BsPKcHShGYw
due to substrate limitations.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 21
Microbial Growth in Continuous Processes

 Food to Microorganism (F/M) ratio controls the rate of microbial growth and metabolism
 For low F/M: Food availability is lower hence, endogenous growth phase prevails.
 For high F/M: Food availability is abundant; hence the growth phase is exponential.
In Continuous treatment process:
 Biological reactors are typically operated at declining growth phase or endogenous growth
phase with sufficient F/M ratio so that the microorganisms mass is at least constant, and
not depleting.
 Sludge (biomass) produced at log phase is of very poor in settling characteristics while the
sludge produced in the endogenous phase has better settling properties and is more stable.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 22
11
29‐08‐2018
Microbial Growth in Continuous Processes
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 23
Microbial Growth Kinetics

 During the lag phase dX/dt and dS/dt are nearly zero. However in exponential growth
phase, the biomass growth is typically first order:
µ
dt
where, µ is the specific growth rate (= µmax for exponential growth)
 At the onset of exponential growth phase (X = X0)
µ
dt
 Yield Coefficient (Y), i.e. amount of biomass produces per unit substrate utilized is the
another matrix commonly used for microbial process design.
Y=
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 24
12
29‐08‐2018
Monod Kinetics for Microbial Growth

 The specific growth rate is not always equal
to µmax, but often depends on substrate
concentration as well. The Monod Model is
the most widely used expression for
describing specific growth rate as a function
of substrate concentration, as:
µ = µmax ( )
Ks
 Here, Ks is the half‐saturation constant (or Image Source :

https://www.cs.montana.edu/webworks/projects/stevesbook/contents/chapters/chapter0
half‐velocity constant) and is the value of S 02/section002/black/page001.html
when specific growth rate is half of the

maximum (μ/μmax = 0.5)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 25
Biological Treatment of Wastewater: Process

 Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
 Trickling Filter (TF)
 Rotating Biological Contractor (RBC)
 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
 Sequencing Batch Biofilm Reactors (SBBR)
 Membrane Bio Reactors (MBR)
 Moving Bed Bio Reactor (MBBR)
 Fixed Bed Bio Reactor (FBBR)
 Anaerobic Reactors: Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)
…
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 26
13
29‐08‐2018

Biological Treatment of Wastewater: Activated Sludge Process
Week 6- Lecture 31

IIT KHARAGPUR
27
Activated Sludge Process (ASP)

 The most conventional unit for the aerobic biological treatment of wastewater.
 The ASP consists of:
o An aeration tank, where organic matter is stabilized by the action of bacteria under aeration.
o A secondary sedimentation tank (SST), where the biological cell mass is separated from the effluent of
aeration tank and the settle sludge is recycled partly to the aeration tank and remaining is wasted.
 Aeration and biomass recycling is necessary in activated sludge process.
 Aeration conditions are achieved by the use of diffused or mechanical aerators. Either,
diffusers are provided at the tank bottom, or mechanical aerators are provided at the
surface of water (either floating or on fixed support).
 Typical design of activated sludge is based on BOD loading, food‐to‐microorganism ratio
(F/M), sludge age, and aeration period.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 28
14
29‐08‐2018
Aeration Tank Secondary Settling Tank

(Diffused Aerator) (Secondary Sedimentation)
Image Source :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_sludge
or
Aeration Tank
(Mechanical Aerator) Image Source :
https://www.watertechonline.com/sludge‐treatment‐efficiency/
Image Source :
https://www.watertechonline.com/surface‐
mechanical‐aerator/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 29
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 30
15
29‐08‐2018

Organic Loading Rates (OLR): BOD Loading
 Volumetric Organic Loading Rates: kg of BOD applied (without including the return sludge
flow) per unit volume of the reactor (aeration tank) per day
 F/M Ratio: kg of BOD applied (without including the return sludge flow) per unit of mixed
liquor (or liquid) volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) per day
Volumetric Organic Loading Rate = Q x BOD x 10‐3 / V

where, BOD = Influent BOD5 to aeration tank, mg/L; Q = Flow rate, m3/day; V = Volume of aeration Tank, m3
F/M ratio= Q x BOD x 10‐3 / (V x MLVSS)

where, MLVSS = Mixed liquor (or liquid) volatile suspended solids concentration in the aeration tank, mg/L
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 31

Solid Retention Time (SRT)
Refers to the duration for which the solids (sludge or microbial mass) stays in the aeration tank.
If there is insignificant solids washout with effluent, TSS lost in effluent can be neglected.
Sludge Volume Index (SVI)

It the volume in mL occupied by 1 g activated sludge after settling the aerated liquor for 30
min, and therefore indicates the settling characteristics of sludge in the aeration tank.
SVI mL/g settled sludge volume mL/L X 1000/ MLSS mg/L

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 32
16
29‐08‐2018
Activated Sludge Process (ASP): Biochemical Reactions
Source : Handbook of Environmental Engineering Calculations, by Lee and Lin
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 33
Activated Sludge Process (ASP): Process Modelling

A Suspended growth process
o Wastewater aeration in the presence of a microbial suspension
o Solid‐liquid separation after aeration
o Discharge of clarified effluent
o Wasting of excess biomass, and
o Return of remaining biomass to the aeration tank.
Assumptions
o Steady state conditions throughout the system
o Aeration Tank is completely mixed
o The inflow BOD remains constant
o All reactions takes place only in aeration tank, and secondary clarifier works only for solids separation
o The biomass concentration in the influent is negligible
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 34
17
29‐08‐2018

Biological Treatment of Wastewater: ASP, TF and RCB
Week 6- Lecture 32

IIT KHARAGPUR
35
Recap: Activated Sludge Process (ASP)

A Suspended growth process
o Wastewater aeration in the presence of a microbial suspension
o Solid‐liquid separation after aeration
o Discharge of clarified effluent
o Wasting of excess biomass, and
o Return of remaining biomass to the aeration tank.
Assumptions
o Steady state conditions throughout the system
o Aeration Tank is completely mixed
o The inflow BOD remains constant
o All reactions takes place only in aeration tank, and secondary clarifier works only for solids separation
o The biomass concentration in the influent is negligible
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 36
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29‐08‐2018

Steady State Biomass Mass Balance Under steady state conditions, accumulation of
biomass or substrate in the system will be zero
Influent
biomass
+ Biomass
production = Effluent
biomass + Wasted
biomass
Q0 X0 + V = (Q0 - QW) Xe + QWXR

Where,
Steady State Substrate Mass Balance Q0 = Influent flow rate (m3/d)
X0 = Influent biomass concentration (g/m3)
Wasted S0 = Influent BOD (g/m3)
Inflow of
substrate
‐ Consumption
of substrate = Outflow of
substrate
+ substrate S = Effluent BOD (g/m3)
V = Volume of the aeration basin (m3)
QW = Flow rate of waste sludge (m3/d)
Q0 S0 - V = (Q0 - QW) S + QW S Xe = Effluent biomass concentration (g/m3)
XR = Biomass concentration in the return
sludge (g/m3)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 37

Biomass Growth
The net rate of biomass growth accounts for biomass growth (Monod Model) minus rate of endogenous decay (First Order)
µmax Where,
= µX – kdX = - kdX kd = endogenous decay rate (d -1 ).
The kd value is in the range of 0.04 to
0.075 per day, typically 0.06 per day.
Substrate Utilization
The net rate of substrate utilization is determined based on the substrate conversion to biomass. Decay is not considered
Where,
µ Y = Yield coefficient
= max X
Ks The value of Y typically varies from 0.4
to 0.8 mg VSS/mg BOD (0.25 to 0.4 mg
VSS/mg COD) in aerobic systems.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 38
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29‐08‐2018

Biomass Mass Balance
It is assumed that the biomass concentration in the influent wastewater and in the effluent from the clarifier is negligible,
i.e., X0 = Xe = 0
µma µma Q X
V = QWXR or V[( ) X – kdX] = QWXR = W R kd
Ks Ks
Further, the net growth of microorganisms, dX/dt = QW XR /V or = QV.X

WXR
Also, dX/dt = -Y.rsu – kd .X Where,

rsu is the substrate utilization rate,
mass/unit volume
QW XR /V.X = -Y.rsu /X – kd
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 39

Biomass Mass Balance
V.X/ QW XR represents the amount of time, in days, that bacteria are maintained in the activated sludge system
(if Xe is neglected), usually referred as Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) and denoted by θC.
Therefore QW XR /V.X = 1/θC = -Y.rsu /X – kd VX
MCRT = ѲC =
QWXR + (QO − QW Xe
Further, rsu = - Q(SO – S)/V = (SO – S)/θ SRT and MCRT are often used as a synonyms.
They typically mean the same thing, however
Combining the above two equations: SRT usually relates to the total mass of the
solids in the treatment system (calculated
1/θC = [Y(SO – S)/θ.X] - kd using TSS), while MCRT is the mass of the
bacteria in the system (calculated using VSS).
Substituting θ = V/Q, and solving
Where,
Q.ѲC.Y (SO – S)
V = θ = hydraulic retention time (d) = V/Q
X(1+ kd ѲC) SO = Influent substrate concentration
S = Effluent substrate concentration
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 40
20
29‐08‐2018

Substrate Mass Balance
Q0 S0 + V = (Q0 - QW) S + QWS

Substituting ds/dt:
µmax
Q0 S0 + V [ ] = (Q0 - QW) S + QWS
Ks
Rearranging:
µma QOY
= (SO – S)
Ks Where,
K = µmax/Y
KS (1 + kdѲc) i.e., it is maximum rate of substrate
Solving: S =
Ѳc (YK – kd) − 1 utilization per unit mass of microorganism.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 41

F/M Ratio
BOD of wastewater (g/m3)] [Influent flow rate (m3/d)]
F/M =
[Reactor volume (m3) Reactor biomass (g/m3)]
SO QO SO
F/M = = Ѳ
Sludge Recycling
The biomass concentration in the aeration tank is controlled by the sludge recirculation rate and the SVI. The recirculation
ratio is estimated considering the mass of microorganisms entering aeration tank and leaving the aeration tank, as under:
QR
=
XR − X
SVI between 50 and 150 mL/g indicate good settling of the suspended solids.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 42
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29‐08‐2018
Activated Sludge Process (ASP): Oxygen Requirement

 In ASP, Oxygen is required for oxidation of the influent organic matter (BOD) along with
cell growth and endogenous respiration of the micro‐organisms. It is used as an
electron acceptor in the energy metabolism of the aerobic heterotrophic
microorganisms present, and oxygen requirement can be computed considering the
total substrate removal as:
SO − S
Total O2 requirement (g/d) = Where, f = ratio of BOD5 to ultimate BOD
 The oxygen required for biomass (= 1.42 g/g of biomass) produced as a result of
substrate utilization is required to be subtracted from the theoretical oxygen
requirement. Therefore,
SO − S
Total O2 requirement (g/d) = - 1.42 QwXR
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 43
Activated Sludge Process (ASP): Oxygen Requirement

 If nitrification has to be considered, the oxygen requirement for nitrifiers need to be
added:
SO − S
Total O2 requirement (g/d) = - 1.42 QwXR + 4.57 Q(NO – N)
Where,
NO is the influent TKN concentration, mg/L, N is the effluent TKN concentration, mg/L and 4.57 is the conversion
factor for amount of oxygen required for complete oxidation of TKN.
 The aeration equipment must be capable of maintaining a dissolved oxygen level of

about 2 mg/L in the aeration basin while providing thorough mixing of the solid and
liquid phase.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 44
22
29‐08‐2018
Activated Sludge Process (ASP): Design Criteria
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 45
Trickling Filter
A trickling filter, is a fixed‐bed,
biological reactor that operates under
(mostly) aerobic conditions.
Pre‐settled wastewater is continuously

‘trickled’ or sprayed over the filter.
As the water migrates through the

pores of the filter, organics are
aerobically degraded by the biofilm
covering the filter material.
Source : https://www.sswm.info/water‐nutrient‐cycle/wastewater‐treatment/hardwares/semi‐centralised‐wastewater‐treatments/trickling‐filter
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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29‐08‐2018
Trickling Filter
Image Source : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trickling_filter
Source : https://www.sswm.info/water‐nutrient‐cycle/wastewater‐treatment/hardwares/semi‐centralised‐
wastewater‐treatments/trickling‐filter
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 47
Rotating Biological Contractor (RBC)

RBC utilizes a rotating shaft surrounded
by plastic media discs.
The microbial growth is passed through

the wastewater, contrary to the trickling
filter, where the wastewater is passed
through the microbial growth.
The rotation of the shaft alternately

exposes the biomass with the
wastewater and then with the oxygen in
Image Source : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotating_biological_contactor the atmosphere.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 48
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29‐08‐2018
Rotating Biological Contractor (RBC)
Source : https://www.sswm.info/water‐nutrient‐cycle/wastewater‐treatment/hardwares/semi‐centralised‐wastewater‐treatments/rotating‐biological‐contactors
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 49
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 50
25
Short note on sequencing batch reactor (SBR)
The SBR process utilises a fill-and-draw reactor with complete mixing during the batch reaction
step (after filling) and where the subsequent steps of aeration and clarification occur in the same
tank. All SBR systems have five steps in common – i) Fill, ii) React, iii) Settle, iv) Draw, v) Idle.
For continuous-flow applications, at least two SBR tanks must be provided so that one tank
receives flow while the other completes its treatment cycle.
Enhanced nitrogen and phosphorus removal can be achieved in an SBR. Phosphorus release and
some BOD uptake takes place during fill and anaerobic stir operation. Phosphorus uptake, BOD
oxidation and nitrification occurs under the aerobic cycle. Denitrification is achieved during the
anoxic stir and settling cycles.
A typical diagram of an SBR is depicted below:
The design principles and other salient features of the SBR shall be elaborately discussed in
Week 11 Lecture material.
1. A complete mix activated sludge process is designed to treat 22, 464 m3/day of primary effluent,
with initial BOD of 140 g/m3 and to meet the requirement of final BOD concentration less than 30
g/m3. The volume of the aeration tank is 4020 m3 and MLSS is 2400 g/m3.
Q. 1. Determine the F/M ratio
Solution: F/M ratio = QS0/VX = (22464×140)/(2400×4020) = 3144960/9648000 = 0.326 kg of
BOD/kg of biomass.day
Q. 2. Determine the volumetric loading
Solution: BOD loading = QS0/V = (22464×140)/4020 = 0.78 kg/m3.day
Q. 3. Determine the aeration time detention time

Solution: T = V/Q = 4020/22464 = 4.3 h
Q. 4. Determine the mean cell residence time (Y = 0.55kg/kg, kd = 0.04 d-1)

1 𝑄𝑌(𝑆0−𝑆)
Solution: 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑉𝑋
− 𝑘𝑑 . Therefore, θc = 7 days
2. For a specific strain of microorganism having maximum specific growth rate µmax is 4 day-1 and
half saturation constant KS = 65 mg/L, the specific growth rate µ at 165 mg/L substrate
concentration, will be:
a. 1.02 d-1
b. 4.22 d-1
c. 2.87 d-1
d. 4.98 d-1
Solution: Given that, rate µmax = 3 day-1; KS = 60 mg/L; S = 150 mg/L
According to Monod’s equation: µ = µmax[S/(Ks+S)] = 4[165/(165+65)] = 2.87 d-1
3. Fill up the blanks with appropriate option from the choices:

F Q  BOD  10 3
ratio 
M V 
a. MLSS
b. MLVSS
c. SRT
d. SVI
07‐09‐2018

Secondary Treatment Processes: Introduction to Anaerobic Treatment of Wastewater
Week 7- Lecture 33

IIT KHARAGPUR
Anaerobic Treatment of Wastewater
Image Source : https://www.iwapublishing.com/news/flow‐anaerobic‐sludge‐blanket‐reactor‐uasb
Anaerobic treatment is a collection of biological processes by which microorganisms break

down biodegradable material present in the wastewater, in the absence of oxygen.
The most of the organic carbon is converted to biogas, while little goes to sludge production
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 2
1
07‐09‐2018
Aerobic vs Anaerobic Treatment of Wastewater
Image Source : https://www.econvert.nl/why‐anaerobic
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Aerobic vs Anaerobic Treatment of Wastewater
Image Source : ChettyI, S. and PillayII, K. (2015). Application of the DIY carbon footprint Image Source : van Lier, J.B., Mahmoud, N., and Zeeman, G. (2008).
calculator to a wastewater treatment works, Water SA, 41(2), pp 263‐272. Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment. In Biological Wastewater Treatment:
available at: http://www.scielo.org.za/img/revistas/wsa/v41n2/13f06.jpg Principles, Modelling and Design. Edited by Henze, M., van Loosdrecht,
M.C.M., Ekama, G.A. and Brdjanovic, D. IWA Publishging London
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 4
2
07‐09‐2018
Advantages and Disadvantages of Anaerobic Systems
Source : de Lemos Chernicharo, C. A. (2007). Anaerobic

Reactors. Biological Wastewater Treatment Series,
Volume IV. IWA Publishing
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Anaerobic Treatment: Getting More Popular
 Less energy requirement
 Less operation and maintenance
 Energy production
Image Source : van Lier, J.B., Mahmoud, N., and Zeeman, G. (2008). Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment. In Biological Wastewater Treatment: Principles, Modelling and Design. Edited by
Henze, M., van Loosdrecht, M.C.M., Ekama, G.A. and Brdjanovic, D. IWA Publishging London
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 6
3
07‐09‐2018
Anaerobic Degradation of Organic Matter: Processes

 Hydrolysis ‐ Transformation of higher‐
molecular‐mass compounds into compounds
suitable for use as a energy and carbon
source.
 Acidogenesis ‐ Bacterial conversion of the

hydrolyzed compounds into identifiable lower‐
molecular‐mass intermediate compounds.
 Acetogenesis ‐ Lower chain volatile fatty

acids produced during acidogenesis are
utilized by a acetogens to produce hydrogen
and acetate.
 Methanogenesis ‐ Bacterial conversion of the

hydrogen and acetate into final end products,
methane and carbon dioxide
Image Source : https://www.e‐education.psu.edu/egee439/node/727
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 7

Anaerobic Degradation Processes
Week 7- Lecture 34

IIT KHARAGPUR
4
07‐09‐2018
Anaerobic Degradation of Organic Matter: Processes
Source : van Lier, J.B., Mahmoud, N., and Zeeman, G. (2008). Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment. In Biological Wastewater Treatment: Principles, Modelling and Design. Edited by
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Anaerobic Degradation Processes: Hydrolysis

o Bacteria unable to take up particulate organic
matter as substrate.
o Enzymes excreted by fermentative bacteria

converts complex undissolved form of organic
matter into less‐complex dissolved compounds
which can cross the cell barrier.
o The process is very sensitive to temperature and

temperature fluctuations
o Generally rate limiting step in the process of

anaerobic digestion
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 10
5
07‐09‐2018
Anaerobic Degradation: Acidogenesis & Acetogenesis

o Acidogenesis Reactions:
o Acetogenesis Reactions:
Change in free energy estimated assuming neutral pH at 250C and 1 atm. Pressure.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 11
Anaerobic Degradation: Methanogenesis

 2CH3CH2OH + CO2 → 2CH3COOH + CH4
 CH3COOH → CH4 + CO2
 CH3OH → CH4 + H2O
 CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O
 CH3COO- + SO42- + H+ → 2HCO3 + H2S
 CH3COO- + NO- + H2O + H+ → 2HCO3 + NH4+
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 12
6
07‐09‐2018
Anaerobic Degradation: COD Balance

 CODins – Insoluble COD
 CODsol – Soluble COD
 CODcel – COD converted to cell mass
 CODbd – biodegradable COD
 CODrec – recalcitrant COD
 CODVFA – COD in the form of VFAs
 CODCH4 – COD in the form of methane
Source : de Lemos Chernicharo, C. A. (2007). Anaerobic Reactors. Biological Wastewater Treatment Series, Volume IV. IWA Publishing
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 13

Anaerobic Degradation: Characteristics and Applications
Week 7- Lecture 35

IIT KHARAGPUR
14
7
07‐09‐2018
Factors affecting Anaerobic Degradation

o Time – Acclimatization of the microbes to a substrate may take 3 to 8 weeks.
Sufficiently acclimated bacteria show greater stability towards stress‐inducing
events such as hydraulic overloads, fluctuations in temperature, volatile acid and
ammonia concentrations, etc.
o pH, acidity, alkalinity – The optimum pH range for methanogens is 6.6 – 7.6, non –
methanogens (like hydrolytic bacteria and acidogens) is 5 – 8.5. pH decreases in the
reactor due to formation of short – chain fatty acids by acidogens. Buffering agents
(NaHCO3 or CaCO3) need to be added regularly to maintain the pH in desired range.
o Temperature – Anaerobic processes mostly operates well at mesophilic range (30° ‐
40° C), but methanogenesis can occur at temperatures as low as 12° – 15° C.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 15

o Nutrients – Optimum N/P ratio is 7, minimum COD/N ratio is 350/7. COD/N ratio of
400/7 is considered optimum for high load rate anaerobic process (operated in SLR of
0.8 – 1.2 kg COD /kg VSS.d). Trace metals like molybdenum, selenium, tungsten and
nickel is necessary to sustain enzyme activity.
o Volatile Fatty Acid (VFA) inhibition – Due to slow growth and sensitiveness of
methanogens they are often unable to convert short – chain fatty acids into methane
resulting in accumulation of organic acids in the system resulting further decrease in the
performance of the reactor. VFA concentration in the reactor should be maintained
below 500 mg/L at any point of time and preferably below 200 mg/L for optimum
performance. Among various VFAs, acetic acid is considered to be least toxic, whereas
propionic acid accumulation has been reported to be responsible for anaerobic reactor
failures.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 16
8
07‐09‐2018

o Ammonia – Nitrogen inhibition – High ammonia concentration generally causes rapid
production of VFAs leading to decrease in pH reducing methanogenic activity.
o Sulfide inhibition – Oxides of sulfur get reduced to sulfides, sulfur containing amino
acids may undergo degradation to form sulfides with the help of sulfur bacteria like
Desulfovibrio.
o Heavy metal inhibition – Copper, nickel, lead, chromium etc. present at higher
concentrations may induce toxicity in anaerobic reactors.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 17
Anaerobic Treatment Process – Characteristics

 Lower biomass yield compared to aerobic processes – Because of slow metabolism of
microorganisms in absence of oxygen
 Fewer nutrient required – Less biomass produced related to lesser nutrient requirements.
For wastewater lacking sufficient nutrients, the cost of nutrient addition is much less for
anaerobic processes.
 Higher volumetric loading – Anaerobic processes generally have higher volumetric organic
loads than aerobic processes, so smaller reactor volumes and less space may be required
for treatment. Organic loading rates of 3.2 to 32 kg COD/m3‐d may be used for anaerobic
processes, compared to 0.5 to 3.2 kg COD/m3‐d for aerobic processes (Speece, 1996)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 18
9
07‐09‐2018
Anaerobic Treatment Process – Characteristics

 Operational conditions – The major concerns with anaerobic processes are their
o longer start‐up time (months for anaerobic versus days for aerobic processes),
o sensitivity to possible toxic compounds,
o operational stability,
o the potential for odor production, and
o corrosiveness of the digester gas.
 Need for Alkalinity Addition – Alkalinity concentration of 2000 to 3000 mg/L as CaCO3 may
be needed in anaerobic processes to maintain an acceptable pH with the high gas phase
CO2 concentration.
 Need for Further Treatment – Effluent may have considerable concentrations of pollutants,
resulting in need for further treatment.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 19
Anaerobic Treatment Process – Applications

 The anaerobic processes is usually used for the treatment of significantly concentrated
wastewater along with objectives of producing biofuels.
 Anaerobic processes may not be apt for municipal wastewaters with lower
concentrations of biodegradable COD, lower temperatures, high effluent quality
needs, and nutrient removal requirements.
 For industrial wastewaters with much higher biodegradable COD concentrations and
elevated temperatures, anaerobic processes are considered more economical.
 Even if anaerobic processes are resulting in effluents having higher COD
concentrations than desired, it may still be advantageous to use anaerobic system as
first stage of treatment, which could be than be followed by second stage aerobic or
advanced treatment steps to get the desired quality of effluent.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 20
10
07‐09‐2018
Anaerobic Treatment Process – Applications
 Type of Industries whose effluent can be treated using Anaerobic Processes
Source : de Lemos Chernicharo, C. A. (2007). Anaerobic

Reactors. Biological Wastewater Treatment Series,
Volume IV. IWA Publishing
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 21
Anaerobic Reactor Systems

High Rate Processes:
o Anaerobic contact process
o Anaerobic Filters
o Up‐flow Anaerobic Sludge
Blanket (UASB)
o Fluidized Bed Reactors
o Hybrid Reactors
o Anaerobic Sequencing Batch
Reactors (ASBR)
o and others…
Source : http://archive.sswm.info/category/implementation‐tools/wastewater‐treatment/hardware/processes/anaerobic‐digestion‐general
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 22
11
07‐09‐2018
Anaerobic Reactor Classifications
Source : de Lemos Chernicharo, C. A. (2007). Anaerobic Reactors. Biological Wastewater Treatment Series, Volume IV. IWA Publishing
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 23

Anaerobic Treatment of Wastewater: UASB Reactor
Week 7- Lecture 36

IIT KHARAGPUR
24
12
07‐09‐2018
Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) Reactor

 Developed in 1970s by Prof. G. Lettinga in
Netherland.
 The Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)

reactor is a single tank process for the
anaerobic treatment of wastewater.
 It is the most popular anaerobic wastewater

treatment system across the world.
 It is extensively used for industrial wastewater

treatment and have several installation for Image Source :
https://www.iwapublishing.com/news/flow‐anaerobic‐sludge‐blanket‐reactor‐uasb
municipal sewage as well.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 25
UASB Reactor: Zones and Components

 Inlet Zone: Uniform distribution of influent
 Sludge Blanket (Zone) / Reaction Zone: Holds

granular biomass and allows biochemical reactions
to take place
 Settling Zone / Clarifier Zone: Provides opportunity

for solids settling
 Gas‐Liquid‐Solid Separator (GLSS): separates the 3

phases; gas to a collection pipe, solids pushed to
settling zone and water flows to effluent
Image Source :
pipe/channel http://www.engineeringfundamentals.net/UASBs/fundamentals.htm
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 26
13
07‐09‐2018
UASB Reactor: Working Principle

 Wastewater enters from the bottom, and flows upward.
 Wastewater flows through a suspended sludge blanket

where anaerobic bacteria break down organic matter by
anaerobic digestion, transforming it into biogas, and
biomass (<5%).
 Solids are also retained by a filtration effect of the

blanket, and settling in clarifier zone.
 The upflow regime and the motion of the gas bubbles

allow mixing without mechanical assistance.
 A Gas‐Liquid‐Solid Separator (GLSS) at the top of the

reactor allow gases to escape and prevent an outflow ofImage Source :
the solids. http://mahmudzone2.blogspot.com/2011/03/uasb‐reactor‐for‐wastewater‐treatment.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 27
UASB Reactor: Design Criteria

Process design
parameters for UASBs
are for municipal
sewages with BOD
about 200‐300 mg/l
and temperatures
above 20°C 
Typical physical
parameters of a UASB
reactor to handle 10
to 15 MLD of sewage.

Images Source : https://nptel.ac.in/courses/105104102/Lecture%2032.htm
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 28
14
07‐09‐2018
UASB Reactor: Advantages and Disadvantages
Source : https://www.sswm.info/node/8211
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 29
UASB Reactor: Applicability

 Well‐established process for large‐scale industrial
wastewater treatment and high organic loading rates up to
10 kg BOD/m3/d. It is often used for brewery, distillery,
food processing and pulp and paper waste.
 Application to domestic sewage is also getting popular. It is

particularly adapted for densely populated urban areas as it
has low land requirements . Where the influent is low‐
strength or where it contains too many solids, proteins or
fats, the reactor may not work properly.
 A UASB is not appropriate for small or rural communities

without a constant water supply or electricity and skilled
Image Source
labour. http://wastewaterengineering.com/uasb_upflow_anaerobic_sludge_blanket.htm
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 30
15
07‐09‐2018

Anaerobic Treatment of Wastewater: Other High Rate Anaerobic Processes & Biogas Production
Week 7- Lecture 37

IIT KHARAGPUR
31
Other High Rate Anaerobic Treatment Systems
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 32
16
07‐09‐2018
The Anaerobic Contact (AC) Process

o It is a stirred tank reactor in which the biomass leaving with the reactor effluent is
settled in a sedimentation tank and recycled, thus increasing SRT. The settling of the
anaerobic sludge may at times be a limiting factor.
o Biomass separation may be improved using parallel plate separators.
o The process lends itself to concentrated wastes containing refractory suspended

matter. Continuous and complete mixing in the reactor is not recommended since this
may adversely affect settling characteristics of the sludge, On the other hand,
inadequate mixing may result in formation of dead zones inside the reactor.
o This process has been used for treatment of industrial wastewaters.

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 33
The Anaerobic Filter (AF)

o In AF, operated as up flow submerged packed bed reactor, microbial cells are both
entrapped as clumps of cells in the interstices between packing material and as biofilm
attached to the surface of the packing material.
o The packing or filter media is usually of naturally crushed rock of 15 to 25 mm size or

consisting of plastic or ceramic material the filter media should have high specific
surface and porosity to allow for maximum possible film growth and retention of
biomass.
o A number of such filters have been constructed for treatment of low strength wastes
such as municipal sewage.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 34
17
07‐09‐2018
The Anaerobic Fixed Films (AFF) Reactor

o The microbial mass is immobilized on fixed surfaces in the reactor. It is operated in
down flow mode to prevent accumulation of refractory particulates contained in the
influent and sloughed biofilm.
o The sloughed biofilm is also discharged with the effluent.
o The reactor may be operated in either submerged or unsubmerged condition.
o The reactor packing is usually of modular construction consisting of plastic sheets

providing a high void ratio.
o Such reactors have been constructed to treat high strength wastes.

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 35
The Fluidized Bed (FB) Reactor

o It incorporates an up flow reactor partly filled with sand or a low density carrier such
as coal or plastic beads. A very large surface area is provided by the carrier material
for growth of biofilm.
o The system readily allows passage of particulates which could plug a packed bed, but
requires energy for fluidization.
o Expanded Bed (EB) reactors do not aim at complete fluidization and use a lower up
flow velocity resulting in lesser energy requirement.
o These reactors can be used for treatment of municipal sewage as well.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 36
18
07‐09‐2018
Biogas Production
 The production of biogas from sludge and

biosolids are more common while biogas
collection from wastewater treatment is
rare.
 The methane recovery and purification is
cost intensive process.
 Many places the methane produces is
simply flared.
Biogas production potential by source
Image Source https://www.biocycle.net/2013/12/16/biogas‐potential‐in‐canada/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 37
Biogas Production: Substrate Dependence
Images Source : van Lier, J.B., Mahmoud, N., and Zeeman, G. (2008). Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment. In Biological Wastewater Treatment: Principles, Modelling and Design. Edited by
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 38
19
07‐09‐2018
Biogas Production: Substrate Dependence
Source : http://web.deu.edu.tr/atiksu/ana07/4thset.pdf
The COD of one mole of CH4 is equal to

64 g, the amount of CH4 produced per
unit COD is 0.4 L CH4/ g COD.
Image Source : van Lier, J.B., Mahmoud, N., and Zeeman, G. (2008). Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment. In Biological Wastewater Treatment: Principles, Modelling and Design. Edited by
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 39
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 40
20
Practice problems – assignment 7
Q.1 The theoretical oxidation of Phenol (C6H5OH) takes as per the following reaction:
C6H5OH + 7 O2 6 CO2 + 3 H2O.
For a wastewater containing 300 ppm of Phenol, the estimated theoretical COD would be:
a) 715 mg/L
b) 600 mg/L
c) 238 mg/L
d) 366 mg/L
Solution:
Molecular formula of C6H5OH = 94
(Concept of stoichiometry)
According to the reaction equation, 94 ppm of phenol requires 224 ppm of O2 to be
oxidized.
(Concept of unitary method)
94 ppm of phenol gives 224 ppm of O2
Therefore, 1 ppm of phenol gives 224/94 ppm of O2
Therefore, 300 ppm of phenol requires (224×300)/94 ppm = 715 ppm
i.e. COD = 715 ppm
Q. 2. In the process of methanogenesis, acetic acid gets converted to methane and carbon di-
oxide as per the reaction [ CH3COOH  CH4 + CO2 ]. Considering 100 % conversion efficiency,
the methane gas produced (in m3) in a reactor fed with 10 MLD wastewater having 250 mg/L
acetic acid would be approximately [Assume density of methane as 500 kg/m3]:
Solution: CH3COOH  CH4 + CO2

Given that: ρmethane = 500 kg/m3, Q = 10 MLD, Cacetic acid = 250 mg/L
Therefore, amount of acetic acid in the wastewater = Q× Cacetic acid = 10×106 L × 250 mg/L =
2.50×109 mg
Acc. to the equation, 60 mg of acetic acid produces = 16 mg of methane
Therefore, 2.50×109 mg of acetic acid produces = (16/60) × 2.50×109 mg of methane = 670 kg
Since ρmethane = 500 kg/m3, 500 kg of methane = 1.340 m3
Since the conversion efficiency is 100 %, actual production of methane is 1.340 m3
Q. 3 In continuation to question above (Q. 2), CO2 formed in the reaction further reduce to CH4
through reaction [ CO2 + 4 H2 → CH4 + 2H2O]. If H2 level in the reactor was 11 mg/L, then what
would be the approximate total methane production in the same reactor fed with 10 MLD
wastewater having 180 mg/L acetic acid.
Solution:
CH3COOH  CH4 + CO2 (1)
CO2 + 4 H2  CH4 + 2H2O (2)
From previous solution, Methane produced = 670 kg of CH4
Acc. to eq. 2,
Total H2 in reactor = 11× 10×106 L = 1.1×108 mg
Since H2 is the limiting element, 8 mg of H2 produces = 16 mg of CH4
Therefore, 1.1×108 mg produces = (16/8) × 1.1×108 mg = 220 mg of CH4
Therefore, total methane produced = 670 + 220 = 890 kg

12‐09‐2018

Introduction to Sludge Management
Week 8- Lecture 38

IIT KHARAGPUR
Sludge from the Treatment of Wastewater
Image Source : https://www.biosolids.com.au/info/what‐are‐biosolids/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 2
1
12‐09‐2018
Sludge from the Treatment of Wastewater

o The conventional biological wastewater treatment
plants although efficient in removing organics,
generate large amounts of excess sludge.
o Sewage sludge refers to the residual, semi‐solid

material that is produced as a settled by‐product
during sewage treatment of industrial or municipal
wastewater.
o Quantity of sludge generated depends upon the

degree of treatment.
o Sludge handling may account for as high as 50 % of

total cost of a sewage treatment plant in Image Source :
conventional ASPs. https://wasterecyclingplant.com/sewage‐sludge‐treatment‐plant/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Wastewater Sludge Generation
Image Source : https://www.brighthub.com/environment/science‐environmental/articles/66157.aspx#imgn_1
Sludge is primarily generated from primary and secondary treatments (classified as Primary Sludge, and
Secondary Sludge or Waste Activated Sludge), while tertiary treatment steps may also contribute depending
on the technology used.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 4
2
12‐09‐2018
Primary and Secondary Sludge

Primary Sludge:
o The sludge composed of settleable solids removed from raw wastewater in primary
treatment (sedimentation, at times grit chamber).
o Generated in range 110–170 kg/ML from municipal wastewater.
Secondary Sludge / Waste Activated Sludge:
o The sludge produced by biological process such as ASP, TF etc.
o Generated in range 70–100 kg/ML (activated sludge), 60–100 kg/ML (trickling filter).
o Mainly consists of biomass grown on organic substances, and extracellular polymeric
substances (EPS) excreted by bacteria.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Different Stages of Sludge
Source :
http://www.purebalticsea.eu/index.php/gpsm:good_practices
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 6
3
12‐09‐2018

Wastewater Sludge: Quantity and Characteristics
Week 8- Lecture 39

IIT KHARAGPUR
Primary Sludge Characteristics
Source :
Metcalf & Eddy (2013). Wastewater engineering:
treatment and reuse. McGraw‐Hill Inc. (2003)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 8
4
12‐09‐2018
Secondary Sludge Characteristics
Source :
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Chemical Composition of Sludge
Source :
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 10
5
12‐09‐2018
Sludge Generation: Quantity
Source :
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 11
Source : Andreoli et. al. (2007). Sludge Treatment and

Disposal. Biological Wastewater Treatment Series,
Volume VI. IWA Publishing
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 12
6
12‐09‐2018
Total sludge volumes

in tonnes of dry solids
per year (tDS/a) of
different countries
under the EU
Source :
http://www.purebalticsea.eu/inde
x.php/gpsm:good_practices
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 13
Challenges in Sludge Management

Sewage and industrial effluent sludge is a serious problem due to the high treatment costs
and the risks to environment and human health.
Major Challenges include:
o Stabilising – sludge is not inert and can have an unpleasant odour
o Volume reduction – reducing the water content
o Managing risk‐causing organisms and chemicals
o Recovery of nutrients – nitrogen and phosphorous
o Utilising the energy potential
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 14
7
12‐09‐2018

Wastewater Sludge Processing and Treatment: Sludge Thickening
Week 8- Lecture 40

IIT KHARAGPUR
15
Sludge Management: Steps and Options

o Thickening
o Stabilisation
o Dewatering
o Hygienisation
o Drying
o Incineration
o Co‐composting
o Land disposal
o Energy production
Image Source : https://www.biosolids.com.au/info/what‐are‐biosolids/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 16
8
12‐09‐2018
Sludge Treatment and Disposal Options
Image Source : Hall J. (1999). Ecological and economical balance for sludge management options, Workshop on Problems Around Sludge, 18‐19 Nov, 1999, Stresa, Italy
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 17
Solids in the Sludge

The ratio of volatile to total solids
(VS/TS) indicates the organic fraction
in the sludge solids and its level of
digestion.
For undigested sludge:
VS/TS = 0.75 – 0.8
For digested sludge:
VS/TS = 0.6 – 0.65
Source : Andreoli et. al. (2007). Sludge Treatment and Disposal. Biological Wastewater Treatment Series, Volume VI. IWA Publishing
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 18
9
12‐09‐2018
Solids in the Sludge
Specific Gravity of Solids =

1 / [{(FS/TS)/SFS}+ {(VS/TS)/SVS}]
Specific Gravity of Sludge =

1 / [(Solid fraction in sludge/solids
density) + (Water fraction in Sludge / 1)]
Specific gravity of fixed solids (SFS) is

approximately 2.5, while Specific
gravity of volatile solids (SVS) is
approximately 1.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 19
Solids Flow in Sludge Processing
Source : Metcalf & Eddy (2013). Wastewater engineering: treatment and reuse. McGraw‐Hill Inc. (2003)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 20
10
12‐09‐2018
Sludge Thickening
• The typical water content of the wastewater treatment sludge remains between 97 % and
99.5 %. The dry solids (DS) content of the secondary sludge is about 0.5–1.0 %, while
primary sludge have a DS content of up to 4.0 %.
• Sludge thickening is the process by which solids are condensed to increase the DS content
of sludge by reducing the water content with low energy input.
• Thickening wastewater solids reduces the volume of residuals, improves operation, and
reduces costs for subsequent storage, processing, transfer, end use, or disposal.
• Gravity or mechanical thickening devices may be used to treat primary sludge, secondary
sludge or a mixture of both.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 21
Gravity Thickener
• The easiest way to reduce the water content
of sludge with low energy consumption.
• Similar to centre‐fed circular sedimentation
tank in appearance with more steep floor
slope.
• Sludge is pumped to tank equipped with a
slowly rotating rake mechanism, which
breaks the junction between the sludge
particles and therefore increases settling and
compaction.
• The total sludge volume can be reduced by
upto 90 % from the original volume
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 22
11
12‐09‐2018
Gravity Thickener
Solid Loading Rates
Source : Andreoli et. al. (2007). Sludge Treatment and Disposal.

Biological Wastewater Treatment Series, Volume VI. IWA Publishing Typical Output
Source :
http://www.purebalticsea.eu/inde
x.php/gpsm:good_practices
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 23
Dissolved Air Floatation Thickening

• Suitable for treatment of waste activated sludge.
• Minute air bubble get attached to solids and cause
the solids to separate from the water in an upward
direction. This happens because solid particles with
the attached bubble have lower specific gravity than
water.
• The degree of adhesion depends on surface
properties of the solids.
• The upward moving particles form a sludge blanket
on the surface of the flotation thickener.
• Addition of alum, polyelectrolytes can increase the
efficiency of the flotation unit. Source : http://www.aesarabia.com/sludge‐thickening/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 24
12
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Dissolved Air Floatation Thickening

Solid Loading Rates
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 25
Mechanical Thickening
• Usually used for thickening excess sludge in
large wastewater treatment plants
• Techniques are usually sophisticated and not
cost‐efficient for smaller systems
• Needs electrical energy. And may require
flocculant aid
• Can be operating continuously
• Mechanical thickening equipment options
include screw, drum, belt and centrifuge
• These technical systems require a high degree of
operator supervision, and operator training.
Image Source : Captured from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3B0yOFFdLyo
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 26
13
12‐09‐2018
Sludge Centrifugation
• Centrifugal thickening is acceleration of
sedimentation through the centrifugal force.
• Operate as continuous feed units, which remove
solids by a scroll conveyor and discharge liquid
over the weir.
• Commonly used for thickening waste activated
sludge, and primary sludge is normally not fed to
centrifuge as it may contain abrasive material.
• In addition of being effective in thickening, they
have additional advantage of less space
requirement, less odour potential & housekeeping
requirement.
Image Source : http://web.deu.edu.tr/atiksu/ana52/sludisx2.html/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 27
Rotary Drum Thickener (RDT)

• The rotary drum thickener typically consists of a
stainless steel structural frame, sludge distribution
system, filtering drum and washing system, drum
drive, full set of covers, and electric control panel.
• Sludge is internally fed from a headbox or
flocculation tank after conditioning with polymer.
• Water flows out through surface of the drum and
sludge is transported by the spiral screw along the
drum and finally out from the end of the drum.
• The spiral screw mixes sludge slowly inside the
drum so that water can come out from sludge very
effectively. Image Source : http://www.fkcscrewpress.com/crst.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 28
14
12‐09‐2018
Gravity Belt Thickener (GBT)

• It uses a slow moving fabric belt to separate the
polymer preconditioned sludge solids and free
water.
• Sludge thickening on the device is aided by
multiple rows of plows and drainage elements
which slow the flow of sludge and provide
additional retention time over the horizontal
gravity belt.
• GBTs generally require a smaller footprint than
other sludge thickening processes, are cost‐
effective and use less energy than other
mechanical thickening devices. Image Source : http://www.bdpindustries.com/products/gravity‐belt‐thickener/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 29
Screw Press Thickener: Multi-Disc Screw (MDS)

• Typically consists of Thickening and Dewatering zones.
• The filter cylinder is composed of fixed rings, moving
rings located between the fixed rings, and screw shaft.
• The pitch of the screw and the gaps between the rings
decrease at the end of dewatering drum, hence
increasing its internal pressure.
• Moving rings are pushed up and down by screw shaft
resulting clean solid out from gaps between fixed
rings continuously.
• At the end, the End Plate further increases the
pressure, so as to discharge dry sludge cake.
Source : http://www.buecoparagon.com/MDS/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 30
15
12‐09‐2018
Sludge Thickeners: Performance Comparison
Source : http://www.purebalticsea.eu/index.php/gpsm:good_practices
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 31
Sludge Thickeners: Performance Comparison

Thickening Method Sludge Type Expected Performance
Centrifugation Waste Activated with Polymer 8‐10% TS and 80‐90% Solids
Capture with Basket Centrifuges;
4‐6% TS and 80‐90% Solids
Capture with Disc‐nozzle Centrifuges;
5‐8% TS and 70‐90% Solids
Capture with Solid Bowl Centrifuges.
Gravity Belt Thickener (GBT) Waste Activated with Polymer 4‐8% TS and 95% Solids Capture
Rotary Drum Thickener (RDT) Waste Activated with Polymer 4‐8% TS and 95% Solids Capture
Gravity Raw Primary 8‐10% TS
Gravity Raw Primary and Waste Activated 5‐8% TS
Gravity Waste Activated 2‐3% TS (Better results for oxygen rich activated sludge)
Gravity Digested Primary Digested Primary and 8‐14% TS
Waste Activated
Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) Waste Activated (Generally Not Used for 4‐6% TS and ≥ 95% Solids Capture With Flotation Aids
Other Sludge Types)
Source : https://www.ontario.ca/document/design‐guidelines‐sewage‐works/sludge‐thickening‐and‐dewatering
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 32
16
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Wastewater Sludge Processing and Treatment: Sludge Stabilization and Conditioning
Week 8- Lecture 41

IIT KHARAGPUR
33
Sludge Stabilization / Digestion

o The sludge stabilisation intends to reduce
the biological and chemical reactivity of
sludge to a minimum, and is typically
achieved through a biological process
Sludge Digestion, in which organic solids
are decomposed into stable substances.
o Digestion reduces the total mass of solids,

destroys pathogens, and makes it easier to
dewater or dry the sludge into a
inoffensive, rich potting soil like
appearance and characteristics.
o Usually, anaerobic digestion is preferred

for sludge stabilization, while aerobic
digestion can also be used. Source : https://www.lipp‐system.de/system‐solutions/municipality/anaerobic‐sludge‐digestion/?lang=en
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 34
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12‐09‐2018
Typical Anaerobic Sludge Digestion Process Chain
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 35
Anaerobic Sludge Digestion

o Anaerobic digestion is the biological degradation of
organic matter usually performed in a biodigester (air
and watertight structure, that provides anaerobic
conditions), with a batch or continuous configuration,
in either one or two stages.
o During this process, much of the organic matter is
converted to biogas (methane and carbon dioxide).
o The process can reduce the organic matter content of
sludge by 40 and 50 %.
o The process can either be thermophilic digestion, in
which sludge is fermented in tanks at a temperature of
55°C or mesophilic, at a temperature of around 36°C.
Source : http://archive.sswm.info/print/8676?tid=3467
Image Source : https://civildigital.com/anaerobic‐sludge‐digestion/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 36
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12‐09‐2018

o Carried out by mostly obligate anaerobes which acts on the sludge as its food source.
o The process takes place in three phases i.e. liquefaction of solids, digestion of liquefied solids
and gas production, and in sequence similar to the anaerobic wastewater treatment i.e.
hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis.
o Hydrolytic bacteria converts carbohydrates, proteins and fats into simple sugars, amino acids,
alcohols and aldehydes, etc. Acidogenic bacteria converts these into short chain organic acids
or volatile organic acids.
o Acetogenic bacteria converted all short chain organic acids into acetic acids. Finally
methanogens converted all acetic acids into methane as the final end product.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 37

Hydrolysis and acidogenesis
Carbohydrates  Simple sugars  Alcohols, aldehydes  Short chain organic acids
Proteins  Amino acids  Short chain organic acids + NH3
Fats and oils  Short chain organic acids
Acetogenesis
Short chain organic acids  Acetic acid
Methanogenesis
Acetic acid  Methane (35 – 45%) + Carbon dioxide (55 – 75%) + H2S, H2, N2 (in traces)
Overall reaction
Organic matter  CO2 + CH4 + New cells + Energy for cells + Other products (H2S, H2, N2)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 38
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12‐09‐2018
Anaerobic Sludge Digestion: Low Rate vs High Rate

Low Rate High Rate
Images Source : https://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/ENV108/anaerobic.htm
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 39
Anaerobic Sludge Digestion: Single Stage vs Two Stage

Single Stage Duel Stage (High Rate)
Images Source : https://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/ENV108/anaerobic.htm
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 40
20
12‐09‐2018
Aerobic Sludge Digestion

o Aerobic digestion process is similar to activated sludge process.
o As the supply of available substrate (food) is depleted, microorganisms begin to consume their
own protoplasm to obtain energy for cell maintenance reactions, known as endogenous phase.
o Cell components is oxidized aerobically to CO2, H2O and NH3.
o In actual, only 75 – 80% of cell component can be oxidized; the remaining 20 – 25% is composed
of inert components and organic compounds that are not biodegradable.
o Ammonia (NH3) is subsequently oxidized to nitrate as digestion proceeds.
o Few non‐biodegradable volatile suspended solids may remain as end product.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 41
Aerobic Sludge Digestion

Considering the cell mass to be C5H7NO2 as formula, which is to be aerobically digested, major processes of
biomass destruction are as follows:
C5H7NO2 + 5 O2  4 CO2 + H2O + NH4HCO3
Nitrification of released ammonia nitrogen:

NH4+ + 2 O2  NO3 + 2 H+ + H2O
Overall equation with complete nitrification:

C5H7NO2 + 7 O2  5 CO2 + 3 H2O + HNO3
Using nitrate nitrogen as electron acceptor (denitrification):

C5H7NO2 + 4 NO3- + H2O  NH4- + 5 HCO3- + 2 NO2
 Could be operated in batch or continuous mode
With complete nitrification/denitrification:
 Not very common due to energy costs
2 C5H7NO2 + 11.5 O2  10 CO2 + 7 H2O + 2 N2
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 42
21
12‐09‐2018
Sludge Conditioning
o Sludge conditioning aims to improve dewatering characteristics
of the sludge to prepare the sludge for dewatering processes.
o It may be accomplished through the utilization of inorganic or

organic chemicals, or by thermal treatment.
o For chemical conditioning, ferric chloride, lime, alum and

various organic polymers could be used to flocculate the
sludge. The doses required would depend of the type of
coagulant and the characteristic of sludge, and could be
Images Source :
estimated based on the laboratory trials. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sludge_Conditioni
ng_(15083687364).jpg
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 43
Sludge Conditioning
o Thermal treatment of sludge is done either through Wet Air Oxidation at 230 to 290°C and
about 8 MN/m2 pressure, or through Heat Treatment at 175‐200°C & 1‐2 MN/m2 pressures.
o The lower temperature and pressure heat treatment which coagulates solids, breaks down the
gel structure and therefore improves the dewaterability of the sludge is more widely used than
the oxidation process which reduces the sludge to ash.
o Thermal treatment produces more readily dewaterable sludge than with chemical
conditioning, and also provides effective disinfection of the sludge. However, in the process cell
walls of biological organisms are ruptured releasing some bound organic material with water.
o Heat Treatment is usually applicable to biological sludges that may be difficult to stabilize or
condition by other means.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 44
22
12‐09‐2018
Sludge Conditioning
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 45

Wastewater Sludge Processing & Treatment: Dewatering, Hygienisation, Disposal/Reuse
Week 8- Lecture 42

IIT KHARAGPUR
46
23
12‐09‐2018
Sludge Dewatering
o Digested sewage sludge is usually dewatered before disposal or further processing.
o Dewatered sludge can be handled as a solid material even though it still contains a
significant amount of water (often as much as 70 %).
o Sludge Drying Beds provide the simplest method of dewatering, however have large land
footprint. Therefore, at places, other alternatives such as, centrifuges or other mechanical
dewatering systems are used for sludge dewatering.
o Centrifuges and belt filter presses are some of the most popular dewatering methods in
municipal waste water treatment plants due to their good performance and cost efficiency.
o Chamber filter presses or Screw presses are relatively expensive compared to other presses,
and are used more in industrial applications.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 47
Sludge Drawing Beds

o A digested sludge slurry is spread on an open bed of sand
typically supported on gravel and allowed to remain until dry.
Combination of evaporation and gravity drainage processes
makes the sludge dry. Majority of liquid drains off through the
sand in the first few hours after which drying occur due to
evaporation. The drained liquid is collected through a piping
network built under the sand and is pumped back to the head
of the plant.
o The drying period usually varies between 2‐6 weeks depending
on sludge characteristics and climatic conditions including
temperature, rainfall, wind velocity, and relative humidity.
o After drying, the Sludge Cake further shrinks, producing cracks
that accelerate evaporation. Under adverse weather condition, Images Source :
https://www.cawst.org/blog/bydate/2016/09/4‐objectives‐of‐
it may take up to four weeks. fecal‐sludge‐treatment/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 48
24
12‐09‐2018
Sludge Drawing Beds

o Sludge dewatering is typically
focused on reducing the weight and
volume of the sludge so that
disposal costs ‐ including
transportation ‐ are kept to a
minimum.
o Dewatering of sludge increases the
calorific value of incineration of
sludge.
o Dewatering of sludge reduces the
probability of leachate generation of
sludge. Image Source :
Andreoli et. al. (2007). Sludge Treatment and Disposal. Biological Wastewater Treatment Series, Volume VI. IWA Publishing
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 49
Other Dewatering Methods

Hydraulic Press
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 50
25
12‐09‐2018
Sludge Hygienisation
Municipal sewage sludge hygienisation or
disinfection is a procedure to reduce the
content of pathogenic bacteria in the
sludge below a certain level, which is
accepted by the competent authorities.
The need for hygienisation depends on

the sludge disposal method and is
important for agricultural disposal and for
disposal to landscaping.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 51
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 52
26
12‐09‐2018
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 53
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 54
27
12‐09‐2018
Sludge Dewatering and Treatment Methods
Source : Metcalf & Eddy (2013). Wastewater engineering: treatment and reuse. McGraw‐Hill Inc. (2003)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 55
Sludge Incineration
It is possible to receive a positive
energy balance out of incineration and
utilise the calorific value of sludge.
However, the main driver for sludge

incineration is the fact that the
amount of sludge generated at
municipal waste water treatment
plants is very large compared to the
land area available for the disposal or
treatment (e.g. composting) of the
sludge.
Air pollution control is a very

important consideration when sewage
sludge is incinerated Source : http://www.purebalticsea.eu/index.php/gpsm:good_practices
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 56
28
12‐09‐2018
Sludge to Energy Systems
Image Source : http://wri‐india.org/blog/waste‐watts‐how‐sewage‐could‐help‐fix‐indias‐water‐energy‐and‐sanitation‐woes
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 57
Final Disposal / Reuse of Sludge

o The final destination of treated sewage sludge usually is the land or oceans. Dewatered
sludge can be buried underground in a sanitary landfill or dumped to the oceans.
o More recently, beneficial uses for dewatered sludge and ash from sludge incineration
have been developed.
o The more advanced methods of sludge or ash disposal are usually targeting to reuse the
composted or digested sludge in agriculture as a fertiliser or in landscaping, or reuse
phosphorus and/or nitrogen in agriculture as an additional fertiliser.
o It also may be spread on agricultural land in order to make use of its value as a soil
conditioner and fertilizer. Since sludge may contain toxic industrial chemicals, it is not
spread on land where crops are grown for human consumption.
Source : http://www.purebalticsea.eu/index.php/gpsm:good_practices and https://www.britannica.com/technology/wastewater‐treatment/Sludge‐treatment‐and‐disposal
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 58
29
12‐09‐2018
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 59
30
ADDITONAL MATERIAL – ASSIGNMENT 8 (WEEK 8)
The thickened sludge received from secondary treatment with a total volume of 80 m3/day and a total
mass of 3500 kg/day, is to be digested in a standard anaerobic digester. The sludge is 70% organic and
30% inorganic. 60% of the organic fraction is converted to liquid and gaseous end products after a 30-
day period. The digested sludge has a solids content of 5% and must be stored upto a 90-day period.
Based on this information answer the following questions.
Q. 1. The total mass remaining after digestion kg/day is:
Solution:
Given data: Total mass of solids, = 3500 days; Organic fraction = 70 %; Inorganic fraction = 30 %;
Inorganic fraction after digestion period = (100 – 60) = 40 %
Organic fraction of solids = ×0.7 = 2450 kg/day

Organic fraction remaining after digestion period = 2450×0.4 = 980 kg/day
Inorganic fraction of solids = 3500×0.3 = 1050 kg/day
Therefore, total mass of solids remaining after digestion, MS = 980 + 1050 = 2030 kg/day
Q. 2. The digested sludge accumulation rate in m3/day is:
Solution:
Given data: Total mass of solids after digestion, MS = 3500 days (From previous question); solids
content, sc = 5 %; Specific gravity, ρ = 1.01
Therefore, digested sludge accumulation rate, V2 is

MS 2030
V2  => V2  => V2  40.20m / day
3
  sc 1010 0.05
Q. 3. The required digester volume m3 is:
Solution:
Given data: SRT, t = 30 days, digested sludge accumulation rate, V2 = 40.20 m3/day (From previous
question)
Therefore, the required digester volume, V is
V  V2  t
= 40.20 * 30 = 1206 m3
20‐09‐2018

Tertiary (Advanced) Treatment of Wastewater
Week 9- Lecture 43

IIT KHARAGPUR
Tertiary or Advanced Treatment ?

o Treatment levels beyond secondary are called
advanced or tertiary treatment.
o This attempts the removal of stubborn
contaminants which are difficult to remove
by conventional primary or secondary
treatment units.
o Generally, stronger and more advanced
treatment systems are used.
o The purpose is to raise the effluent quality
before it is utilised for reuse/recycling or it is Image Source :
https://www.waterworld.com/articles/wwi/print/volume‐21/issue‐6/features/reverse‐
discharged to the receiving environment. osmosis‐membranes‐play‐key‐role‐in‐wastewater‐reclamation.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 2
1
20‐09‐2018
Tertiary or Advanced Treatment of Wastewater
Waste Water Treatment

Plants using conventional
biological treatment systems
can produce a high quality
effluent (removes 85 to 95
percent of BOD and TSS), but,
typically require further
treatment for reuse
applications.
Source :
https://sites.google.com/a/cherrycreekschools.org/
water‐treatment‐systems/home/tertiary‐treatment
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Source : Lecture Notes by Dr. Arun Kumar, IIT Delhi, Available at http://web.iitd.ac.in/~arunku/files/CVL100_Y16/LecSep2728.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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2
20‐09‐2018

Although majority of suspended solids and
dissolved organics are removed up to secondary
treatment, treatment efficiencies are usually low
for:
o Nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorus)
o Very fine suspended particles
o Recalcitrant organic compounds
o Emerging contaminants
(pesticides, pharmaceuticals, health and personal
care products etc.)
o Dissolved heavy metals
o Resistant microorganisms
etc. Image Source : http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/freshwater/fms1/2.asp
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Why Tertiary Treatment ?

 To provide additional treatment when receiving environment
cannot handle the pollutant load
 Deteriorating water quality of natural resources

 Emerging contaminants
 Wastewater reuse and recycling requirements enforced by

regulatory agencies (due to water availability limitations)
To better protect public health and environment
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 6
3
20‐09‐2018
Tertiary Treatment Objectives

o To remove total suspended solids and organic matter those are present in
effluents after secondary treatment.
o To remove specific organic and inorganic constituents, and emerging

contaminants from water
o To remove residual nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorous)
o To remove pathogens
o To reduce total dissolved solids (TDS)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 7
Tertiary Treatment Options
Image Source : http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e0j.gif
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 8
4
20‐09‐2018
Tertiary Treatment Options
Image Source : http://www.dancesalsa.co/advanced‐wastewater‐treatment‐plant‐process‐diagrams.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 9
Tertiary Treatment Approaches

o The advanced treatment units mostly work on physicochemical principles (for
example ‐ membrane processes, adsorption, Ion exchange, chemical precipitations
etc.) however at times, biological treatments units are also used (for example ‐
nutrients removal).
o As there are multiple options exist for advanced treatment, the identification and
selection of the most appropriate methods is done based on the installation and
operation and maintenance cost, desired degree of treatment, technical suitability,
and reliability of the methods.
o Some treatment steps are integrated with primary or secondary treatment units,
while some may need dedicated treatment units installed post secondary
treatment.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 10
5
20‐09‐2018

Tertiary Treatment: Nutrients Removal
Week 9- Lecture 44

IIT KHARAGPUR
11
Why Remove Nutrients ?

o Excessive levels of nitrogen and phosphorous
disrupt the natural environment. Nutrient
pollution in surface water bodies fuels the
growth of harmful algae (Eutrophication)
which devastate aquatic ecosystems.
o Nutrient pollution can create dead zones
(Hypoxia), where aquatic life cannot survive
due to little or no oxygen. These areas are
caused by algal blooms consuming oxygen as
they die and decompose.
o Waters may have higher than acceptable
nitrate levels for reuse or recycling Source : https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/effects‐environment
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 12
6
20‐09‐2018
Why Remove Nutrients ?

o At times, algal blooms create toxins that
can kill fish and other animals.
o After being consumed by small fish and
shellfish, these toxins move up the food
chain and hurt larger fish and other animals
in water.
o Even if algal blooms are not toxic, they can
hurt aquatic life by blocking out sunlight
and clogging fish gills.
Nutrient removal is an important process in
meeting high quality effluent requirements. Source : https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/effects‐environment
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 13
Nutrient Removal: Options

Nitrification‐denitrification (Biological method)
Nitrogen Removal
Typical Nitrogen Concentrations
in Domestic Sewage = 25 to 50 mg/L Ammonia Striping (Physico‐chemical method)
– Ammonium Nitrogen = 15 to 35 mg/L
– Organic Nitrogen = 10 to 20 mg/L
– Some NO2 –, NO3– could be there
Biological Phosphorous Removal
Phosphorus Removal
Typical Phosphorus Concentrations
in Domestic Sewage = 4 to 8 mg/L Chemical Phosphorous Removal
Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR)

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 14
7
20‐09‐2018
Nitrogen Removal: Nitrification - Denitrification
Bacteria remove nitrogen from

wastewater by a two stage process:
nitrification followed by denitrification.
 The conversion of ammonium to

nitrate through nitrite by
autotrophic bacteria is called
Nitrification.
 The reduction of nitrate (NO3‐) to

nitrogen gas (N2) by facultative
heterotrophic bacteria is called
Denitrification.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 15

o By providing additional aerobic biological treatment, nitrifying bacteria present in
wastewater can biologically convert ammonia to the non‐toxic nitrate (nitrification).
o In a 2‐step nitrification process, Nitrosomonas convert ammonia and ammonium to
nitrite, and Nitrobacter then converts nitrite to nitrate. As reactions are coupled and
proceed rapidly to the nitrate form; nitrite levels at any given time are usually low.
o The nitrification process is normally sufficient to remove the toxicity associated with
ammonia in the effluent.
o In situations where nitrogen must be completely removed from effluent, an additional
biological process to convert the nitrate to nitrogen gas (denitrification), is added. In
anoxic environment, bacteria use the oxygen attached to the nitrogen in the nitrate,
where as a carbon‐source (such as methanol) may be supplied additionally.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 16
8
20‐09‐2018
Nitrification:
Denitrification:
Source : Water Environment Federation: Operation of Municipal

Wastewater Treatment Plants: MoP No. 11, Sixth Edition. Biological
Nutrient Removal Processes, Chapter (McGraw‐Hill Professional,
2008), Access Engineering
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 17

o Effective nitrification depends on sufficient
oxygen and alkalinity (to maintain pH).
Nitrifiers typically require 4.57 mg of oxygen
and 7.14 mg of alkalinity (as calcium carbonate)
for each 1.0 mg of nitrate‐nitrogen formed.
They yield about 0.06 to 0.20 mg of VSS for
each 1.0 mg of nitrate‐nitrogen formed.
o Nitrification typically requires a long retention
time, a low F/M ratio, and a high mean cell
residence time (MCRT). Rate of nitrification is
Source : Water Environment Federation: Operation of Municipal Wastewater
also affected by temperature and pH. Treatment Plants: MoP No. 11, Sixth Edition. Biological Nutrient Removal
Processes, Chapter (McGraw‐Hill Professional, 2008), Access Engineering
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 18
9
20‐09‐2018

o Nitrifying organisms are present in almost all aerobic process sludge but they are less in
number. Under favourable conditions (BOD5 to TKN > 5), carbon oxidation and
nitrification may occur in a single reactor (Single Stage: combined carbon oxidation and
nitrification), which could be accomplished in both suspended and attached growth
process such as trickling filter, ASP, RBC, SBR, etc.
o Nitrification could be achieved in separate reactor as well (Separate Stage or Two Stage:
separate stage carbon oxidation and nitrification), which are similar in design to the
activated‐sludge process for suspended growth nitrification processes. Attached‐growth
processes such as trickling filter process, rotating biological contactor and packed‐bed
reactor could also be used for separate‐stage nitrification.
o Separate‐stage nitrification is usually practiced when BOD5 to TKN < 3
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 19

o Denitrification is accomplished under anaerobic or near anaerobic conditions by
facultative heterotrophic bacteria (Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Achromobacter and
Bacillus etc.) commonly found in wastewater, which convert nitrate to either N2 gas by
bacterial metabolism, or nitrogen contained in cell mass.
o Denitrification occurs when oxygen levels are depleted and nitrate becomes the
primary electron acceptor source for microorganisms.
o Denitrifiers require organic carbon for energy, which could be the endogenous decay
of the organisms, the carbon present in the sewage, or the supplemental sources of
organic carbon (such as methanol).
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 20
10
20‐09‐2018
Attached Growth Nitrification

Suspended Growth Separate Stage Nitrification
Single State Nitrification Attached Growth Nitrification following Act. Sludge

Image Source : Crites R. Tchobanoglous G. Small and decentralised wastewater management systems. ; New York (NY): WCB McGraw Hill; 1998.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 21

Pre‐anoxic Denitrification Post‐anoxic Denitrification
Single Sludge System Two Sludge System
Image Source : Metcalf & Eddy (2013). Wastewater engineering: treatment and reuse. McGraw‐Hill Inc. (2003)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 22
11
20‐09‐2018
Nitrogen Removal: Anammox Process

Anaerobic Ammonium Oxidation (Anammox), discovered in the early nineties achieves bacterial
transformation of ammonium (NH4+) and nitrite (NO2‐) directly into nitrogen gas (N2) and water, instead of
passing through a two‐stage process of aerobic nitrification and anaerobic denitrification. The reaction is
carried out by Anammox bacteria (Candidatus Brocadia anammoxidans) belonging to the group of
planctomycete.
The Anammox reaction can be represented as: NH4+ + NO2‐ = N2 + 2H2O
Source : https://www.sswm.info/water‐nutrient‐
cycle/wastewater‐treatment/hardwares/semi‐
centralised‐wastewater‐treatments/anammox
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 23
Nitrogen Removal: Conventional vs Anammox Process
Source : http://www.hitachi.com/businesses/infrastructure/product_site/water_environment/nitrogen_removal_system/index.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 24
12
20‐09‐2018
Nitrogen Removal: Conventional vs Anammox Process
Source : http://www.hitachi.com/businesses/infrastructure/product_site/water_environment/nitrogen_removal_system/index.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 25
Nitrogen Removal: Air (or Ammonia) Stripping

Under properly controlled conditions, air stripping can
remove ammonia nitrogen from wastewater by converting it
to ammonia (NH3) which exists predominantly in the un‐
ionized, gaseous form at high pH levels.
The gaseous phase NH3 and aqueous phase NH4+ exist

together in equilibrium, controlled by the pH and the
temperature. NH4+ + OH‐ = NH3 + 2H2O
Dissolved ammonium is converted to gaseous phase and then

dispersed in air, thus allowing transfer of the ammonia from
wastewater to the air. The pH must be greater than 11 for Image Source :
http://files.dep.state.pa.us/Water/BSDW/OperatorCertificati
complete conversion to NH3. on/TrainingModules/ww08_advanced_wastewater_wb.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 26
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20‐09‐2018

o Typically lime is the most common means for raising the pH.
o Enough lime must be added to precipitate the alkalinity and
to add the excess OH‐ ions for pH adjustment.
o The air to wastewater ratio ranging from 2000 to 6000 m3 of
air/m3 of wastewater is used for design.
o Tower depths are generally less than 7.5 m, and hydraulic
loading vary from 40 to 46 L/min.m2 of tower.
o Ammonia Stripping works well for 10‐100 mg/L ammonia
and is less expensive than nitrification‐denitrification, but it
does not work very efficiently in cold weather.
Image Source : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_stripping
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 27
Image Source : http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Air_stripping Image Source : http://www.tecnium.es/en/lixiviate‐stripping/lixiviate‐stripping
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 28
14
20‐09‐2018
Phosphorous Removal
o Normally secondary treatment can only remove 1‐2 mg/l of phosphorus, so a large
excess of phosphorus remained in outlet from secondary units.
o Generally it appears as orthophosphate, polyphosphate and organically bound

phosphorus.
o Phosphate removal is currently achieved largely by chemical precipitation as it is

reliable in performance and easy to operate, but is expensive and causes an increase of
sludge volume by up to 40%.
o An alternative is the biological phosphate removal (BPR), which is accomplished by

sequencing and producing the appropriate environmental condition in the reactors.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 29
Phosphorous Removal: Biological Method

o Specific bacteria, Poly‐P heterotrophic bacteria also called polyphosphate
accumulating organisms (PAOs), have potential to accumulate large quantities of
phosphorus within their cells (up to 20% of their mass) under specific growth regimes.
o These are selectively enriched in the target wastewater, which requires, anaerobic‐
aerobic sequencing, COD:P ratios > 45, and high phosphorus levels.
o For effective removal, microorganisms are transfered back and forth between
controlled environments that first forces them to release phosphorus from their cells
and then induces them to absorb more phosphorus than they normally would.
o When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is separated from the treated water, the
phosphate levels in water is decreased substantially.
o These biosolids have a high fertilizer value.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 30
15
20‐09‐2018
Enhanced Biological Phosphorous Removal (EBPR)
Image Source : https://www.lenntech.com/phosphorous‐removal.htm
The presence of a sufficient VFAs in the anaerobic reactor upstream of the aerobic reactors triggers the
development of a PAOs bacterial population that normally is not encountered in an ASP.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 31
Enhanced Biological Phosphorous Removal (EBPR)

o In the anaerobic environment, the PAOs absorb
VFAs in their cells in the form of internal
polymers such as polyhydroxy‐butyrate (PHB).
To supply the energy, the PAO use the energy of
previously stored polyphosphate, which is split
into orthophosphate (PO43‐) and then released
from the cell.
o In the subsequent aerobic reactor, the PHB is

used by the PAO as a energy source. Part of the
released energy is used to regenerate the
polyphosphate released in the anaerobic
reactor. In this process, phosphate is absorbed
from the liquid phase by the PAOs. Image Source : https://knowhowtogmo.wordpress.com/2011/02/01/biological‐
phosphorus‐removal‐from‐waste‐water/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 32
16
20‐09‐2018
Biological Phosphorous Removal
Image Source : http://files.dep.state.pa.us/Water/BSDW/OperatorCertification/TrainingModules/ww08_advanced_wastewater_wb.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 33
Phosphorous Removal: Chemical Method

Lime based precipitation:
Excess of lime is added to the wastewater causing phosphorus to form a precipitate with calcium
hydroxide. This precipitate can be flocculated and removed from the wastewater by settling
Source : http://files.dep.state.pa.us/Water/BSDW/OperatorCertification/TrainingModules/ww08_advanced_wastewater_wb.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 34
17
20‐09‐2018
Phosphorous Removal: Chemical Method

By Alum Flocculation:
When alum (aluminum sulfate) is added to wastewater, a precipitate of aluminum phosphate forms.
Aluminum phosphate is not a dense precipitate and requires flocculation with a polymer, and often
filtration to achieve adequate removal of the precipitate.
Source : http://files.dep.state.pa.us/Water/BSDW/OperatorCertification/TrainingModules/ww08_advanced_wastewater_wb.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 35

Tertiary Treatment: Adsorption and Ion Exchange
Week 9- Lecture 45

IIT KHARAGPUR
36
18
20‐09‐2018
Adsorption for Wastewater Treatment

o Adsorption is typically used for removing a
wide range of compounds from industrial
wastewater, especially implemented for the
removal of various micropollutants, non-
degradable organic compounds, and a few
metals from wastewater, or source waters. Image Source : https://www.microtrac‐bel.com/en/tech/bel/entry40.html
o Adsorption is a mass transfer process

which involves the accumulation of
pollutant at the solid surfaces thereby
leaving the water phase.
Image Source : http://www.degremont.com/en/news/special‐
topics/micropollutants‐in‐water‐treatment‐processes/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 37
Adsorption Mechanism
Image Source : Tan and Hameed (2017). Insight into the adsorption kinetics
models for the removal of contaminants from aqueous solutions, Journal of
the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 74, 25‐48
Image Source : https://web.wpi.edu/Pubs/E‐project/Available/E‐project‐022813‐180922/unrestricted/IBP_MQP.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 38
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Types of Adsorption
Physical / Physisorption (van der Waals adsorption):
• Weak bonding
• Exothermic (of the order of 0.1 Kcal/mole)
• Reversible
Chemical / Chemisorption:
• Chemical bonding by reaction
• Exothermic (of the order of 10 Kcal/mole)
• May be irreversible
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 39
Adsorbents used for Wastewater Treatment

Activated carbon is by far the most commonly used adsorbent and is
particularly suited to the removal of refractory organics.
Other adsorbents are used for specific applications:

 Natural or synthetic zeolites (alumina-silicate-polymers)
• Have a very homogenous pore distribution and polar bonding sites. Zeolites are a lot
more selective than active carbon;
 Natural clay minerals
• Used for the adsorption of very polar organic and inorganic matter (ions);
 Silica gel and activated aluminium
• Very polar adsorbents with large affinity for water – normally used to remove water from
an apolar medium;
 Silicic acid Source : https://emis.vito.be/en/techniekfiche/adsorption‐techniques
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 40
20
20‐09‐2018
Carbon Based Adsorbents
PAC ‐ Powdered activated carbon; particle size 1‐150 μm

GAC ‐ Granular activated carbon, particle size 0.5‐4 mm
EAC ‐ Extruded activated carbon, particle size 0.8‐4 mm
Image Source : http://aqua‐cache.com/components/wpu
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 41
Adsorption on Activated Carbon

A typical carbon particle has numerous pores that provide a large
surface area for water treatment
Activated carbon is prepared to exhibits a high degree of porosity

and an extended surface area
Contaminants adhere to the surface of these carbon granules or

become trapped in the small pores of the activated carbon
Activated carbon filters are efficient to remove certain organics,

metals, chlorine, fluorine or radon and other micro pollutants
from water.
However, it is not effective for microbial contaminants, some Image Source :

metals, nitrates and other inorganic contaminants. https://www.elgalabwater.com/technologies/activated‐carbon
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 42
21
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Activated Carbon Filter
Image Source : Image Source : http://www.aesarabia.com/activated‐carbon‐filters/

https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/activated‐carbon‐filter‐7801791830.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 43
Activated Carbon Filter
Image Source : https://www.euwa.com/activated‐

carbon‐filtration.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 44
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20‐09‐2018
Activated Carbon Adsorption: Effectiveness

Active carbon adsorption can be implemented for removing the following parameters
(removal efficiency in brackets):
Removal efficiency (%) of chlorinated compounds from wastewater by
five commercially available types of activated carbon Source: Pavonia et al 2006
o BTEX (80‐99,9 %);
o PAH (98‐99,8 %);
o AOX (>90 %);
o COD;
o Colorants;
o Alcohols, xylenes;
o phenols (60 – 90 %);
o Zeolite adsorption;
o NH4‐N (flows with maximum 40 mg/l, 99%).
Source : https://emis.vito.be/en/techniekfiche/adsorption‐techniques
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 45
Ion-Exchange
o Ion Exchange (IX) process is typically used for dissolved ionic impurities
and hardness.
o Contaminant ions in water is removed by exchange with another non-

objectionable, or less objectionable ionic substance.
Image Source : Source: Asian Water, March 2009
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 46
23
20‐09‐2018
Ion Exchange Process

o Ion exchange is a physical‐chemical process in which ions are swapped between a
solution phase and solid resin phase.
o The solid resin is typically an elastic three‐dimensional hydrocarbon network containing a
large number of ionizable groups electrostatically bound to the resin.
o A synthetic resin of relatively well defined ion exchange capacity echanges ions held
electrostatically on the surface with ions of similar charge dissolved in water.
o The target ion removal is accomplished by continuously passing water under pressure
through one or more columns packed with exchange resin.
o Ion exchangers hold the retained ion temporarily, and then release it to a regenerant
solution.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 47
Ion Exchange Resins

Ionizable groups attached to the resin bead determine the
functional capability of the resin, classified into four basic
categories:
 Strong Acid Cation (SAC)

 Strong Base Anion (SBA)
 Weak Acid Cation (WAC)
 Weak Base Anion (WBA)
Image Source :
https://www.cleanindiajournal.com/principle_of_ion_exchange/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 48
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Ion Exchange Resins

Strong Acid Cation (SAC): Remove nearly all cations, replacing them with hydrogen ion
Weak Acid Cation (WAC): Remove cations associated with alkalinity, producing carbonic acid
Strong Base Anion (SBA): Remove all commonly encountered anions
Weak Base Anion (WBA): Readily re‐move sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids
Source : https://gewater.com/handbook/ext_treatment/ch_8_ionexchange.jsp
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 49
Ion Exchange Resin Properties
Image Source : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion‐exchange_resin

Image Source : http://kbkf.kkft.bme.hu/labor/ion_exchange.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 50
25
20‐09‐2018
Ion Exchange: The Principle of Selectivity

o Different ions do interact differently with the functional groups of ion exchangers.
Some are strongly bound, some are less strongly bound.
o A more selective ion binds more strongly than a less selective ion.
o A weakly bound ion can preferably be displaced by a stronger binding ion. This
effect is called the principle of “selectivity”.
o The effect of selectivity can be used to remove distinct ions from water and to
replace them with others.
Image Source : Asian Water, March 2009
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 51
Ion Exchange Typical Process
 Anion demineralizers
containing anion resin
 Cation demineralizers
containing cation resin
 Mixed‐bed demineralizers
containing both cation
and anion resins.
Source : http://kbkf.kkft.bme.hu/labor/ion_exchange.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 52
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Ion Exchange Typical Process
Source : https://iaspub.epa.gov/tdb/pages/treatment/treatmentOverview.do?treatmentProcessId=263654386
Source : http://kbkf.kkft.bme.hu/labor/ion_exchange.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 53
Ion Exchange Process: Regeneration

The "reactivation" process of resin is called regeneration and is carried out using a strong
acid for the cation (as a source of hydronium ions) and caustic solution (e.g sodium
hydroxide) as a source of hydroxyl ions for the anion.
Regeneration of the exchange material involves three steps:

o Backwash: reversal of the normal flow to wash out any suspended matter in the bed and to
“fluff” the bed
o Introduction of the regeneration chemicals: to reactivate the resign by replacing the
contaminant ions with regenerant ions.
o Rinse: washing out the last traces of regenerant chemical
Units are usually installed in duplicate to permit continuous service during regeneration.
Images Source : http://kbkf.kkft.bme.hu/labor/ion_exchange.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 54
27
20‐09‐2018
Ion Exchange Process:
Co flow regeneration
Reverse flow regeneration
Images Source : http://dardel.info/IX/processes/regeneration.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 55
Ion Exchange Process: Cocurrent vs Countercurrent
Images Source : http://kbkf.kkft.bme.hu/labor/ion_exchange.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 56
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Ion Exchange Limitations

o Exhaustion
o Differential pressure
o Temperature
o Radiation exposure
o Competitive ions
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 57

Tertiary Treatment: Membrane Processes
Week 9- Lecture 46

IIT KHARAGPUR
58
29
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Membrane Processes for the Wastewater Treatment

Objectives: Removal of trace levels of all contaminants
Image Source :
https://canvas.jmu.edu/courses/1484140/pages/membrane‐filtration Image Source : https://www.nap.edu/read/13303/chapter/6
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 59
Membrane Processes
o A membrane is a selective barrier that permits the separation of certain species in a fluid
by combination of sieving and diffusion mechanisms
o Membranes can separate particles and molecules and over a wide particle size range and
molecular weights
o Membrane processes are being used increasingly for the production of "pure" waters
from fresh water and seawater.
o Although expensive, membrane technology is advancing quickly becoming less

expensive, improving performance, and extending life expectancy.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 60
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Membrane Operation
Image Source : http://www.porexfiltration.com/learning‐center/technology/tmf‐industrial‐wasterwater/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 61
Membrane Processes
According to the driving force of the operation it is possible to distinguish:
o Pressure driven operations – microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis
o Concentration driven operations – dialysis, pervaporation, forward osmosis, artificial
lung, gas separation
o Electric potential gradient driven operations – electrodialysis, membrane electrolysis,
electrofiltration, fuel cell
o Temperature gradient driven operations– membrane distillation
In general, wastewater treatment mostly used are pressure driven processes (microfiltration,
ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis) and electrodialysis.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 62
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Membrane Processes: Removal Spectrum
o Reverse Osmosis (RO)
o Nanofiltration (NF)
o Ultrafiltration (UF)
o Microfiltration (MF)
Image Source :
https://canvas.jmu.edu/courses/1484140/pages/membrane‐filtration
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 63
Membrane Processes
Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration
o Rely on pure straining through porosity in the membranes.
o Pressure required is lower than RO and covers for frictional head losses
Nanofiltration
o Divalent cations and anions are preferentially rejected over the monovalent cations
and anions.
o Some organics with MW > 100 ‐500 are removed.
o There is an osmotic pressure developed but it is less than that of the RO process.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 64
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Membrane Processes
Reverse Osmosis
o RO is the process of reversing the osmosis flow, forcing water through a membrane
from a concentrated solution to a dilute solution to produce filtered water. Sufficient
pressure is applied to the concentrated solution to overcome the osmotic pressure.
o Contaminants are reduced from the membrane’s high‐pressure side, and filtered water
is reduced from the low‐pressure side.
o RO modules may be staged in various designs, producing the highest‐quality permeate
with the least amount of waste.
o Typically, all particulates and 95% of dissolved salts are reduced. However, due to their
molecular porosity, RO do not remove dissolved gases, such as Cl2, CO2, and O2.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 65
Membrane Flow Geometries
Image Source : Fane A.G.., Wang R., Jia Y. (2011) Membrane Technology: Past, Present and Future. In: Wang L.K., Chen J.P., Hung YT., Shammas N.K. (eds) Membrane and Desalination
Technologies. Handbook of Environmental Engineering, vol 13. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Membrane Configuration
Image Source : http://archive.sswm.info/category/step‐rrr‐business‐development/module‐2‐sector‐inputs/technological‐options/technological‐20
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 67
Membrane Configuration: Spiral wound
Image Source : http://www.chemtechfiltration.com/membrane_configuration.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 68
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Membrane Configuration: Hollow Fiber
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 69
Membrane Configuration: Tubular
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 70
35
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Typical Membranes Reactors
Image Source : https://www.wigen.com/products/reverse‐osmosis‐nanofiltration.php
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 71
Typical Membranes
Applications
o Desalting
o Softening
o Trace metals and ions removal
o Removing color, odor, and other

organic contaminants
o Removing microbial contaminations
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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20‐09‐2018
Electrodialysis (ED)
o Transfer ions of dissolved salts across membranes, leaving purified water behind. A
negative electrode (cathode) attracts cations, and a positive electrode (anode) attracts
anions.
o Ion movement is induced by direct current electrical fields.
o Systems are compartmentalized in stacks by alternating cation and anion transfer
membranes.
o Typically, 40‐60% of dissolved ions are rejected. Further improvement in water quality is
obtained by operation of stacks in series.
o ED processes do not remove particulate contaminants or weakly ionized contaminants,
such as silica.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 73
Electrodialysis (ED)
Image Source : Barakat, M. (2011). New Trends in Removing Heavy Metals from Industrial Wastewater, Arabian Journal of Chemistry 4(4):361‐377
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Membrane Modules Suitability
Process Tubular Hollow Fiber Plate and Frame Spiral Wound
Microfiltration Good Not suitable Good Not suitable

Ultrafiltration Good Adequate Good Adequate
Nanofiltration Good Good Good Adequate
Reverse
Adequate Good Adequate Good
Osmosis
Pervaporation Adequate Good Good Good
Electrodialysis Not suitable Not suitable Good Not suitable
Source : https://www.climate‐policy‐watcher.org/wastewater‐treatment/membrane‐processes‐for‐advanced‐wastewater‐treatment.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 75
Membrane Fouling
Chemical fouling:
Potential deposition and accumulation of constituent (Ca and Mg salts etc.) present in the
feed stream on the membrane.
Biological fouling:
Various microorganisms can deposit on membrane surface.
Control of fouling:
Controlled by pretreatment of wastewater: Prefilteration, Chlorination, UV application in
upstream of the membrane
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Membrane Cleaning and Concentrate Disposal

o Membranes can be cleaned physically, biologically or chemically.
o Physical cleaning includes sponges, water jets or back flushing using a permeate.
o Biological cleaning uses biocides/disinfectants to remove all viable microorganisms,

whereas chemical cleaning involves the use of acids and bases to remove foulants.
Concentrate disposal
o Combine with reclaimed water and release to surface water.
o Deep Well injection ‐ Limited by Geology
o Evaporation/Crystallization ‐ Capacity limited
o Irrigating golf courses and roadway vegetation ‐ Environmental limitations
o Saline wetlands ‐ Capacity Limited
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 77
Membrane Processes: Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages o High performance
o Compact units: less space needed than conventional treatment schemes
o Simple operation
o Membranes available can be used to separate many kinds of contaminants
o Disinfection can be performed without chemicals
Disadvantages o Membrane fouling

o Production of polluted water (Reject / Concentrated and Backwashing)
o Membranes have to be replaced on a regular basis
Source : http://archive.sswm.info/category/step‐rrr‐business‐development/module‐2‐sector‐inputs/technological‐options/technological‐20
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Tertiary Treatment: Disinfection and Chemical Treatments
Week 9- Lecture 47

IIT KHARAGPUR
79
Solids Removal: Coagulation, Sedimentation, and/or Filtration

o The effluent from secondary systems may have small particles that are too small to
be removed by settling.
o These could be removed by sedimentation and/or filtration with addition of
coagulants.
o A simple sand filtration after secondary sedimentation tank could also effectively
remove remaining solids in secondary effluent.
o Usually inorganic coagulants are used, however a blending of organic and inorganic
coagulants could also be used.
o Inorganic coagulants facilitate sweep floc coagulation and organic coagulants helps
sludge generation.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
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Solids Removal: Coagulation, Sedimentation, and/or Filtration

o Alum, lime, or iron salts are chemicals added to the watewater to remove fine
solids. With the chemicals, the smaller particles clump or 'floc' together into large
masses. The larger masses of particles will settle out in the sedimentation tank or
retained in filtration.
Organic Coagulants Inorganic Coagulants

Polyamine Al. Sulfate & Al. chloride
Melamine Formaldehydes Polyaluminum Chloride
Tannins Ferric Sulfate & Ferric chloride
PolyDADMAC Aluminum Chlorohydrate
Polyacrylamide Ferrous Sulfate
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Chemical (Co-)Precipitation of Dissolved Metal Ions

o Several heave metal ions such as Cu, Ni, Fe etc. could be
removed by chemical precipitation. Lime may be used to
raise the pH to a level where target metal can precipitate
as metal hydroxides.
o Also few metals such as As gets attached to the flocs

through adsorption (co‐precipitation). For removal
through co‐precipitation, a coagulant (alum or iron salt )
may be added to generate micro‐flocs.
o During the coagulation‐flocculation process many micro‐

particles and charged ions are attached onto the flocs.
Subsequently sedimentation/filtration could be used to
separate the flocs, together with the co‐precipitated Image Source : http://www.porexfiltration.com/learning‐
center/technology/precipitation‐microfiltration/
metal ions.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
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Advanced Oxidation Processes

o Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are used to treat wastewater having components with
high chemical stability and/or low biodegradability, and targets the complete mineralization
of pollutants to CO2, water, and inorganic compounds, or at least their transformation into
more innocuous products.
o At times, AOPs are used as pre‐treatments to biological processes, as the partial

decomposition of non‐biodegradable organic pollutants can lead to biodegradable
intermediates.
o The AOPs essentially target oxidation through highly reactive •OH radicals, which could be
produced using different reagent systems, which include photochemical degradation
processes (UV/O3, UV/H2O2), photocatalysis (TiO2/UV, photo‐Fenton reactives), and chemical
oxidation processes (O3, O3/H2O2, H2O2/Fe2+).
AOPs → •OH− (+ pollutant) → CO2 + H2O + inorganic ions

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 83
Image Source : Poyatos, J.M., Muñio, M.M., Almecija, M.C. et al. Water
Air Soil Pollut (2010) 205: 187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270‐009‐
0065‐1
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Advanced Oxidation Processes: Mechanism
Image Source : https://www.sswm.info/sswm‐university‐course/module‐6‐disaster‐situations‐planning‐and‐preparedness/further‐resources‐0/advanced‐oxidation‐processes
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IIT KHARAGPUR 85
Source : https://www.sswm.info/sswm‐university‐course/module‐6‐disaster‐situations‐planning‐and‐preparedness/further‐resources‐0/advanced‐oxidation‐processes
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Disinfection
o Depending on the end‐use of the effluent or discharge standards, it may be required to
remove pathogens from secondary treated effluent. For the purpose, treated wastewater can
be disinfected by chlorination, ozonation or by using ultraviolet light.
Common Disinfectants:
o NaOCl
o Ca(OCl)2
o Cl2 gas
o Chloramines
o Ozone
o UV irradiation
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 87
Disinfection:
o Disinfection normally involves the injection of a chlorine solution at the head end of a
chlorine contact basin. The chlorine dosage depends upon the strength of the
wastewater and other factors, but dosages of 5 to 15 mg/l are common.
o Chlorine contact basins are usually rectangular channels, with baffles to prevent short‐
circuiting, designed to provide a contact time of about 30 minutes. However, to meet
advanced wastewater treatment requirements, a chlorine contact time of as long as
120 minutes is sometimes required for specific irrigation uses of reclaimed wastewater.
o Ozone and ultra violet (uv) irradiation can also be used for disinfection but these
methods of disinfection are less common.
o The bactericidal effects of chlorine and other disinfectants are dependent upon pH,
contact time, organic content, and effluent temperature.
Source : http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e05.htm
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Disinfection
Images Source : https://www.sswm.info/node/8295
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IIT KHARAGPUR 89
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 90
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Wastewater Treatment Systems: Options and Conventional Approach
Week 10 - Lecture 48

IIT KHARAGPUR
Wastewater Treatment Systems (Plants)

Wastewater Treatment Plants are usually an integration of different treatment units for the
removal of target contaminants from wastewater.
Nagpur
200 MLD Sewage
Treatment Plant (STP)
Image Source : http://vilindia.com/waste‐water/waste‐water‐ppp/200‐mld‐waste‐water‐treatment‐project‐in‐nagpur
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 2
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Wastewater Treatment Systems (Plants)

Several unit operation and
unit processes options are
available for wastewater
treatment systems
Blue Plains
Wastewater Treatment Plant,
Washington, US
Image Source : https://www.aecom.com/sg/projects/blue‐plains‐wastewater‐treatment‐plant/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Wastewater Treatment Unit Processes and Operations
Image Source : https://www.nap.edu/read/13514/chapter/1#7
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Wastewater Treatment Units: The Various Options

The selection of choices depends on
several factor including:
o Desired degree of treatment
o Regulatory requirements
o Available budget
o Installation and O&M Cost
o Land availability
o Skills available
o Climatic conditions
o Technical reliability
o Operation and maintenance
o Social acceptability
o etc. Image Source : http://www.olicognography.org/drawings/wastewatertreatmentoptions.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Wastewater Treatment Units: The Various Options
Sequencing of various
treatment units with‐
in a plant is also
important.
Image Source : http://ccert.info/water‐treatment‐flow‐diagram/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Wastewater Treatment Systems: Conventional ASP
Image Source : http://www.biologydiscussion.com/waste‐management/waste‐water‐treatment/processes‐of‐waste‐water‐treatment‐4‐process‐with‐diagram/10989
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 7
Wastewater Treatment Systems: Conventional UASB
Image Source : http://wastewaterengineering.com/uasb_upflow_anaerobic_sludge_blanket.htm
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 8
4
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Wastewater Treatment Systems: Integrated Systems: Wetlands
Week 10- Lecture 49

IIT KHARAGPUR
Alternate Treatment Approaches

o Deviating from conventional wastewater approaches, new systems are being
developed to treat wastewater.
o These systems also rely on standard physicochemical and biological processes,

however the selection and integration of various processes are done for optimizing
treatment efficiency or reducing cost and energy consumptions.
o The treatment units are usually configured differently than traditional treatment
systems.
o These are usually more applicable for decentralized sewage treatment or industrial
effluent treatments. However some processes are suitable for large scale operation as
well.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 10
5
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Alternate Treatment Approaches

Some of the commonly used treatment systems are:
o Natural or Constructed Wetlands
o Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
o Sequencing Batch Biofilm Reactors (SBBR)
o Membrane Bio Reactors (MBR)
o Moving Bed Bio Reactor (MBBR)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 11
Natural Wetlands
East Kolkata Natural Wetland
Natural wetland systems

are like “earth’s kidneys”
as they filter pollutants
from water that flows
through on its way to
receiving lakes, streams,
oceans or subsurface.
Image Source : https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/2017/03/13/east‐kolkata‐wetlands‐face‐new‐threats‐by‐government/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 12
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Constructed (Artificial) Wetlands

o An engineered system A Constructed Wetland in Andhra Pradesh
constructed to replicate
the functions of natural
wetlands.
o Constructed wetlands
are treatment systems
designed and
constructed to utilize
the natural processes
involving wetland
vegetation, soils, and
microbial systems for
treating wastewater. Image Source : http://www.biomatrixwater.com/portfolio‐posts/constructed‐wetland‐for‐wastewater‐treatment‐in‐andhra‐pradesh/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 13
Major Treatment Processes in Wetlands

o Adsorption
o Filtration
o Hydrolysis
o Biodegradation
o Bioaccumulation
o Phytoremediation
o Photo‐remediation
Image Source : https://www.wallacesfarmer.com/conservation/iowa‐wetland‐bank‐program‐provides‐credits
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Pollutant Removal Mechanism in Wetlands
Source : UN‐HABITAT, 2008. Constructed Wetlands Manual. UN‐HABITAT Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal, Kathmandu.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 15
Constructed (Artificial) Wetlands

o Designed to operate the processes that occur in natural wetlands in a more controlled
fashion.
o Allow the establishment of
treatment facilities with well‐
defined composition of substrate,
type of vegetation, and flow pattern.
o Offer better control over the
hydraulic pathways and retention
time compared to natural wetlands
o Provide flexibility in site selection
and sizing. Image Source : https://ars.els‐cdn.com/content/image/1‐s2.0‐S1001074217303108‐fx1_lrg.jpg
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Constructed Wetlands: Components

Major components:
o Basin
o Substrate (Media)
o Vegetation
o Liner
o Inlet/Outlet arrangements
o Underdrainage system
Image Source : UN‐HABITAT, 2008. Constructed Wetlands Manual. UN‐HABITAT Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal, Kathmandu.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 17
Constructed Wetlands: Types
Image Source : Wu et al (2014). Development of constructed wetlands in

performance intensifications for wastewater treatment: A nitrogen and organic
Image Source : https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978‐1‐4020‐8580‐2_4.pdf
matter targeted review, Water Research, 57, 40‐55
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 18
9
25‐09‐2018
Constructed Wetlands: Free-Water Surface

A free‐water surface constructed wetland aims to replicate the naturally occurring
processes of a natural wetland, marsh or swamp. As water slowly flows through the
wetland, particles settle, pathogens are destroyed, and organisms and plants utilize the
nutrients.
Source : https://www.sswm.info/sswm‐university‐course/module‐6‐disaster‐situations‐planning‐and‐preparedness/further‐resources/free‐water‐surface‐constructed‐wetland
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 19
Constructed Wetlands: Vertical Flow

A vertical flow constructed wetland is a planted filter bed that is drained at the bottom.
Wastewater is poured or dosed onto the surface from above using a mechanical dosing
system. The water flows vertically down through the filter matrix to the bottom of the
basin where it is collected in a drainage pipe.
Source : https://www.sswm.info/water‐nutrient‐cycle/wastewater‐treatment/hardwares/semi‐centralised‐wastewater‐treatments/vertical‐flow‐constructed‐wetland
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 20
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Constructed Wetlands: Horizontal Subsurface Flow

A horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland is a large gravel and sand‐filled basin
that is planted with wetland vegetation. As wastewater flows horizontally through the
basin, the filter material filters out particles and microorganisms degrade the organics.
Source : https://www.sswm.info/water‐nutrient‐cycle/wastewater‐treatment/hardwares/semi‐centralised‐wastewater‐treatments/horizontal‐subsurface‐flow‐constructed‐wetland
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 21
Constructed Wetlands: Hybrid

Different types of constructed wetlands can be combined in order to achieve a higher
treatment efficiency by using the advantages of individual systems. Most hybrid
constructed wetlands combine vertical filter and horizontal filter stages.
Source : http://archive.sswm.info/print/8673?tid=3464
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 22
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Constructed Wetlands: Design Configurations

o Life form of the dominating macrophytes (free‐floating, emergent, submerged)
o Flow pattern (free water surface flow; subsurface flow: horizontal and vertical)
o Type of configurations (hybrid systems, one‐stage, multi‐stage systems)
o Type of wastewater to be treated
o Treatment level of wastewater (primary, secondary or tertiary)
o Type of pre‐treatment
o Influent and effluent structures
o Type of substrate (gravel, soil, sand, etc.)
o Type of loading (continuous or intermittent loading)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 23
Constructed Wetlands: Advantages and Limitations

Advantages:
o wetlands can be less expensive to build than other treatment options
o utilization of natural processes,
o simple construction (can be constructed with local materials),
o simple operation and maintenance,
o cost effectiveness (low construction and operation costs),
o process stability.
Limitations:
o large area requirement
o wetland treatment may be economical relative to other options only where land is available and
affordable.
o design criteria have yet to be developed for different types of wastewater and climates.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 24
12
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Constructed Wetlands: Suggested Readings
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 25

Alternate Wastewater Treatment Systems: SBR and SBBR
Week 10- Lecture 50

IIT KHARAGPUR
26
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Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBR)

o Sequencing batch reactors (SBR) are a 100 MLD SBR at Vashi, Navi Mumbai
different configuration of the conventional
activated sludge process for the treatment
of wastewater, in which the process are
operated in batches in the same reactor,
and each batch is sequenced through a
series of treatment stages.
o All the processes including sedimentation,

biodegradation and biosolid separation are
achieved in the same reactor, but at
different times.
Image Source : http://www.hnbc.in/pdf/sewage‐treatment/sbr/vashi.pdf
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IIT KHARAGPUR 27
Phases in the SBR Operation Cycle
Five stages in the treatment process

o Fill
o React
o Settle
o Decant
o Idle
Image Source : Sequencing Batch Reactor Design and Operational Considerations, available at www.neiwpcc.org
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Fill
The basin receives influent wastewater. Mixing and aeration can be varied during the fill
phase to create the the different scenarios:
o Static Fill – No mixing or aeration while the influent wastewater is entering the tank. It is used
during the initial start‐up phase of a facility, or at plants that do not need to nitrify or denitrify
o Mixed Fill – Mechanical mixers are used produces a uniform blend of influent wastewater and
biomass, but the aerators remain off. Because there is no aeration, an anoxic or anaerobic
condition prevails promoting denitrification and release of phosphorous.
o Aerated Fill – Both the aerators and the mechanical mixing unit are activated. The contents of
the basin are aerated intermittently to produce aerobic as well as anoxic conditions.
Source : Sequencing Batch Reactor Design and Operational Considerations, available at www.neiwpcc.org
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 29

React
The biochemical reactions allow the removal of carbonaceous BOD in the react phase at
rapid rates. Nitrification occurs by allowing the mixing and aeration to continue, while the
majority of denitrification takes place in the mixed‐fill phase. The phosphorus released
during mixed fill, plus some additional phosphorus, is taken up during the react phase.
Settle
During this phase, activated sludge is allowed to settle under quiescent conditions. The
activated sludge tends to settle as a flocculent mass, forming a distinctive interface with
the clear supernatant. The sludge mass is called the sludge blanket. This phase is a critical
part of the cycle, because if the solids do not settle rapidly, sludge washout can take place
in the subsequent decant phase and thereby degrade effluent quality.
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Decant
During this phase, a decanter is used to remove the clear supernatant effluent. Once the
settle phase is complete, a signal is sent to the decanter to initiate the opening of an
effluent‐discharge valve. There are floating and fixed‐arm decanters. Floating decanters
maintain the inlet orifice slightly below the water surface to minimize the removal of
solids in the effluent. Fixed‐arm decanters allow the operator to lower or raise the level of
the decanter. The vertical distance from the decanter to the bottom should be maximized
to avoid disturbing the settled biomass.
Idle
This step occurs between the decant and the fill phases. The time varies, based on the
influent flow rate and the operating strategy. During this phase, a small amount of
activated sludge at the bottom of the SBR basin is pumped out—a process called wasting.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 31
SBR: Operating Principle
Image Source : https://www.suezwaterhandbook.com/processes‐and‐technologies/biological‐processes/suspended‐growth‐cultures/sequencing‐batch‐reactor‐process and

https://www.iwapublishing.com/news/sequencing‐batch‐reactor
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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SBR: Advantages and Limitations
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 33
Sequencing Batch Biofilm Reactors (SBBR)

o The SBR can be combined with biofilm growth on the surface of a support material,
originating the sequencing batch biofilm reactor (SBBR).
o These processes use carriers which are designed to provide a protective surface to the
biofilm and optimal conditions for cultivation of microorganisms when they are freely
suspended in water.
o A higher surface area of carriers can provide more sites for microorganisms to absorb and
grow.
o Biofilm carriers are used for upgrading current wastewater treatment systems.
Source : http://www.ijirst.org/articles/IJIRSTV1I10040.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Sequencing Batch Biofilm Reactors (SBBR)

o The SBBR system has attracted a great deal of attention due to its ability to take the
advantages of both a biofilm reactor and an SBR. In pure biofilm reactors the biomass
grows only on carriers, whereas in SBBRs, both biofilm and suspended activated sludge
are in the same tank.
o In the SBBRs, the biomass grows as a biofilm on small plastic carriers that move freely
into the wastewater
o Many studies have been performed by modifying the typical SBR to provide high surface
area for biofilm growth. SBBRs are being used in the treatment of domestic wastewater,
dairy wastewater, textile wastewater, tannery wastewater, leachate and for nutrient
removal with pollutant removal efficiency higher than traditional SBRs.
Source : http://www.ijirst.org/articles/IJIRSTV1I10040.pdf
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 35

Alternate Wastewater Treatment Systems: MBR and MBBR
Week 10- Lecture 51

IIT KHARAGPUR
36
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Membrane Bioreactors (MBR)

o Combination of a suspended
growth biological treatment
method, usually ASP, with
membrane filtration equipment
for the separation of solids
(biomass).
o Low‐pressure membranes such

as microfiltration (MF) or
ultrafiltration (UF) are used to
perform the critical solid‐liquid
separation function.
Image Source : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_bioreactor
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IIT KHARAGPUR 37

o As the membranes replace the secondary sedimentation basin in classic ASP, all floating
matters is retained, and sedimentation is no longer a restrictive factor for sludge
concentration.
o A membrane reactor is thus operates at higher sludge concentrations (10 to 20 g/l) and is
able to produce very good effluent quality at lower reactor volumes, compared to
conventional ASP systems.
o Higher sludge concentrations increases the oxygen demand as well, however, the high
viscosity of thick sludge mass complicates the oxygen transfer. Therefore, modern
aeration systems with efficient oxygen transfer are recommended.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Membrane Bioreactors (MBR): Configurations
External/side‐stream configuration Submerged/immersed configuration Air‐lift side‐stream configuration
Source : Lin, et al. (2012) Membrane Bioreactors for Industrial Wastewater Treatment: A Critical Review. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 42: 677–740
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 39

External / Side‐stream Configuration:
o Involves the recirculation of the mixed liquor through

a membrane module that is outside the bioreactor,
usually employs high cross‐flow velocity (CFV) along
the membrane surface to provide membrane driving
force and control membrane fouling.
o Provides more direct hydrodynamic control of

membrane fouling and offers the advantages of easier Image Source :
http://www.rusmembrane.net/Directions_mb_science_other_pro
membrane replacement and high fluxes but at the cesses.html
expense of frequent cleaning and high energy

consumption (2–12 kWh/m3 product).
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Submerged / Immersed Configuration:
o Membrane modules are directly placed in the mixed

liquor. The driving force across the membrane is
achieved by pressurizing the bioreactor or creating
negative pressure on the permeate side.
o Much lower energy consumption and less rigorous

cleaning procedures are distinct advantages of
submerged MBRs Image Source :
http://www.rusmembrane.net/Directions_mb_science_other_pro
cesses.html
o Much milder operating conditions than in external
MBRs because of the lower tangential velocities.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 41

Air‐lift Side‐stream Configuration:
o Relatively recent configuration, using a robust

and reliable side‐stream configuration while
incorporating all the advantages of the low
energy‐consuming submerged systems.
o MBRs with this configuration have been

tested for treatment of toilet wastewater,
landfill leachate, pharmaceutical wastewater,
and municipal wastewater.
Image Source :
https://advancedfiltration.pentair.com/en/products/airlift‐mbr
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Membrane Bioreactors (MBR): Membrane Fouling

o Membrane fouling is the major drawback of MBRs, which reduces membrane
performances and membrane lifespan, leading to an increase in O&M costs.
o Membrane fouling in MBRs is attributable to suspended particulates (microorganisms

and cell debris), colloids, solutes, and sludge flocs, those deposit onto the membrane
surface and into the membrane pores, clogging the pores, and leading to a decline in
the permeability of the membrane.
o Membrane fouling is typically resulted by the physico‐chemical interactions that take

place between the foulants and the membrane material.
o Different forms of fouling in MBRs: Pore narrowing, Pore clogging and, Cake formation.
Source : Iorhemen et al. (2016). Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) Technology for Wastewater Treatment and Reclamation: Membrane Fouling; Membranes 2016, 6(2), 33
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IIT KHARAGPUR 43
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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The degree of fouling in a MBR
could be determined by three basic
fouling factors:
o Feed and biomass properties
(the nature of the feed and
biomass present)
o Membrane properties
o Operating Conditions
(hydrodynamic environment
experienced by the membrane).
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 45
Membrane Bioreactors (MBR): Anti Fouling Measures

o Air‐induced cross flow or gas bubbling can efficiently remove or at least reduce the
fouling layer on the membrane surface
o Intermittent permeation or relaxation, where the filtration is stopped at regular time

interval before being resumed. Particles deposited on the membrane surface tend to
diffuse back to the reactor.
o Chemically assisted backwashing (daily) or intensive chemical cleaning intermittently.
o Membrane backwashing using water or air jet.
o Using anti‐fouling products available in the market.
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Advantages Disadvantages
o Compact o Aeration limitations
o High effluent quality o High operation and capital costs
o High volumetric load possible o Membrane complexity and fouling

o Secondary clarifiers and tertiary filtration o May need equalization for highly
processes are eliminated variable flow
o Possible to convert from existing ASP o Energy intensive
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 47
Membrane Bioreactors (MBR): Applicability

o Membrane reactors are used throughout the world, for industrial as well as municipal
wastewaters. These are suited for:
o Advanced wastewater treatment
o High‐strength wastewater
o On‐site reuse options
o For industrial wastewater, there are various full‐scale applications in a variety of

industrial sectors, such as foods, (petro) chemicals, pharmacy, electronics, laundries,
paper, textile, agriculture, abattoirs, percolate waters from disposal sites and hospitals.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Moving Bed Biofilm Reactors (MBBR)

Combination of conventional (suspended growth) biological treatment method, usually
ASP, and biofilter processes (attached growth).
Image Source : http://watermaxtech.com/moving‐bed‐reactor/
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IIT KHARAGPUR 49
Moving Bed Biofilm Reactors (MBBR): Biofilm Carriers

o The MBBR process utilizes inert media as biofilm carriers operating in mixed motion. The
media provides increased surface area for the microorganisms to attach and grow, and
the whole tank volume is used for the growth (contrary to the most biofilm reactors).
o The carriers are usually made of materials with a density close to the density of water (1
g/cm3), such as high‐density polyethylene (HDPE) having density ~ 0.95 g/cm3.
Images Source : http://www.headworksinternational.com/biological‐wastewater‐treatment/mbbr.aspx
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Moving Bed Biofilm Reactors (MBBR)

o The high‐density population of bacteria that achieves high‐rate biodegradation within
the system, while also offering process reliability. There is no need to maintain f/M ratio
as there is self‐maintenance of an optimum level of productive biofilm. Therefore, a
constantly operating MBBR does not require backwashing or return sludge flows.
o The carriers are mixed in the tank by the aeration/mixing system. Agitation continuously
moves the carrier elements over the surface of the screen thus preventing clogging. To
prevent the carriers from escaping, a sieve on the outlet of the tank is usually provided.
o Better the contact between the substrate in the influent wastewater and the biomass on
the carriers, better is the performance of the system.
o Maintenance of MBBR system includes screening, influent equalisation, clarifier system,

sludge handling and integrated control system.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 51
Typical MBBR Processes
Image Source : http://www.filtsep.com/water‐and‐wastewater/features/biological‐

water‐treatment‐mbbr‐and‐ifas/
Image Source : https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6b61/ef0f8e0a1f77808633bcabe919072d84da67.pdf
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MBBR: Advantages and Limitations
Image Source : https://www.sswm.info/node/8067
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MBBR: Experience in India

MMBR process under various commercial names is being used for sewage treatment in India for the flows
ranging from 10 m3/d to several MLDs, especially for newly developing townships in the urban, semi‐urban
or rural‐urban areas. It is mandatory for them to treat sewage as per statutory standards before releasing
into the environment. These systems are found useful in reducing the space footprint of conventional ASP
based STPs. Adaptation of MBBR is reported to reduce solids load in secondary sedimentation tank.
There are some limitations of MBBR installations in India. Performance is affected by higher concentration
of oil and grease and total suspended solids. The design criteria of MBBR adapted to the Indian conditions
are not established, however the technology was introduced in the country a decade ago. Complex process
parameters such as biofilm area, biodegration activity and treatment efficiency are based on empirical data
of pilot studies or partial full‐scale results. The adoption of MBBRs for existing STPs has not been smooth,
giving rise to problems, such as clogging because of non‐availability of primary sedimentation or large pores
of screens. Dissolved oxygen is very essential for the effectiveness of biofilms. One of the major
shortcomings of the technology in Indian conditions is that there is less nutrient removal than that of
claimed.
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25‐09‐2018
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Concept of Wastewater Reuse and Recycling

IIT KHARAGPUR
Why Say No to Wastewater Disposal

o Several part of the nation is already suffering with
inadequate water supply and poor water quality.
o Release of untreated or partially treated wastewater into

the environment leads to:
o Water pollution
o Deterioration of freshwater resources Image Source : https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/moving‐
walls/15/river‐bleeds‐black‐pollution‐buriganga‐bangladesh
o Several regions in the world are already water stressed
o This further curbing of freshwater resources are worsening

the situation.
o Increasing demand in domestic, agriculture, and industrial

sectors is further enhancing stress on water resources. Image Source : http://www.gangaaction.org/actions/issues/sewage‐
waste‐management/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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The Alternate Solution / Reuse and Recycle

– Reduce
Reducing wastewater generation through
reducing water uses.
– Reuse
Using wastewater or reclaimed water from one
application for another application, with or
without treatment.
– Recycle
Using treated wastewater after the recovery or
reclamation of water from wastewater in the
same cycle where it is generated.
Water reclamation involves processing (treating)
wastewater to produce reusable / recyclable water Image Source : https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/your‐environment/water/reusing‐and‐recycling‐water
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Why Wastewater Reuse / Recycling ?

o Recycling and reuse of wastewater is perceived as
one of the most effective approach,
 Helps in pollution control of natural resources,
 Serves as an alternate water resource,
o Collectively helps in reducing qualitative and
quantitative stress on freshwater resources.
However, recycling wastewater requires appropriate
treatment before its intended use, which could be
costly at times.
Image Source : https://fr.pngtree.com/freepng/water‐droplets_1079426.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Driving Factors for Wastewater Reuse and Recycling
o Water Availability:
Resource Sustainability
o Water Consumption:
Meeting water demands
o Water Quality:
Environmental protection
Image Source : https://www.sanicon.in/blog/reduce‐reuse‐and‐recycle‐water
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 5
Driving Factors for Wastewater Reuse and Recycling

o Population growth, Industrialization and Urbanization increasing water demand
o Water scarcity (lack of natural source of water)
o Fresh water abstraction costs
o Easy accessibility of wastewater (a resource which is readily available)
o Regulatory requirements on wastewater treatment and disposal
o Wastewater discharge costs
o Environmental and Social responsibility
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Wastewater Reuse and Recycling Opportunities
Week 11- Lecture 53

IIT KHARAGPUR
Types of Wastewater Reuse and Recycling

Indirect Reuse
o Age old phenomena that augments groundwater (artificial recharge) or surface

water bodies (disposal) with treated or untreated wastewater.
Direct Reuse
o Treated wastewater is channelled (piped) into some type of water use system such as
domestic uses, industrial uses or irrigation uses.
o Contact uses where human contact in inevitable (stringent norms)
o Non‐contact uses where human contact in unlikely

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
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What to Recycle ?
Greywater Recycling
o Easier to treat than

conventional (mixed)
wastewater, as it contains
almost no pathogens and
little ammonia nitrogen
Image Source : https://greywater.com/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 9
What to Recycle ?
Municipal Sewage Recycling
o No need for separate greywater

collection systems
o Higher degree treatment is

needed as the sewage will have
higher organic matter and
pathogenic contamination
Image Source :
https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/specials/india‐file/waste‐water‐everywhere‐recycle‐it/article24436356.ece
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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What to Recycle ?
Industrial Effluent Recycling
o Reusing treated wastewater for

industrial processes or for
other purposes at plant site
itself.
o The treated water can be

tailored to meet the water
quality requirements of a
Image Source :
planned reuse. https://constructionreviewonline.com/2017/05/advantages‐of‐waste‐water‐treatment‐solutions‐for‐the‐
nearby‐communities/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 11
What to Recycle ?
Stormwater / Rainwater Uses
o Stormwater harvesting systems

to collect stormwater, and
recycle it for irrigation and
other purposes.
Image Source : http://urbanwater.melbourne.vic.gov.au/industry/treatment‐types/stormwater‐and‐rainwater‐

harvesting/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Reuse Opportunities
Reuse without treatment
Small Scale Agricultural Applications (old age philosophy)
Potential Threats
 Deposition of surfactant makes the soil hydrophobic and water repellent

 High amount of Na in water raises Sodium Adsorption ratio (SAR) in the soil and
making it unsuitable for agriculture
 Presence of coliform in the soil may get transmitted into harvested food crops.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 13
Reuse Opportunities
Reuse without treatment
Domestic Applications (New philosophy) – Only for non‐contact applications (toilet flush)
Potential Threats
 Clogging in pipes due to deposition of suspended solids

 Layer of biofilm inside pipes and sanitary‐wares may cause corrosion on their surface
by the generation of organic acids and also generate noxious sulfide gasses odours
 May cause skin diseases and allergies upon any body contact
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Reuse Opportunities
Reuse with treatment
 Irrigation: landscape, agriculture and aquaculture
 Non‐contact domestic application
 Contact domestic application
 Industrial application
 Recreational application: Ponds, lakes, streams and fountains
 Discharge to surface water
 Groundwater recharge
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 15
Sectors for Wastewater Reuse

Agriculture and Aquaculture
 Irrigation of non‐food crops (with
limited treatment)
 Irrigation of food crops (with
adequate treatment)
 Irrigation of landscape and
recreational areas
 Water use in aquaculture, fish farming
etc.
Image Source : http://ferratetreatment.com/industrial‐effluent/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Agriculture and Aquaculture: Risks
 Reclaimed water may have higher
concentrations of constituents such as salinity,
sodium, trace elements, excessive chlorine
residual, and nutrients.
 This could increase soil salinity, thus making it
less fertile.
 In aquaculture, the trace elements and toxic
chemicals may get bio‐accumulated, thereby
Image Source :
increasing potential risk for end consumers. http://www.appropedia.org/Arcata_Marsh_wastewater_aquaculture
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 17

Municipal Sector: Household level
 Toilet flushing
 Only for non contact uses like air
conditioning, irrigating lawns,
gardening (may require a separate
supply systems leading to cost and
energy implications)
 Augmenting drinking water supplies
(social implications)
Image Source : https://edition.cnn.com/2014/09/23/living/newater‐singapore/index.html
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Municipal Sector: Other Urban Uses
 Irrigation of public parks and recreation centers, landscaped areas surrounding public
buildings and facilities and golf course and also within private ownership households
 Commercial uses such as vehicle washing facilities, laundry facilities, window
washing, dust control, watering streets, and mixing water for pesticides, herbicides,
and liquid fertilizers
 Ornamental landscape / decorative water uses like fountains, water parks, pools etc.
 Fire protection through reclaimed water fire hydrants
 Toilet and urinal flushing in commercial and industrial buildings
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 19

Industrial Sectors
 Process water in industries
 Construction activities
 Recreational activities (water parks etc.)
 Cooling water make‐up
 Boiler feed water
 Floor Washing
 Fire Protection Image Source : https://www.wbcsd.org/Programs/Food‐Land‐Water/Water/Circular‐water‐management/
Resources/Case‐studies/Recycling‐and‐reuse‐of‐treated‐industrial‐wastewater‐in‐cosmetics‐operations
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Environmental Sector
 Artificial groundwater
recharge (must be
ensured that water is
not polluting aquifer)
 Augmenting stream
flows
Image Source : http://waterinthewest.stanford.edu/groundwater/recharge/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 21

Wastewater Reuse and Recycling: Potential and Requirements
Week 11- Lecture 54

IIT KHARAGPUR
22
11
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Scope and Potential of Wastewater Recycling

 In India, nearly two third of sewage is discharged untreated.
 Theoretically, 80‐90 % of water consumed are produced as

wastewater. Considering further 10% losses in wastewater
collection and treatment, 70‐80 % of water used can be
reclaimed for reuse/recycling.
 This could be used to fulfill majority of non‐potable water

uses in municipal sector, or could substantially contribute
towards meeting industrial or agricultural water demands.
Image Source: https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/specials/india‐file/waste‐water‐everywhere‐recycle‐it/article24436356.ece
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 23
Water Reuse Categories: USEPA
Source : Guidelines for Water Reuse, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R‐12/618, September 2012
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Suggested Water Recycling Treatment and Uses
Source: https://www3.epa.gov/region9/water/recycling/#regs
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 25
Stages of Wastewater Recycling Systems
Collection (from the source of wastewater generation)
Transport (through sewerage systems)
Wastewater Treatment (Preliminary, Primary, Secondary and Advanced Treatments)
Transport (distribution system to transport the reclaimed water back to the point of use)
Designated reuse (reusing reclaimed treated water for the target application)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Considerations for Water Reuse Planning
o Ensuring reliable treatment to produce reclaimed

water meeting water quality requirements and
environmental regulations for the target reuse.
o Ensuring protection of public health and the
environment.
o Ensuring implementability, technical feasibility, and
economic viability (in long‐run).
o Ensuring social acceptance of the project
Image Source: WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta
and greywater, Volume 3, Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 27
Direct and Indirect Potable Reuse

Indirect Potable Reuse (IPR)
scenarios
Source : Guidelines for Water Reuse, U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency, EPA/600/R‐12/618, September 2012
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Direct and Indirect Potable Reuse

Direct Potable Reuse (DPR)
scenarios

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 29
Direct and Indirect Potable Reuse: Examples

Some planned/existing indirect and
direct potable reuse installations

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 30
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Wastewater Reuse and Recycling: Regulatory Guidelines
Week 11- Lecture 55

IIT KHARAGPUR
31
Public Health and Water Quality Considerations

o Physical contaminants: Turbidity, color, suspended solids etc.
o Chemical contaminants: Organic pollutants, metals, nutrients etc.
o Biological contaminants: Pathogens (bacteria, helminths, virus etc), algae etc.
o Emerging contaminants: Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), pesticides,
various industrial contaminants, other Endocrine‐Disrupting Compounds (EDCs) etc.
Image Source : Guidelines for Water Reuse, U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R‐
12/618, September 2012
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Regulatory Water Reuse Guidelines

o International Guidelines
– WHO Guidelines
– EU Guidelines
o Nation‐specific Guidelines:
– Federal Water Reuse Requirements (USEPA Guidelines)

– National guidelines (Australia, Jorden, Singapore etc.)
– State level requirements and guidelines
– Other Guidelines
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 33
WHO Guidelines
Source: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/en/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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WHO Guidelines
Image Source: WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater, Volume 1, Policy and regulatory aspects
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 35
WHO Guidelines
Image Source: WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater, Volume 1, Policy and regulatory aspects
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Designated Wastewater Reuse Criteria and Standards

US‐EPA/USAID Guidelines
Source : EPA, Process Design Manual: Guidelines for Water

Reuse, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1992: Report No. EPA‐625/R‐92‐004
(cited in) Guidelines and Standards for Wastewater Reuse
(https://cgi.tuharburg.de/~awwweb/wbt/emwater/document
s/lesson_d1.pdf)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 37

WHO microbiological quality guidelines for wastewater use in agriculture
Source : WHO (2006), A compendium of standards for wastewater reuse in the Eastern Mediterranean Region
(http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/116515/dsa1184.pdf;jsessionid=0CBE6A6098376FF9A870FADD88AD6949?sequence=1)
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Trace metals Standard for Irrigation Water Microbial standards for non‐food crop irrigation
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 39
Operational Considerations for Agricultural Reuse

o Compatibility of agricultural operations with reclaimed water may warrant site‐specific investigations to
reveal compatibility issues that may arise when switching from traditional water supplies to reclaimed
water. For example, reclaimed water treated to secondary standards may not be suitable for use in drip
irrigation systems as the suspended solids in the reclaimed water can increase clogging.
o There are differences in agricultural and municipal system reliability requirements. For example,
distribution pipe pressure ratings for agriculture are close to that of the expected working pressure.
Additionally, pump capacity redundancy in municipal systems is installed in the event of a failure; however,
this is not common practice in agricultural operations.
o Because reclaimed water quality is directly linked to crops that may be produced with that water, there
may be additional regulatory controls that dictate when irrigation is applied and who is allowed on the
property being irrigated. Examples of regulatory controls include modifications to irrigation systems to
prevent contact with edible crops as required in Florida, Texas, and other states.
o It also may be undesirable to use secondary quality reclaimed water where irrigation equipment results in
aerosols, particularly where the area under irrigation is adjacent to the property boundary.
o Regular communication between the end user and reclaimed water supplier is critical to a successful
program, as it allows issues to be addressed as they arise.
Image Source : Guidelines for Water Reuse, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R‐12/618, September 2012
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Irrigation Water Quality
Interpretation

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 41

Industrial Reuse:
Recommended boiler water limits

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Suggested Category-wise Guidelines for Water Reuse: USEPA
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 43
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 45

Wastewater Reuse and Recycling: Centralized vs Decentralized Recycling
Week 11- Lecture 56

IIT KHARAGPUR
46
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Centralized vs Decentralized Management of Wastewater
Decentralized management
of wastewater is collection,
treatment, and reuse of
wastewater is done at or
near the point of
generation.
Image Source : Handbook for Managing Onsite and Clustered (Decentralized) Wastewater Treatment Systems
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 47
Centralization / Off-site Wastewater Recycling

Centralization Systems consists of:
i. Centralized collection system with a wide

network of transport systems (sewers) that
collects wastewater from many wastewater
producers such as households, commercial areas,
industrial plants and institutions, and transports
it to treatment facility
ii. Centralized wastewater treatment plant in an

off‐site location outside the settlement
iii. Reuse of the treated effluent (or disposal),

Image Source :
usually far from the point of origin https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/5149389/Hophmayer_2006_Wastewater%20Management%20Strat
egy%20centralized%20v.%20decentralized%20technologies%20for%20small%20communities.pdf
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De-centralization / On-site Wastewater Recycling

In De‐centralization Systems:
o Wastewater is collected, treated and

reused (or disposed) at or near the point
of generation.
o Historically common strategy.
o Can be applied on different scales, such

as individual households; a cluster of
homes; a neighbourhood; public
facilities; commercial area; industrial
parks; and small portions of large
Image Source :
communities. https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/files/5149389/Hophmayer_2006_Wastewater%20Management%20Strat
egy%20centralized%20v.%20decentralized%20technologies%20for%20small%20communities.pdf
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Scale of Decentralization
Centralized Management: Whole City or Catchment Area
De‐centralized Management: Smallest Scale: Individual households
Larger / Medium Scale: Locality bases
Which one is more sustainable ??
Large scale decentralized system vs. Small scale decentralized system
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Decentralization Treatment and Reuse Systems
Image Source : Massoud et al., (2009). Decentralized approaches to wastewater treatment and
management: applicability in developing countries, J. Environ. Manage., 90 (1), 652‐659
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Centralized vs Decentralization Reuse Systems Features

o Physical Aspects: Volume of wastewater generated, site availability, feasibility of transport
systems
o Technical Aspects: Treatment technology available and their suitability (efficiency), adaptation
and piloting of newer technology, sludge handling feasibilities, operation
and maintenance of the installed systems
o Financial Aspects: Total cost of the centralized and decentralized solutions, possibility of phase‐
wise development, payback periods
o Energy Aspects: Combined energy footprint of multiple treatment systems, energy required
for off‐site transport of wastewater and distribution of reclaimed water
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Centralized vs Decentralization Reuse Systems Features

o End‐use Aspects: Scale of end‐use alternatives, localized vs centralized end‐use of reclaimed
water, need of transport for point of use
o Social Aspects: Proximity to human settlements, odour, overflow, aesthetic issues, public
acceptability and willingness to pay
o Environmental Aspects: Environmental impact of centralized and de‐centralized systems, energy

footprint and net climate change impacts, net water productivity from the
centralized and de‐centralized systems
o Institutional Aspects: Institutional and organizational capacity to manage number (or size) of
plants, security from theft and vandalism
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Management of Decentralized Wastewater Systems

o The operation and maintenance of onsite systems is usually left to homeowners/local groups,
which, in many cases, may result system failure due to improper maintenance.
o It is essential to develop policies, programs, guidelines, and institutions to ensure the proper
design, construction as well as operation and maintenance of decentralized wastewater
treatment systems.
o Management systems should address the major problems related to wastewater treatment and
recycling approaches, including (but not limited to): Funding; Public involvement and
awareness; System design and selection processes; and Inspection, monitoring and program
evaluation components
o Centralized governance of the decentralized wastewater treatment systems could be a strategy

to ensure they are inspected and maintained regularly.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Decentralized Systems

Advantages Disadvantages
 Does not require large investments, and usually ᵡ Treatment efficiency of some units may not be
more affordable for small communities good enough
 Easier to achieves high removal rates for most ᵡ Can be harder to document treatment
pollutants, if needed effectiveness
 Low energy and maintenance systems could be ᵡ Risk of failure of some units, as it is difficult to
installed, if desired. properly maintain large number of units
 Less hydrological impact as long distance transport ᵡ The O&M becomes additional burden to owner
is avoided and sewer networks are reduced
 Highly preferable for local scale recycling ᵡ Higher risks of public health issues
 Considered green and sustainable solution
 Can be integrated into a flexible wastewater system
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Recent Trends
o Enforcement of reuse guidelines and encouragement from government are making private
residential and commercial units opt for decentralized sewage treatment and recycling systems.
o Several apartments in all major cities are adopting wastewater treatment and recycling systems
on housing complex / block level. Many of these units are opting packaged sewage treatment
plants, and reusing the reclaimed water for gardening, street washing and other such uses.
o The CPCBs enforcement for industries to adopt Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) policies are forcing
industries to treat and fully recycle their effluent.
o Overall, the relative ease with decentralized systems in reusing and recycling the reclaimed
water, is making decentralized systems more popular than conventional centralized wastewater
management practices.
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Wastewater Reuse and Recycling: Challenges, Risks and Research Trends

IIT KHARAGPUR
Problem Analysis Approach in Wastewater Management
Source : Hamouda et al. (2009). Decision support systems in water and wastewater treatment process selection and design: a review, Water Science & Technology, 60, pp. 1757‐1770
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Challenges and Risks in Wastewater Recycling

The trend of water reuse shows an increasing quantity of reclaimed water use around the
globe; however, certain challenges exist affecting its universal applications.
o Complicacy:
Reclaimed water use is far more complicated than using conventional water resources.
o Technical Competence:
The high degree of technical competence is needed for wastewater recycling than
conventional water uses.
o Higher Cost:
Water recycling typically has higher costs than using conventional water.
o System Reliability:
Ensuring reliability is must for wastewater treatment facilities targeting water recycling.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 3
Challenges and Risks in Wastewater Recycling

Reclaimed water of any quality can be produced, resulting in risk reduction by using
available technologies if financial resources are adequate. However, there are several
other challenges that needs to be overcomed for successful adaptation of wastewater
recycling programmes, including:
o Social Acceptability:
There is public perception (stigma) that recycled water can pose a significant human
health risk.
o Trade Barriers:
Possibility of trade barriers, especially for food products grown using reused water.
o Political Constraints:
Lack of political motivations is one of the major hurdles in wastewater recycling.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Research Trends in Wastewater Treatment and Recycling

– Water Reclamation And Reuse
Intensive research focus on reusing treated
wastewater effluent for both drinking water (direct
potable reuse and indirect potable reuse) and
industrial applications.
– Fit‐for‐Purpose Water Reuse

Identifying the cost‐effective treatment extents
needed for fit‐for‐purpose water reuse.
– Integrated Urban Water Management

Integrating wastewater in an urban water cycle to
use this as an alternate resources along with
stormwater, rainwater and usual surface and
groundwater resources. Image Source : https://www.texastribune.org/2014/09/23/can‐fit‐purpose‐water‐
reuse‐help‐our‐water‐shortag/
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IIT KHARAGPUR 5

– Energy Production And Conservation
Wastewater treatment and recycling requires energy,
and the energy industry itself requires a significant
amount of water to operate.
The researchers are exploring water‐energy nexus to
develop and establish more energy‐efficient
technologies for wastewater treatment and alternative
energy production methods from wastewater and
sludge processing.
– Nutrient Management
Changing regulations and increasingly stringent
effluent limits have brought nutrient management to
the forefront of the wastewater industry. Image Source : https://mavensnotebook.com/2016/06/30/mary‐nichols‐exploring‐
the‐water‐energy‐nexus/
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– Residuals and Biosolids Management
The management of sludge, especially biosolids, which
has historically been a burden, is being evaluated as a
source of potential revenue after reclamation.
– Industrial Wastewater Processes .

Modelling, design, and operation of industrial
wastewater treatment systems, biological industrial
treatment processes, ZLD options, regulatory impacts
etc. are being studied for all water intensive industries.
– Innovative Technology Development

Cutting‐edge technology and services are being
developed for water and solids recovery along with Image Source : http://biosolidsgrow.blogspot.com/2011/10/is‐it‐really‐save‐to‐use‐
biosolids‐aka.html
innovative infrastructure solutions.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 7

– Wastewater Utility Management
Managing utilities involving troubleshooting, funds
management, meeting regulatory criteria and most
importantly public outreach are getting important.
– Instrumentation, Control and Automation

With the technological advancements, instrumentation
control and automation in wastewater systems are
getting increasingly popular and getting due research
attention.
– Cost Reduction
Reducing the cost of high end treatment processes
such as membrane filters and advanced oxidation Image Source : http://thermotics.com/automation‐control‐systems/
methods for making these more affordable.

MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
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Decision Making in Wastewater Reuse and Recycling

IIT KHARAGPUR
Complexity of Wastewater Management Systems

o Wastewater treatment and recycling
systems are complex and dynamic in
nature.
o The challenge of treating wastewater and

ensuring its safe and reliable reuse is
influenced by the various interactions of
factors including water quality, available
treatment technologies, available funds
and economic feasibility of treatment
solutions, regulatory requirements,
operational constraints, public perception, Image Source : https://leagueofindia.com/economy‐development/haridwar‐and‐
and environmental concerns etc. rishikesh‐to‐have‐100‐sewage‐treatment‐facility/
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Popular Treatment Systems for Wastewater Treatment

o Biological low‐rate systems (“natural” systems):
o Constructed wetlands, vertical soil filters, soil infiltration
o Ponds
o Septic tank or UASB plus sand filters
o Biological high‐rate systems (with biofilms):

o Activated Sludge Processes
o Trickling filters
o Rotating biological contactors (RBC)
o Membrane treatment:
o Membrane bioreactor (MBR) (also a biological high‐rate system)
o Nano‐filtration, ultra‐filtration
o Reverse osmosis
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
IIT KHARAGPUR 11
Treatment Philosophy
o Treat only to desired degree based on reuse application
o Standalone units are often insufficient or highly uneconomic, so a combination of
units must be used in the most cost effective manner to achieve the treatment
targets.
Technical feasibility
vs
Financial viability
vs
Environmental sustainability
vs
Social acceptability
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Fir-for-purpose Wastewater Treatment

o Different water reuse applications require various grades of water quality, resulting in
a number of required treatment levels.
o The production of higher quality water than required can result in overtreatment,
leading to unnecessary cost and overuse of resources such as energy. Therefore, water
reuse project cost must be determined on a case by case basis.
o A wastewater treatment train for a water reuse project can be selected based on the
end use of reclaimed water for achieving economic efficiency and environmental
sustainability. Such treatment is referred to as fit‐for‐purpose wastewater treatment.
o It aims to avoid overtreatment and obviously under‐treatment as it is legally
prohibited. Water quality is dictated by the end use of reclaimed water.
Source : Chhipi‐Shrestha et al. (2017). Fit‐for‐purpose wastewater treatment: conceptualization to development of decision support tool (I), Sci. Total Environ., 607‐608, pp. 600‐612
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Decision Making in Wastewater Management

o A wastewater treatment system is comprised of an
array of treatment technologies in different
treatment stages in order to meet the criteria of a
specific reuse application.
o Alternative technologies are available in primary,

secondary, tertiary and advanced treatment stages,
and have various cost and performance levels.
o Since, the number of alternative processes has been

steadily growing, the decision making on the
selection of an optimum treatment sequence is Image Source : https://jaycrouch.com/posts/ask‐what‐problem‐are‐you‐
solving‐3‐times‐per‐day/
becoming an important challenge for the designers
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI
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o The trend of reclaimed water use has been increasing worldwide and is expected to
surpass desalination in the future. Therefore, it of high importance to device a
mechanism for identifying the most cost‐effective and sustainable ways to achieve the
reclaimed water use targets.
However,
o A system suitable for wastewater management (treatment and recycling) in some

region may or may not be applicable to other places, even in the same country.
o This calls for customized solutions based on locally assessed characteristics and specific
reuse purpose.
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 15

o The continuously changing drivers of the wastewater management industry,
embodied by rigorous environmental and health regulations and the challenge of
emerging contaminants, necessitates the development of decision support systems
for the selection of appropriate treatment trains.
o A Decision Support System (DSS), an information system that supports a user in
choosing a consistent, near optimum solution for a particular problem, could be used
for helping in decision making.
o The range of applications of DSSs in wastewater management systems include:
selection and design of treatment processes, sequencing of selected processes either
in parallel or in series in a treatment train, monitoring and control of treatment
plants, and identifying recycling or reuse options.
Source : Hamouda et al. (2009). Decision support systems in water and wastewater treatment process selection and design: a review, Water Science & Technology, 60, pp. 1757‐1770
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Elements of Decision Support System

– Listing of possible alternatives
– Evaluation of alternatives
– Identification of most
appropriate alternatives under
the given constraints
[Cost, energy, removal
efficiency, land availability,
environmental impacts etc.]
– Assessment of possible impacts
Image Source : Molinos‐Senante et al. (2018). Energy intensity modeling for wastewater
of implementation of schemes treatment technologies, Sci. Total Environ., 630, pp. 1565‐1572
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Example of Decision Support System Framework
Source : Chhipi‐Shrestha et al. (2017). Fit‐for‐purpose wastewater treatment: conceptualization to development of decision support tool (I), Sci. Total Environ., 607‐608, pp. 600‐612
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Public Acceptance for Recycled Water Use

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19
Public Acceptance in Wastewater Recycling

o Public acceptance is a critical
barrier to the implementation
of recycled water schemes.
International
o There are both, success and
failure stories in managing
public acceptance of
reclaimed water.
o Hence, public acceptance has
become a major consideration
for recycled water schemes,
especially those for potable
use. Image Source : Frijns et al. (2016). How Governance Regimes Shape the Implementation of Water Reuse Schemes, Water, 8(12), 605
20
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Wastewater Recycling: Is it a Technological Challenge ?

o It has been shown in many cases that the importance of economic, technical and
environmental feasibility is only secondary to the support of the general public, when
implementation of wastewater reuse projects is considered.
o Irrespective of scientific evidence, public opposition can cause wastewater reuse

projects to fail before, during or after their execution.
o Communities could be extremely volatile on issues associated with recycling. Urban

wastewater reuse projects, and in particular domestic uses, are very likely to cause
concern in some population groups that may lead to a complete rejection of reuse
schemes.
Source : Friedler and Lahav (2006). Centralised urban wastewater reuse: what is the public attitude?, Water Science & Technology, 54 (6–7), pp 423–430
21
Importance of Public Acceptance for Recycled Water

o Several wastewater reuse projects have been abolished due to unreliable community
perception. “Yuck factor” has stopped several wastewater treatment and recycling
projects in developed countries such as USA, Australia etc.
o People prefer using harvested rainwater over recycled wastewater since the concept of
harvested rainwater usage is easier in understanding than treatment procedures for
reclaimed water from wastewaters.
o Public acceptance of wastewater reuse depends upon individual and community
perception and varies significantly among age, gender, education, income, awareness, etc.
o Most of the people all over the world oppose the reuse of wastewater for drinking,
bathing and swimming and less oppose for use in irrigation and limited‐contact uses such
as toilet flushing.
22
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Factors Affecting Public Acceptance

Socio‐Demographic Factors
o Age: Younger population are more accepting to
reclaimed water uses.
o Gender: Men are more accepting of recycled
water than women.
o Education: People with higher levels of
education have higher level of acceptance of
recycled water.
o Income: Higher income is associated with
higher levels of acceptance.
o Religion: People who are ‘not religious at all’
Image Source : https://waterpolls.org/recycled‐water‐public‐opinion/
are more likely to use recycled water.
23

Psychological Factors
o Disgust (Yuck factor): Recycled water is judged as disgusting by significant number of people.
o Health risk and general risk perceptions: Health risk emerges as a major concern for recycled
water uses. Higher risk perceptions are related to less acceptance of recycled water schemes.
o Trust: Trust in authorities to manage risk is considered a critical factor.
o Fairness: Fairness of a recycled water scheme to a range of target users is important for
acceptance
o Belief in science and technology: People’s belief in science and technology may influence
acceptance of recycled water.
o Environmental concern: People concerned about environmental issues are more willing to
accept recycled water
Source : Fielding, et al. (2018) Public acceptance of recycled water, International Journal of Water Resources Development, DOI: 10.1080/07900627.2017.1419125
24
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Psychological Factors: Survey in Banglore
Image Source : Ravishankar, et al. (2018) Social Acceptance for Reclaimed Water Use: A Case Study in Bengaluru, Recycling 2018, 3, 4; doi:10.3390/recycling3010004
25

Management and Operational Factors
o Knowledge and information: Knowledge or information about the recycling technology and
adequate safety measures results in greater acceptance of recycled water.
o Wastewater sources: People may be attentive to the wastewater source as a proxy for whether
it is safe or not. Greywater has higher level of acceptance that sewage.
o Treatment options: Many people have a preference for natural versus scientific water
treatment processes, therefore aquifer recharge is usually more preferred for recycling uses.
o Water pricing: People are more willing to accept a recycled water scheme if it results in a lower
water bill.
o Stakeholder’ participation: Involvement of all stakeholders from the initiation of the project
helps in increasing acceptance of the recycled water use schemes.
Source : Fielding, et al. (2018) Public acceptance of recycled water, International Journal of Water Resources Development, DOI: 10.1080/07900627.2017.1419125
26
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Management and Operational Factors
o Success and failure stories: The stories of success or failure of water recycling projects may
respectively, increase or decrease the public acceptance of recycled water.
o Quality of treated water: Negative aesthetic attributes of recycled water is related to lower
acceptance of non‐potable uses.
o Type of uses: There are higher level of acceptance for certain uses than others. The potable
water uses has the lowest acceptance among all, whereas irrigating non‐food crops and
recharging groundwater are usually the most accepted reuse applications.
o Regulatory norms: Regulatory enforcements also tend to affects the acceptances of recycled
water schemes.
o Motivation and rewards: Reward programs from government may also influence the level of
public acceptance of recycled water uses.
27

Willingness to use recycled wastewater: Example from Shiraz, Iran
Image Source : Baghapour, et al. (2016) A survey of attitudes and acceptance of wastewater reuse in Iran: Shiraz City as a case study, Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination, 7 (4): 511‐519.
28
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Willingness to use recycled wastewater: Example from Israel
Image Source : Friedler and Lahav (2006). Centralised urban wastewater reuse: what is the public attitude?, Water Science & Technology, 54 (6–7), pp 423–430
29

Willingness to use recycled wastewater: Example from California
Image Source : https://waterpolls.org/stanford‐recycled‐water‐study/
30
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Enhancing Public Acceptance

o Regulatory requirements
o Rewards and subsidies
o Public awareness campaigns
o Knowledge on water cycle
o Inclusion of media and women
o Control on groundwater abstraction
Image Source : http://www.climatetechwiki.org/content/water‐reclamation‐and‐reuse
o Technological advancement with demonstrative project
31
Public Acceptance: Success and Failure Stories

Success Stories:
o Singapore NEWater
o Orange County in California, United State
o Florida, United States
o Windhoek, Namibia
Failure Stories:
o Toowoomba, Australia
o San Diego, United States
o Los Angeles, United States
32
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Wastewater Reuse and Recycling: Global Practices and Case Studies

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33
Water Reuse Programmes Around the World

o Many cities across the globe are adopting urban
water reuse for various applications ranging from
irrigation to industrial uses to potable supply.
o Water scarcity and water supply demands in arid

and semi‐arid regions have driven wastewater
reuse as an alternate water supply source.
o Several water reuse programmes have also been

initiated in response to rigorous and costly
requirements of nutrients removal from effluent.
Image Source : Voulvoulis, N. (2018). Water reuse from a circular economy perspective and potential
risks from an unregulated approach, Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 2, pp 32–45
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Wastewater Recycling: Practices in Singapore

In 1998, Public Utility Board (PUB),
Singapore set up a team to test
membrane technology’s use in water
reclamation for potable purposes.
Two years later, it commissioned a full‐

scale demonstration plant that could
produce 10,000 cubic metres daily.
The high‐grade, reclaimed water was

named NEWater, and a battery of tests
and audits showed it was a safe (well
within the WHO and USEPA’s
requirements for drinking water) and
sustainable water source.
Source : https://www.pub.gov.sg/watersupply/fournationaltaps/newater
35

NEWater Uses:
Non‐Potable Use
NEWater is used mainly for industrial and air‐con
cooling purposes at wafer fabrication plants,
industrial estates and commercial buildings. The
biggest users of NEWater are wafer fabrication
plants, which require water quality that is even
more stringent than water for drinking.
Indirect Potable Use

During dry periods, NEWater is added to reservoirs
to blend with raw water. The raw water from the
reservoir is treated at the waterworks before it is
supplied to consumers as tap water.
36
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Critical Success Factors:
o Strong support from government
o Credible reference projects
o Technology demonstration in the local environment
o Rigorous assessment of water safety
o External Audits
o Endorsement by a panel of experts
o Effective public and customer engagement
o Engaging the media
o Community engagement
o Change of terminology (NEWater)
o NEWater Visitor Centre
37
Wastewater Recycling: Practices in United States

Orange County Water District, California:
The Groundwater Replenishment System (GWRS):
o The world's largest system for indirect potable reuse.
o The system takes highly treated wastewater and
purifies it using a three‐step advanced treatment
process consisting of microfiltration, reverse osmosis
and ultraviolet light with hydrogen peroxide. The
process produces high‐quality water that meets or
exceeds all state and federal drinking water standards.
o Operational since January 2008, the GWRS originally
produced 70 MGD of highly purified water. In 2015,
the project was expanded to produce 100 MGD.
Ultimate capacity for the GWRS is projected at 130
MGD to come online in 2023. Source : https://www.ocwd.com/what‐we‐do/water‐reuse/
38
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Orange County Water District, California:
OCWD's Green Acres Project (GAP)
o It is a water reuse effort that provides recycled
water for landscape irrigation at parks, schools
and golf courses; industrial uses, such as carpet
dying; toilet flushing; and cooling towers.
o The GAP has a treatment plant design capacity of
7.5 MGD of recycled water.
o Since 1991, the GAP has provided an alternate
source of water to the cities of Costa Mesa,
Fountain Valley, Huntington Beach, Newport
Beach and Santa Ana. There are approximately
100 different sites currently using GAP water.
Source : https://www.ocwd.com/what‐we‐do/water‐reuse/green‐acres‐project/
39

Florida:
In 2013, recycled water was used to irrigate 321,340 residential
yards, 548 golf courses, 961 parks, and the grounds at 328
schools. In addition, recycled water was used for irrigation on
14,056 acres of agricultural land for edible crops—primarily
oranges, grapefruits, and tangerines—and 24,752 acres of
other crops.
Significant amounts were also used for industrial purposes and

the recharging of aquifers.
Less than 1 percent was used for toilet flushing, decorative

fountains, commercial laundry, cleaning of roads and
sidewalks, vehicle washing, and the making of concrete.
Source : http://www.rff.org/files/sharepoint/WorkImages/Download/RFF‐Resources‐189_Commentary‐KuwayamaKamen.pdf
40
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Wastewater Recycling: Practices in Israel

o Over 85 % of Israeli wastewater, amounting to over 400
million cubic meters a year, is purified and reused,
making it an undisputed world leader in this field.
o The water treated for reuse in Israel is predominantly

used for agricultural irrigation. Roughly 10 % is used for
environmental purposes, such as increasing river flow
volume, and for fire suppression. Only 5 % is discharged
into the sea.
o It is estimated that treated wastewater will cover 50%

of Israel’s agricultural needs by 2020, and national
policy calls for reclaimed effluents to ultimately be
100% utilized by agriculture.
Source : http://www.globalwaterforum.org/2013/03/18/tackling‐water‐scarcity‐
israels‐wastewater‐recycling‐as‐a‐model‐for‐the‐worlds‐arid‐lands/
41
Wastewater Recycling: Practices in Japan

o In Japan, reclaimed Road sprinkled with treated wastewater, Tokyo Recycling system in Shinjuku
wastewater has been
recycled widely for non‐
potable urban applications
such as toilet flushing,
landscape irrigation,
cleaning roads, and snow
melting.
o The government policy of

“Sewerage Vision 2100”
suggests creating sound
water cycles by using
reclaimed wastewater
Image Source: http://nett21.gec.jp/GESAP/themes/themes2.html (cited in) CPHEEO (2012) Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment,
effectively. Part A: Engineering
42
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Wastewater Recycling: Practices in Japan

o Tokyo Metropolitan Government (TMG) is using wastewater for toilet‐flushing by area‐wide water
recycling system using tertiary treated reclaimed water.
o TMG also used highly treated effluent from the Ochiai Water Reclamation Centre to restore the abandoned
Meguro River flowing theough residential area in Tokyo.
Condition of Meguro River before and after the restoration using reclaimed wastewater
Image Source: CPHEEO (2012) Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Part A: Engineering
43
Wastewater Recycling: Practices in Australia

Australian wastewater recycling
2009/10, by jurisdiction
o Major reuse is in agriculture, and augmenting groundwater supplies.
o Perth has been pumping recycled sewage back into the city's groundwater from where it draws most of its
drinking water supplies.
Source : http://www.awa.asn.au/AWA_MBRR/Publications/Fact_Sheets/Water_Recycling_Fact_Sheet/AWA_MBRR/Publications/Fact_Sheets/Water_Recycling_Fact_Sheet.aspx?hkey=54c6e74b‐0985‐4d34‐8422‐fc3f7523aa1d
44
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Wastewater Recycling: Practices in UK and Europe

o Wulpen STP in Belgium treats over 2.5 giga liters per day of urban wastewater by
microfiltration and reverse osmosis followed by storing it for 1‐2 months in an underground
aquifer then using it for water supply augmentation. In also utilizes recycled greywater for
industrial and non‐potable purposes.
o Major wastewater recycling plant in England is located at Millennium Dome on the bank of
river Thames which treats 500 cubic meters of household wastewater and rainwater water per
day. Treated water is blended with groundwater and fed to reed bed (constructed wetland)
followed by chlorination then reused for flushing toilets and urinals
o Germany and Holland mainly utilizes treated greywater for toilet flushing, laundry and car
washing. Irrigational use is minor in these nations.
o Italy, Poland and Hungary mostly utilize recycled water mainly for irrigation purpose.
45
Wastewater Recycling: Practices in Other Nations

o Treated water is produced from 4 sewage treatment plants (Jungnang, Nanji, Tancheon,
Seonam) in Seoul (South Korea) are reused as cleaning or wiping water within the plants and
roads outside the plant, for cleaning of coaches at nearby subway coach depots.
o African countries like Namibia, Zambia, Tunisia and South Africa are successfully utilizing
recycled wastewater since past few decades owing to acute freshwater scarcity. Windhoek in
Namibia is successfully using recycled water for augmenting potable water supplies.
o Yemen, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt and Iran uses untreated sewage water for irrigation in
agriculture.
o Jordan and Kuwait are successfully utilizing recycled wastewater for irrigation purposes. In
Jordan, 80% of its treated wastewater is discharged into the Zerqa river for proper blending
with freshwater, later it is used for restricted irrigation in the southern part of Jordan valley.
46
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Wastewater Recycling: Practices in India

o Many small scale attempts are being
made, and has shown promising results.
o Chandigarh is using treated sewage for

horticulture needs of its green areas.
o The Indian Agricultural Research Institute,

Karnal has recommended an irrigation
method for sewage fed tree plantations.
o Bengaluru, as a first Indian city, is planning

to use recycling sewage for augmenting
domestic water supplies as indirect
potable reuse as a pilot model of the
Singapore NEWater. Source: CPHEEO (2012) Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Part A: Engineering
47

Reuse System at Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi
o In metropolitan cities like Delhi, Mumbai,
Bangalore and Chennai treated grey water is
being used for toilet flushing in some of the
major condominiums and high rise apartment
complexes on a pilot scale.
o Delhi has put in place planned reuse of treated

sewage for designated institutional centres.
o The Indira Gandhi International Airport in

Delhi uses deferent grades of reclaimed water
for cooling water, toilet flushing and
horticulture.
48
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Treated Sewage Reuse as Cooling Water at M/S GMR Vasavi Thermal Power Plant,
o The concept of using treated Chennai
wastewater for industrial activities
are also gaining popularity.
o The purchased secondary treated

sewage is being further treated and
reused in cooling water makeup
and few other industrial processes
in several industries like Madras
Refineries and Madras Fertilisers in
Chennai, Rashtriya Chemicals and
Fertilisers in Maharashtra, and
several other companies in
different cities.
49

Sewage Reuse Scheme at
M/S Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (CPCL), Chennai M/S Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers (RCF), Mumbai
Image Source: CPHEEO (2012) Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Part A: Engineering
50
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10‐10‐2018

o The government is forcing industries to adopt zero liquid discharge
(ZLD) policy ensuring complete recycling of industrial effluents.
o ZLD has become the mandate for the gross polluting industries like
Thermal power plants, steel manufacturers, petrochemical
industries, chemical and pharmaceutical manufacturing etc.
o Some pilot projects on groundwater recharge with treated

wastewater has also been conducted, e.g. Varanasi, Southern
Chennai Metropolitan Area.
o In India, although there is tremendous potential for wastewater

reuse and recycling in various sectors, detailed risk assessment
and mitigation along with proper planning and awareness is
required for sustainable implementation of such projects.
51
Road Ahead…
Water Reuse for Future Water Supply Reliability The Utility of the Future: Recovering Resources
Image Source :
Image Source : https://www.betterworldsolutions.eu/water‐reuse‐is‐becoming‐increasingly‐
https://awpw.assembly.ca.gov/sites/awpw.assembly.ca.gov/files/Revised%20Recycle
important‐for‐modern‐societies/
d%20Water%20Oversight%20Hearing%20Background.pdf
52
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Suggested Readings
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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Suggested Readings
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

IIT KHARAGPUR 54
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10‐10‐2018
MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI

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28

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7/24/2018

Dr. MANOJ KUMAR TIWARI