GUN PROPULSION TECHNOLOGY Edited by Ludwig Stiefel U.S. Army Armament Research Development and Engineering Center Picatinny Arsenal, New Jersey Volume 109 PROGRESS IN ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS Martin Summerfield, Series Editor-in-Chief Princeton Combustion Research Laboratories, Inc. Monmouth Junction, New Jersey Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc, 370 L’Enfant Promenade, SW, Washington, DC 20024Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics Series Editor-in-Chief Martin Summerfield Princeton Combustion Research Laboratories, Inc. Series Editors Burton I. Edelson Allen E. Fuhs Johns Hopkins University—SAIS Carmel, California A. Richard Seebass University of Colorado Assistant Series Editor Ruth F, Bryans Ocala, Florida Norma J. Brennan Jeanne Godette Director, Editorial Department Series Managing Editor AIAA AIAATable of Contents Preface. Chapter 1. Primers and Tgmiters......-.-sesseoseserressessseesesentessesesseeseseescoed A.M. Varney, Applied Combustion Technology, Inc., Orlando, Florida Introduction Primers Percussion Primer Compositions Primer Construction. Primer Installation Anvil-Cup Interface. Primer Cavity .. Primer Selection . Primer Sensitivity. Electric Primers... os Performance Assessment Techniques .. Primer Characterization Igniters Functional Considerations. Igniter Materials. Laser Ignition... Ignitability of Energetic Materials Single Point Ignition. Multiple Point Ignition References ............++ Chapter 2. Black Powder. R.A. Sasse, U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland Introduction... Background a Description of Commerically Produced Black Powder . Historical Performance of Black Powder Black Powder Specifications........ Characterizaton of Black Powder Ingredients Physical Characteristics of Black Powder... External Structure of Black Powder Grains Internal Structure of Black Powder Grains Compaction of Black Powder Meal... Structural Strength of Black Powder Combustion TemperaturesIgnition Temperature and Heat Penetration... Burn Rates.......... oe Strand-Burn Rates at Atmospheric Pressure Surface Burn RateS........s00006 Particles Produced by Combustion of Black Powder. Strand-Burn Rates at Elevated Pressure Closed Bomb Burn Rates... Flame Spread Rates in Granular Black Powder Beds Open-Air Flame Spread Rates... senseeseees Flame Spread Rates of Semiconfined and Fully Packed Beds.. Concluding Remarks References ... Chapter 3. Pressure-Time-Velocity-Travel Relationship in Typical Gun Systems.... L. Stiefel, U.S. Army Armament Research Development and Engineering Center Picatinny Arsenal, New Jersey Introduction Pressure-Time-Velocity-Travel How the Plots Were Generated Results .... Comments on the Small Arms Curves Pressure-Velocity-Time-Travel Curves for Large Cal How the Curves for the Large Caliber Rounds Were Generated Results for the HE Mortar Round... Results for a HEAT Round Fired in a 105-mm Tank Gun.. Results for 155-mm Howitzer Rounds.. HE Projectile Fired with a High-Zone Charge in a 155-mm Howitzer Temperature Coefficient of Performance Summary... References .. Chapter 4. Pressure Wave Phenomena In Large-Caliber Guns.... A.W. Horst, U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland Introduction Background Phenomenology Pressure-Wave Safety Assessment .. Review of Sensitivity Data..... 155-mm Howitzer, M203 Propelling Charg 8-in. Howitzer, M188/M188A1 Propelling Cl 155-mm Howitzer, M119A1/M119A2 Charges 155-mm Howitzer, M197 Propelling Charge... 155-mm Howitzer, M203E2 Propelling Charge 105-mm Howitzer, XM622E2 Cartridge. 120-mm Tank Gun, XM827 Cartridge. 120-mm Tank Gun, German DM13 Cartridge vi120-mm Tank Gun, XM866 Cartridge 120-mm Tank Gun, XM830 Cartridge Link Between Pressure Waves and Increases in Maximum Chamber Pressure... Concluding Remarks References ........+++ Chapter 5. Thermodynamic Properties of Gun Propellants aseeeeesseesesessseeeeeeLO3 E. Freedman, Eli Freedman Associates, Baltimore, Maryland 104 107 110 112 112 112 113 114 11S 11S 116 Introduction Nonideal Gas Behavior Truncated Virial Equation o! Computer Programs TRAN 72 BLAKE Comparison of the Results 0: Experimental Confirmation Choosing the Input Data Composition Heats of Combustion and Explosio! Enthalpies and Energies of Formatio: +116 Thermodynamic Properties of Public Military Propellants... . 118 Black Powder. “WS Appendix A seesee +120 Compositions of Public Military Propellants . +120 Appendix B.. peeseseseoes Formulas and ‘Enthalpies of Formation of Some +120 Propellant Ingredients 120 Appendix C.. -130 Computed ‘Thermodynamic Properties of Military Propellants 130 Appendix D.. eased 130 Computed Heats of ‘Explosion of Some Military Propellants 130 Appendix E.. Beeseeerere .130 Properties of Nitrocellulose . .130 References ........:000005 +130 Chapter 6. Structural Design of Projectiles Js evesseeenes S.H. Drysdale and B.P. Burns, U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland Introduction . sesseennes Ammunition and Barrel Configurations Projectiles... Small Caliber Projectiles , High Explosive Projectile Sub-Caliber Projectiles with Sabots Rocket-Assisted Projectile (RAP) Rotating BandsGun Barrels.... seveseee General Approach to Modern Projectile Design In-Bore Environment. Simple Models of Analysis. Finite-Element Stress Analysi: Example of the Control of Stress or Deformation... Future Developments .. References Chapter7. Muzzle Flow Gasdynamics........... E.M. Schmidt, U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland Introduction Flowfield .. Muzzle Devices Projectile Interactions .. 172 Theory: Parametric Analysis. 174 Theory: Numerical Analysi 178 Summary .. 180 References 180 Chapter 8. Experimental Diagnostics in Reacting Muzzle Flows.... G. Klingenberg, Ernst-Mach-Institut, Weil am Rheii ,, Federal Republic of Germany Introduction Muzzle Flow and Flash Phenomena Flow Development. Muzzle Flash... Flow and Flash Visualization Flow Visualization... Muzzle Flash Visualization Intrusive Technique Pressure Probes... Emission Gage Technique Tracer Methods Particle Properti Chemical Analysi: Spectroscopic Temperature Measurements .. Fundamentals of Emission-Absorption Spectroscopy .. Reversal Method. Abel Inversion Technique .. CARS Spectroscopy... Reversal Measurements Abel Inversion Measurements CARS Feasibility Study Velocity Measurements. Principle of the Michelson Spectrometer as Devised by Smeets (ISL) Applications viiiSample Results..... Simulation Experiments References ........+++ Chapter 9. Muzzle Flash Kinetics and Modeling..........cccccscssscssseneeee 261 J.M. Heimerl, G.E. Keller, U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, and G. Klingenberg, Ernst-Mach-Institut, Weil am Rhein, Federal Republic of Germany Introduction ............ssese0ee Background for Model Construction . The Models of Carfagno and Yousefian Carfagno’s Model... Yousefian’s Model. Development of the Reaction Network Homogeneous Gas-Phase Process . Gas-Phase Network Species ... Reaction Network Rate Coefficients Muzzle Flash Prediction: Discussion References -269 275 275 278 284 284 287 288 292 295 -298 302 305 Chapter 10. The Problem of Gun Barrel Erosion: An Overview.............311 I. Ahmad, Benet Weapons Laboratory, Watervliet Arsenal, Watervliet, New York Introduction Historical . Magnitude o1 Phenomenology of Gun Bore Erosion.... Understanding and Predicting of the Rate of Erosion. Progress in the Control of Erosion .. Reduction of the Bore Temperatur Low Flame Temperature Propellants Reduction of Engraving Pressures on, the Bore Surface and Band Material Bore Surface Interaction Erosion Resistant Materials......... peed Recent Developments in Gun Barrel Coating Technology. Chromium Coating............ Other Refractory Metals Liners.......... Concluding Remarks References... Chapter 11, Mechanisms of Gun-Tube Erosion and Wear. W.T. Ebihara and D.T, Rorabaugh, U.S, Army Armament Research Development and Engineering Center, Picatinny Arsenal, New Jersey Background... 357Description of the Erosion Process. Thermal Factors Chemical Factors... Mechanical Factor: Characteristics of Erode: Steel Surfaces... Chromium-Plated Steel. Other Gun-Tube Materials Techniques Used to Study Gun- Concluding Remarks References ... Chapter 12. Wear-Reducing Additives—Role of the Propellant..... A.J. Bracuti, U.S. Army Armament Research Development and Engineering Center, Picatinny Arsenal, New Jersey Introduction Background Laminar Coolants for Cased Ammunition 379 Metal Oxide/Wax Additive 383 105-mm M68 Tank Gun. 383 105-mm Howitzer System . 395 Small Caliber 400 Naval Weapons 402 Ablative or Smear Cooling Concepts Concluding Remarks References Chapter 13. Liquid Propellant Guns.... W.F. Morrison and J.D. Knapton, U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, and M.J. Bulman, General Electric Company, Pittsfield, Massachusetts Introduction .... Bulk-Loaded Liquid Propellant Guns General... Interior Ballistics of the BLPG Phenomenological Studies... Ignition Location and Geometry Ignition Energy... Pressurization Rat Charge Configuration Projectile Mass... Pressure Wave Suppression Methods... Variation of Propellant Physical Properties Summary of Bulk-Loaded Monopropellant Tests . Comparison of the Performance of Monopropellant BLPGs and Conventional Solid Propellant Guns. Bipropellant BLPG Tests...Regenerative Liquid Propellant Gun. General... Interior Ballistics ‘of the RLPG Piston Motion..... Propellant Injection. Propellant Combustion . Constitutive Equations Summary .«. Phenomenologic: Regenerative Piston Configurations Injection Area. Piston Travel. 448 Charge-to-Mass 14448 Pressure Plateau..... 448 Regenerative Pressure-Curve Shapes . Ignition Criteri: Igniter Design... Temperature Variations... Pressure Oscillations... High-Velocity RLPG Firings Summary of Regenerative Monopropellant 25-mm Test Results 30-mm Test Results 105-mm Test Results RLPG Ballistic Performance .. Summary . References Chapter 14. Liquid Propellants for Use in Gums............ssssceeesseseseeeee473 N. Klein, U.S. Army Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland Introduction . Properties of Requirements... Total Energy Chemical Reactivity. Density .........+++ Coefficient of Thermal Expansio: Boiling Point and Vapor Pressure Freezing Point Viscosity .. Specific Heat Thermal Conductivity .. Electrical Conductivity Stability... Explosive Sens ivity xiAvailability Demilitarization an jisposal Chemical Rationale for Selecting Propellant Component: “477 Oxidizers.. ve ATT Fuels ........0006 479 Special Test Methods 479 Thermochemistry 480 Bipropellants .... - 480 Monopropellants 481 Nitrate-Ester-Containing Formulations... Aqueous Monopropellants.... Hydrazine, Hydrazinium Nitrat Hydroxylammonium Nitrate (HAN) Propellants Ignition and Combustion of the HAN-AAN Propellants.. Reaction Initiation Studies . Thermal Stability... Initiation by Electrical Discharge. Combustion Phenomena .. Pressure Effect: Vulnerability Storage Safety. Concluding Remarks. References..... Chapter 15. Traveling-Charge Effect P.G. Baer and I.W. May, U.S. Army/Ballistic Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland Introduction ..... Traveling-Charge Effect Previous Efforts on the Traveling Charge Effect Experimental Work... German Research (1939-1943)... Ballistic Research Laboratory Research (1950-1964) Atlantic Research Corporation (1950-1960) .. Armor Research Foundation and IITRI Research (1961-1967) Eglin Air Force Research (1967) Theoretical Work.... German Research (1939-1943) Lee and Laidler (1950-1951) Vinti (1950-1954) Others (1950-1951 Current Experimental Work Traveling-Charge Propellant Characterization Traveling-Charge Gun Ballistics. Current Theoretical Work Traveling-Charge Combustio1 Traveling-Charge Interior Ballistics. Summary References .Chapter 16. Base-Bleed Systems for Gun Projectiles.. N-E. Gunners, K. Andersson, and R. Hellgren, National Defence Research Institute (FOA), Tumba, Sweden Introduction .. Fundamental Principle: Design of Base-Bleed Units for Projectiles Optimization of Projectile Design for Base-Bleed Systems Afterbody Design . Calculation of Rang Step 1: Calculation of Base-Bleed Combustion Chamber Pressure Step 2: Calculations of Other Base-Bleed Data (Mass Flow, Burning Area, Burning Rate)... Step 3: Calculation of Drag Reduction Factor Crep and Reduced Total Drag Cp... Characteristics of Base-Bleed System: Future Possibilities and Trends Appendix Specific Impulse for Different Base-Bleed Shells. References 564 Author Index.. List of Series Volumes. xiiiPreface The concept of this volume emerged as preparations were being completed on the book Jnterior Ballistics of Guns, edited by Herman Krier and Martin Summerfield, which was published as Volume 66 in the AJAA Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics series in 1979. That book was the first extensive treatment of the subject in English since circa 1950. At that time, the often quoted volume by J. Corner, The Theory of the Interior Ballistics of Guns, was published by John Wiley and Sons in New York. The equally well-known volume, Internal Ballistics, edited by F. R. W. Hunt, was published by Philo- sophical Library under the auspices of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office in Lon- don in 1951. The purpose of the volume edited by Krier and Summerfield was to provide a thorough, comprehensive introduction to the beginner and also to offer an organized review of new developments that had taken place in the in- tervening three decades to the experienced practitioner. Similarly, this volume is intended both for the student and novice as well as for the experienced scien- tists and engineers, offering a broad introduction, reviews of the recent devel- opments, and sufficient references to permit the reader to quickly gain en- trance to the fine points of the technology. While the scope of the Krier and Summerfield book was quite broad, it was clear that there was a whole body of technology critical to the launching of projectiles from guns that was not dealt with. Treatments of those areas that we have lumped here under the title Gun Propulsion Technology were scat- tered in the report literature, in military design handbooks, or in some cases, in the private files of those active in the field. A glance at the Table of Contents of this volume will provide an indication of the scope of this subject area. A group of chapters is devoted to ignition systems for guns, pressure-time veloc- ity behavior, and an update on pressure-wave phenomena. One chapter deals with the influence of interior ballistics on the design of projectiles. A group of chapters is devoted to muzzle phenomena in general and to muzzle flash and its suppression in particular. Barrel erosion is treated in another group of three chapters. Finally, several chapters are devoted to more unconventional gun propulsion concepts, e.g., liquid propellant guns, traveling charge, and base- bleed. All of the chapters provide introductory and historical material and comprehensive treatments of the recent advances. How has the state-of-the-art of gun propulsion changed since the early 1950s or even since the appearance of the Krier and Summerfield AIAA volume? Munitions have undergone major changes in the last three decades. The modern gun munitions are more efficient in that the charges are designed to give greater performance for their size and weight. Barrel life has generally been significantly improved with the newer rounds. Development of new gun munitions has been put on a much more scientific, enlightened basis. Great ad- vances in the treatment of two-phase flow and the gasdynamic aspects of inte- Tior ballistics have been made, starting with the work of Kuo et al., while a xvgraduate student at Princeton University and now at Pennsylvania State Uni- versity, on the theory of flame front propagation in packed beds. Gough (Paul Gough Associates, Portsmouth, NH), starting with that prior work, has been at the forefront in the development of a whole group of large scale computer programs, the NOVA Codes, that deal explicitly with the detailed two-phase flow problems in various types of guns. A noteworthy aspect of this develop- ment is that the NOVA Codes are in frequent use and are thus continually be- ing refined as better input data become available and as the need for more re- fined, explicit formulations arises. The Ballistic Research Laboratory has been particularly productive in this field. Gradually, as computers have proliferated and increased in speed, capacity, and versatility, the earlier formulated, lumped parameter codes have been re- fined. Thus, the widely used Baer-Frankle thermodynamic code has metamor- phosed into the IBHVG-2 code largely through the efforts of Franz Lynn. The improvements were primarily in the capacity of the code to deal with deterred propellants and in the treatment of heat transfer to the gun tube. The IBHVG- 2 code is truly advanced in that it is coded to permit its use in an interpolative mode to optimize a given input characteristic such as web thickness within given constraints. That provides a practical tool to the charge designer and to the researcher. A User’s Guide was published for this code in a BRL Technical Report BRL-TR-2829 in July 1987 by R. D. Anderson and K. D. Fickie. An important contribution to the gun propulsion field was made by Eli Freedman of the BRL, who adapted the Stanford Research International Tiger Code specifically for gun propellants thus producing the Blake Code (Freed- man, E., ‘“‘Blake—A Thermodynamic Code Based on Tiger: User’s Guide and Manual,”’ Ballistic Research Laboratory Technical Report ARBRL-TR-02411, July 1982). It is a chemical equilibrium thermodynamic computer program that has the capability of treating nonideal gas behavior. Prior to the appear- ance of the code, more or less empirical means were applied to obtain esti- mates of covolumes. The available advanced thermodynamic codes such as the NASA code (TRAN72) treated the combustion gases as ideal gases. The phenomenally rapid, almost explosive growth of computer technology has strongly affected the gun technology field, not only enabling undertakings in analysis that would have been inconceivable before but also by providing the opportunity for conducting experimental work not previously feasible. A particularly spectacular advance that has taken place is the appearance of high sampling rate digital data acquisition equipment which, when combined with the computer, offers opportunities for innovative research and development efforts. Significant advances also have taken place in instrumentation, e.g., in pressure sensors, microwave tracking of projectiles, laser diagnostics, and in many other devices now being routinely used to characterize combustion and flame spreading and other phenomena in guns. This book is organized in the style of a textbook similar to the approach used in the aforementioned Krier and Summerfield volume with both the be- ginner and the experienced practitioner in mind. The first chapter by A. M. Varney presents an extensive overview of primer and igniter technology as ap- plied to guns. Both small arms primers and ignition systems used for large- caliber guns are dealt with. The igniter material used most commonly in guns is still black powder. Consequently, Chapter 2, authored by R. A. Sasse, pre- sents a thorough treatment of the ingredients, the manufacturing technology,and the physical, chemical, and combustion properties of black powder related to its use as an ignition material in guns. The next chapter presents pressure-velocity-travel vs time and pressure- velocity-time vs travel plots for representative small arms, mortars, tank guns, and howitzers. The chapter by L. Stiefel was included in this volume to serve as a convenient source of information for those readers needing a ready basis for making first-order estimates of weapon performance and also to serve as a support on which to base increased understanding of the various aspects of gun propulsion technology presented in this book. The fourth chapter, written by A.W. Horst, is a sequel to a chapter on pressure waves in guns published in Volume 66 of the AIAA Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics series. The present chapter examines a large body of experimental data on the longitudinal pressure waves that was gath- ered in safety assessment testing of developmental charges for both artillery and tank guns. The factors that are believed to play significant roles in the phe- nomenon are evaluated on the basis of the data and conclusions are drawn re- garding design principles and future areas of research. Chapter 5, by E. Freedman, discusses the properties of nonideal gases and how these properties come to be of importance in the prediction of the behav- ior of propellants in guns. The approaches used to calculate the nonideal gas effects are presented. Then the features of the NASA TRAN72 program, which deals only with ideal gas behavior, are described and the BLAKE code is presented in comparison. Next, the input data required for thermodynamic programs are discussed and the best sources for them are given. Finally, the computed thermochemical properties of 49 military propellants are tabulated. The structural design of projectiles as it is affected by their in-bore behavior is treated in Chapter 6 by W. H. Drysdale and B. D. Burns. Since finite ele- ment stress analysis is frequently applied to the conceptual designs, the authors discuss in detail the specific inputs needed for such investigations. Those inte- rior ballistic performance characteristics that bear strongly on the design are pointed out. Guidance is provided to help overcome commonly occurring problems when applying finite stress analysis codes to the design of projectiles which usually consist of several components. Included is introductory material describing the more common types of projectiles, rotating bands, and the ri- fling patterns commonly used in barrels. The next group of three chapters is devoted to the phenomena occurring at the muzzle. Muzzle flow gasdynamics is the subject of Chapter 7 authored by E. M. Schmidt. The chapter describes the blast and overpressure phenomena that occur when the propellant gases exhaust from the gun muzzle and reviews in detail the wide-ranging work that has led to working models. These models describe important features, such as muzzle blast, recoil brake characteristics, and the performance of flash suppressors and silencers. The second chapter in this group, Chapter 8 by G. Klingenberg, describes in detail the muzzle flow phenomena occurring during the firing of conventional guns. It also provides a comprehensive review of the experimental techniques that have been devel- oped to study flow and flash phenomena. Visualization and novel diagnostic methods now in use to probe the short duration in processes are described. The outlined techniques include an intrusive temperature measurement method, noninstrusive methods such as reversal and Abel inversion methods and coher- xviient antistokes Raman scattering. A specific laser velocimetry method for de- termining gas velocity in two-phase muzzle flow also is described. There are over 100 references cited in this chapter. Chapter 9, written by J. M. Heimerl, G. E. Keller, and G. Klingenberg, ad- dresses muzzle flash. Muzzle flash, and secondary muzzle flash in particular, is objectionable from a weapon-detectability standpoint and because it will aug- ment the blast, which may then reach an intolerable level from a safety stand- point. Secondary flash also has been found objectionable in automatic cannon-caliber weapons, used on aircraft, where the gun exhaust, heated and increased in volume through combustion in the surrounding air enters the jet engine and interferes with its smooth operation. This chapter presents the cur- rent understanding of the phenomenon, the models available for predicting its occurrence, and the chemical kinetic work that has been done to improve the latest models. Special attention is focused on the physical and chemical pro- cesses involved in the use of additives to suppress the secondary flash. Chapter 10, 11, and 12 deal with barrel erosion, which has been the subject of much productive research. J. Ahmad, the author of Chapter 10, provides a thorough overview of the entire field, covering results of research conducted during the period from World War II to the present. He provides an up-to- date description of our understanding of the erosion process and surveys the approaches investigated to reduce barrel erosion. Chapter 11, by W. T. Ebi- hara and D. T. Rorabaugh, is devoted to the mechanisms that have been found to underlie barrel erosion phenomena. Attention is focused on the gun tube materials, and on the work that has been accomplished on gun tube liners and coatings. Theoretical and empirical model developments are presented and the experimental methods used to study the metallurgical aspects of gun tube wear are dealt with. The third chapter in this group, Chapter 12 authored by A. J. Bracuti, is concerned with the chemical compounds, used as additives to pro- pellant charges, which have been found to be surprisingly effective in reducing barrel erosion. The chapter, utilizing over 80 references, provides a thorough treatment of this essential subject. The last section of this volume is devoted to presentations of unconventional gun concepts, or interior-ballistic innovations that have been pursued with some intensity over the past three or four decades. Chapters 13 and 14 are devoted to liquid propellant guns, involving concepts that offer highly attractive oppor- tunities for the development of safer and more effective weapon systems. W. F. Morrison and J. D. Knapton, the authors of Chapter 13, have provided a com- prehensive treatment of the two liquid propellant gun concepts on which almost all of the research and development work was concentrated. One concept is referred to as the bulk loaded system, where the propellant is pumped into the gun; when the chamber is filled, the charge is ignited. In the other concept, regenerative injection, the propellant is kept in a reservoir and is pumped into the combustion chamber during the ballistic cycle. The term “‘regenerative”’ is used to convey the fact, that in this system, the reservoir is pressurized by the gas in the gun combustion chamber, then amplified via a differential-area piston. There is a third concept where injection occurs during the ballistic cycle but where pressurization of the reservoir is provided by a source external to the gun, but it has received little attention. During the past forty to fifty years, no practi- cal, direct pressurization system has yet been invented. xviiiThere are over 100 references cited in this chapter which attests both to the comprehensive coverage provided by the authors and also to the magnitude of the research and development effort that has been expended on this technology. The specific liquid propellants that have been used in liquid propellant gun development programs are reviewed in Chapter 14, written by N. Klein. The special requirements for liquid propellants for guns, their chemistry, ther- mochemistry, and safety aspects are presented. While monopropellants have been most extensively investigated, there have been several efforts which were focused on bipropellants. The monopropellants that have received most atten- tion were hydrazine/hydrazine nitrate formulations, alkyl-nitrate mixtures, and hydroxyl ammonium nitrate (HAN) based systems. Since World War II there have been sporadic efforts devoted to traveling charge guns. The concept, which is of interest for very high velocity guns, is at first glance, deceptively simple and attractive. However, as pointed out in Chapter 15 by P. G. Baer and I. W. May, reducing the concept to a practical, reliable system has been elusive and requires propellant technology that, at least so far, has not been fully realized. Nevertheless, the principle has been ex- tensively explored in terms of interior-ballistic theory, and fruitful formula- tion and combustion work on very high buring rate propellants has emerged from the more recent efforts. The last chapter in this volume, prepared by N-E. Gunners, K. Andersson, and R. Hellgren, discusses the use of base-bleed to reduce the drag of the pro- jectile, a technique which increases the range of artillery weapons and reduces time-of-flight. The fundamental principles are presented and the differences between base-bleed units and tracers or fumers are pointed out. A method also is presented for modifying trajectory computation programs to permit compu- tation of base-bleed projectiles. Towe a large debt of gratitude to all of the authors for their expertise, their hard work, and cooperation in bringing this volume to fruition. They were selected because they were widely recognized as being among the foremost authorities in the subject area of their chapters. I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Martin Summerfield, the editor-in-chief of the AIAA Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics series for appointing me editor of this volume and for his very valuable support throughout the effort. I also want to extend recognition to all my associates and supervisors both at the Frankford Arsenal and at the Armament Research Development and Engineering Center, Picatinny Arsenal, from whom I learned much and who provided the environ- ment, the encouragement, advice, and the technical expertise that are reflected in the concept of this book and in numerous small but significant details that have enhanced its quality. The significant contributions of the many reviewers, whose suggestions and corrections added to the quality of the various chap- ters, are hereby also gratefully acknowledged. I would also like to express my gratitude for the help provided by Mrs. Jeanne Godette of the AIAA staff. _ Finally, on a personal note, while this technology is and has been of great importance in protecting us from tyranny, it is my fervent hope that, in the future, the new weaponry emerging from it will turn into old iron before it must be used in earnest. Ludwig Stiefel January 1988Chapter 1 Primers and Igniters A. Michael Varney* Applied Combustion Technology, Inc., Orlando, Florida Nomenclature = piston bore area exit throat area = constant pressure specific heat = constant volume specific heat gravitational constant = specific enthalpy = primer mean firing height (50% fire point) heat to work conversion factor = kinetic energy per unit mass = mass flow rate otal instantaneous mass, integrated value = pressure = rate of heat loss to the surrounding of the control volume gas constant = time temperature adiabatic flame temperature gas velocity instantaneous volume, velocity stroke length mass fraction of products in the condensed phase specific heat ratio defined function of y density erage density of condensed phase in combustion products ‘ime mass fraction of the combustion products in the gas phase mass fraction of combustion products in the condensed phases, Y,=1-%, Sak 2 i. a oq ESQ hE g ID DADE TET ROW be na os =—_ Copyright © 1988 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights Teserved, “Technical Director.2 A.M. VARNEY o = standard deviation Subscripts c = properties evaluated in the chamber cp = properties associated with the condensed phase Cv. control volume e exit g = properties associated with the gas phase in, out quantities entering and exiting the control volume, respectively properties evaluated at initial condition P properties associated with the primer mix s = properties associated with the condensed phases, surface condi- tions ub = unburned material Introduction Initiating explosives were discovered in the early 1600’s and two centuries later, Forsythe became the first person to use primary explosives for igniting gun powder in firearms.’ In 1807, Forsythe received a patent for a percussion- sensitive, wax-coated pellet of potassium chlorate mixed with combustible materials and in 1810, Lepage patented a percussion lock using a primer mix of 33% potassium chlorate and 67% black powder. Subsequent developments in primers for muzzle-loading arms resulted in the ability to initiate larger charges and led to the patents of Hunt, 1879, and Graydon, 1889, for fuzing and initating artillery shells. As anticipated, the desire to propel larger artillery shells was accompanied by a new set of problems, including erratic, and sometimes catastrophic, initiation of the propelling charge, presumably be- cause the gases and hot particles from the primer could reach only a portion of the propelling charge surface. As propelling charge masses increased, supple- mental igniters and primer tubes were introduced as a means of more uniformly distributing the ignition stimulus throughout the charge. By 1950, the primer tube had evolved via several patents of Meister?~* to a lined, vented tube similar to the configuration shown in Fig. 1. It is interesting to note that the 1947 patent of Meister provided a general definition for ammunition primers which is basically applicable today Artillery ammunition primers are generally long metal tubes, preferably made of brass, which are closed at both ends and have a number of smail vents or flame holes uniformly spaced throughout their surface. The primer is filled with a suitable ignition charge, usually black powder, and the cap which closes one of the ends of the tube carries a suitable percussion element for igniting the ignition charge within the tube.” Meister’s patent disclosures suggest that, although much work had been done on practical manufacturing and sealing problems, very little was understood about the processes by which the primer actually ignited the propellant.PRIMERS AND IGNITERS 3 ‘Jrventor Leo T: Meister, OM ChanckrAE A Lee Citeenayy Fig. 1 Primer tube configuration presented in patent of Meister (Ref. 2). Primers and igniters, perhaps because of their dimunitive size, and despite their strong influence on the entire course of the ballistic cycle, have been designed largely by empirical methods, leaving unanswered a basic under- standing of how the various performance characteristics of the primer and igniter systems affect ballistic performance, and how those output characteris- tics are related to both their mechanical design and to the chemical composi- tion of the ignition materials. Although the terms “primer” and “igniter” are often used interchangeably, the present work will adopt the generic definition Presented in Meister’s 1947 patent in which the primer (simple primer or small arms primer) is considered the ignition element, usually a sensitive explosive4 A. M. VARNEY mix, and the igniter (propellant primer or primer-igniter) is defined as the principal energy source for initiating the propelling charge. Using this basic conceptual understanding of the primer and the igniter, a consolidated over- view of primers and igniters is presented, including information on mechanical design, performance evaluation techniques, and theoretical characterization. Percussion and electric primers are described, followed by a discussion of selected theoretical and experimental efforts which were conducted to char- acterize the dominant energy transfer modes present in the primer/igniter system. Finally, a brief synopsis of laser ignition techniques is presented. Primers Percussion Primers. Percussion primers form part of a general family of pyrotechnic components classified as initiators and are very similar to the ones designed in 1807 by Forsythe. The basic percussion primer element, shown in Fig. 2, consists of a heterogeneous explosive pellet mixture which is initiated by a mechanical energy source in the form of a moving firing pin. A ductile metal cup is used to contain the explosive pellet, which is held in position by a coated paper disc and anvil combination. The primer assembly process consists of loading the impact-sensitive mix into the primer cup, covering it with the paper disc, consolidating the mix, and then pressing the anvil into place. Initiation is achieved by impacting the primer cup with a hemispherically tipped firing pin which has ample kinetic energy to compress locally the explosive pellet mix between the primer cup indentation and the anvil, thus causing the explosive mix to deflagrate. Since the primer cup is made of ductile metal, it is generally not penetrated by the firing pin tip and is capable of maintaining a high pressure gas seal on the input side, thus directing the burning products Percussion Input Primer Composition Primer Cup Fig. 2. Basic percussion primer element. Paper Disc (Coated)PRIMERS AND IGNITERS 3 through the paper disc, around the anvil legs, and through an exit vent to the next element in the ignition train. As a design goal, a properly configured percussion primer would exhibit the following characteristics’: 1) appropriate sensitivity to percussion, 2) ability to ignite propellant reproducibly and reliably, 3) good chemical stability and compatibility of ingredients, 4) good mixing characteristics, 5) safety in handling and storage, and 6) economy of production. Primer Compositions Primer compositions are impact-sensitive mixes which are divided into two broad classes: 1) noncorrosive formulations and 2) corrosive formulations. Noncorrosive formulations are by far the more commonly used and generally consist of lead styphnate primary explosives, an oxidizer, a fuel, and an abrasive to increase initiation sensitivity. The second type of mix contains little or no primary explosive and is termed corrosive because of the corrosive reaction products associated with the potassium chlorate (KCI0,) material which is used in the mix formulation. Chemical formulations of typical primer compositions are shown in Table 1 and indicate that noncorrosive primer mixes are typically 26-58% primary explosive, whereas corrosive primer mixes are composed of 31-53% potassium chlorate. The low temperature noncorro- Table 1 Typical primer explosive mixes Mix Weight Percentage G-1l (NAVAIR G-11 Drawing 25TW Ingredient (FA988) 851A5252) G-16 PA101 (FA956) 530G 793 (normal) o 3745 Lead styphnate (basic) Barium nitrate Tetracene Calcium silicide 1241 1341 1742 Aluminum powder Antimony sulfide 2542 2642 3042 Lead thiocyanate 2517 PETN Ru ads HH ORE eR ao Pow Gaak HEHE HE Rew = a re oo Be we 6 a He - w wo Potassium chlorate 5343 5143 5343 5335 TACOT +1 10416 A. M. VARNEY sive primer mixes derive their initiation sensitivity from a crystalline fracture of 2-5% tetracene, whereas the corrosive mixes are shock- and friction-sensi- tive. Concerning thermal stability, tetracene is the least thermally stable ingredi- ent in noncorrosive primer mixes, and it begins to exhibit degraded sensitivity (e.g., increased ation energy requirements) at temperatures beginning in the 160—200°F range. Also, in corrosive primer mixes, many of the typically included ingredients (e.g., lead sulphocyanate and TNT) have marginal ther- mal stability and are not suited for service over 160°F. Because of anticipated higher temperature performance requirements, Remington Arms developed a family of high temperature priming mixes, designated as G-series composi- tions®. Two special corrosive primers, G-11 and G-16, are suitable for ex- tended storage above 200°F, but at the expense of requiring three to five times more initiation energy than conventional compositions. The output characteristics of a percussion primer can be described as a deflagration of low brisance which is composed of flame, hot gases, and hot particles. Noncorrosive primer compositions, because of their high explosive content, tend to be fairly brisant and of short duration; corrosive primer compositions are generally soft and of long duration. Primer Construction’ Primer Cup Primer cups are fabricated of a ductile metal by a blanking and drawing operation. Materials most commonly used are cartridge brass (alloy no. 260) or copper (alloy no. 220). Generally, primers with copper cups are more sensitive to initiation (i.e. lower all-fire energy values) than similar primers with brass cups. Primer cup parameters which affect sensitivity include both cup material and cup thickness in the crown area (i.e., where the firing pin would strike). Primers with copper cups can present a problem during primer installation into the next subassembly if the force required for insertion is excessive. Because of the softness of the material, deformation of the crown of the cup, with subsequent breakup of the explosive composition, can result. Brass cup primers are more resistant. Primer cups are sometimes plated, usually with nickel, but this is essentially for cosmetic purposes since the plating is often porous inside the cup where the cup is in contact with the explosive composi- tion. There have been instances where primer manufacturers have used cup plating techniques to minimize chemical incompatibility problems with potas- sium chlorate-based explosive mixtures in severe environments. Cup characteristics which affect primer performance (such as low variability in sensitivity and reliability) include crown thickness, cup material (type and hardness), and cup length, which can affect anvil retention, anvil standoff distance because the cup is too shallow, or anvil failure-to-seat because the cup is too deep.PRIMERS AND IGNITERS 7 Anvil The purpose of the anvil is to provide a surface against which the explosive composition can be “pinched” during attempted initiation. The anvil is pressed into the primer cup during primer assembly and is held in place by a slight press fit between the cup and anvil legs during installation. Anvils are usually fabricated from cartridge brass (alloy no. 260). Although the primer cup is made to deform, the anvil is made to be rigid. Sometimes the anvil is color-coded with a varnish to aid in primer identification. Depending on manufacturing preference, anvils are formed with two or ‘three legs (bipod and tripod anvils) as shown in Fig. 3, but both share a common inverted V-shape. This formation places the emphasis on striking the Bipod Tripod Two-Legged 7 ‘Anvil Three-Legged Anvil Crown Thickness Pellet Initial Bridge Thickness Pellet Thickness ‘Assembled Height Anvil Fig. 3 Primer cup with anvil configurations and cup terms.8 A. M. VARNEY primer where the face of the cup and the anvil are closest, thus crushing the greatest amount of explosive within the shortest distance or time. The advantage of the tripod configuration is its tendency to maintain primer cup roundness. The bipod anvil has a sharper tip which is more prone to cause primer punctures and is generally more rigid than the tripod. Remington Arms uses the bipod configuration extensively, whereas Olin Corporation favors the tripod. For many primers, the anvil type may be an option of the manufac- turer, as long as critical characteristics such as height are properly maintained. The tip of the anvil may differ in configuration. Traditionally, the practice has been to make the tip as sharp as possible, but in some cases primer manufacturers have gone to flat tips in order to maintain sensitivity on off-center hits. In other cases they have allowed creation of sharp edges on the anvil to increase sensitivity. Both types of anvil tips are widely used to produce primers of acceptable sensitivity. Some of the anvil defects which can affect primer sensitivity or reliability are partially or fully closed vents (likely to affect only reliability and not sensitivity) and malformed anvils (off-center anvil tip, length, unsymmetrical vent holes, too small or too large outside diameters). Both cup and anvil defects are uncommon, since anvils are geometrically more complicated and handled less than the cups during primer manufacture; however, the probabil- ity of a defective anvil in a primer production lot is higher than that of a defective cup. Paper Disc The paper disc, or foiling paper, is a relatively thick coated paper disc which is placed between the primer explosive composition and the anvil. The principal purpose of the disc is to facilitate primer assembly, especially when primer composition is loaded into cups while wet. Using the foiling paper consolidates the primer composition into the cup by a flat or configured loading ram, without risking that all or part of the explosive composition will stick to the ram face and be pulled out of the cup after consolidation. The paper is sometimes impregnated with a soluble varnish on one side (the side which will be in contact with the primer composition) to ensure that the paper will stick to the formed pellet. During anvil insertion, the paper is compressed between the anvil and primer pellet and often is slightly punctured by the tip of the anvil. This condition is considered normal. Insertion of the anvil into the cup sometimes causes the foiling paper to pull away from the inner diameter of the primer cup. This also is considered a normal condition. The foiling paper provides little if any environmental (i.c., moisture) protection to the explosive composition. Often the primer discs may be color-coded to aid in primer identification (manufacturer’s option). Foiling paper defects include the installation of multiple discs, which could cause loss of sensitivity, or a missing disc, which could be indicative of a partial explosive pellet. Primer Flash Hole The primer flash hole is located in the base of the primer pocket and ports the primer deflagration products to the first fire or primary explosive incre-PRIMERS AND IGNITERS 9 ment of the powder train to be initiated. Generally, it is assumed that as the size of the flash hole is decreased, the pressure of the deflagration products and the length of their spit will increase. Since ignition of pyrotechnic delay trains benefits by keeping pressure (and brisance) to a minimum, this dictates the use of the largest practical flash hole. Conversely, initiation of explosive trains is aided by higher pressures and therefore a smaller diameter flash hole. Propellant ignition is less well defined, but appears to fall somewhere between these two extremes. According to Ref. 8, the overall influence of variations in the diameter of the hole and its effect upon initiation of the pyrotechnic train is questionable. Since quantitative design parameters have yet to be estab- lished, it is recommended that information provided in manufacturer’s data sheets be followed. Primer Backup Disc In applications where gas sealing is required, the use of a washer-type _ primer backup disc, or firing pin stop, is a necessity. Although the primary purpose of the backup disc is to prevent blowback of the primer body, its thickness can also be varied in order to control firing pin indentation. Baffling Baffling is a technique for mechanically reducing primer brisance, primarily in pyrotechnic time delay applications®. This technique is quite often over- looked or discarded because of the additional complexity involved. With the present availability of porous sintered metal in varying thicknesses, baffling can now be achieved with greater simplicity and improved versatility. This is of considerable importance because of the increased use of more brisant and temperature-resistant priming compositions. Primer Installation Anvil-Cup Interface During primer manufacture, the anvil is inserted into the charged primer cup. The depth to which the anvil is installed is a function of the quantity of primer composition in the cup, the force at which the insertion is performed, and the tolerances of the various piece parts (e.g., cup crown thickness and anvil length). On the typical M42 primer, the allowed height of the primer is 0.111 to 0.119 in., as shown in Table 2. As manufactured, the anvil base Protrudes from the cup up to 0.012 in. To achieve optimum sensitivity, the Primer manufacturer recommends that the primer be reconsolidated (i.e., teduced in height), usually by 0.004 to 0.006 in. during primer installation. This ensures that 1) the anvil is pressed firmly against the explosive composi- tion, perhaps even holding it under compression; 2) the anvil is securely seated against the bottom of the cavity into which it was installed (a critical condition10 A.M. VARNEY Table 2 Allowed heights and diameters for some commonly used primers Drawing Specification Height, Diam, Item Number ‘Number in. in, 15-108 MIL-P-46610 125 1765 M29A1-5061 8798312 MIL-P-2496 126 max. .2035-.2050 M35-5061 8840536 = MIL-P-46425.111-.119 .2100-.2115 42-5086 8799925 MIL-P-20444 111-119 1748-1756 MA42C1-PA101 8799925 MIL-P-20444 111-119 1748-.1756 422-793 8799925 MIL-P-20444 111-119 .1748-.1756 M42G-530G 1780546 = MIL-P-20444. 111-119 .1745-.1756 CCU-20/A 11738777 MIL-P-50769.115-.123 .1745-.1756 (44-G11) CCU-21/A 11738784 MIL-P-50769 115-123 .1745-.1765 (49-G11) 49-G16 a9 175 49-5061 8596412 115-123 .1745-.1765 50M-5061 10551686 MIL-P-46610.220-.228 .3160-.3185 72M-5061 10551688 MIL-P-46610 123.133 .2105-.2130 116M-282A 6200959 MIL-P-46610-117-.125 .1745-.1765 120M-257W 10522621 MIL-P-46610.123-.133_.2105-.2130 for acceptable sensitivity); and 3) the anvil still extends from (i.e., is not flush with) the primer cup. Excessive reconsolidation could result in the anvil breaking the explosive composition and allowing it to dust out of the cup when subjected to in-service vibrations, causing a reliability problem, or pushing the anvil into contact with the cup, resulting in no composition at the pinch point. Special attention must be given to primer reconsolidation, since the toler- ance in primer height is typically greater than the tolerance in reconsolidation. There are two techniques commonly used for primer installation into a cavity: 1) insert a primer to a given depth and 2) insert primer with a controlled force and check depth. Of the two, the second is the recommended approach. If primers are inserted to a given depth, a short primer may not be sufficiently reconsoli- dated, or worse, the anvil may not be seated on the bottom of the primer cavity. This condition is called a floating anvil and will often result in misfires. Conversely, a long primer may be overconsolidated. Also, in inserting primers to a certain depth, generally sufficient force is used so that the primer could deform if conditions are improper (such as rough sidewall on pocket, slight axial misalignment of cup and cavity, and undersized inner diameter of cavity). When inserting primers by force and checking depths, the installation force is limited to prevent primer deformation. For brass cup M42 primers, in aluminum pockets, proper forces are typically 150 to 250 Ibf, depending on tolerances. By checking depth 100%, all long and short primers can be rejected. Primed cases should be x-rayed to determine that the anvil is seated.PRIMERS AND IGNITERS il Primer Cavity Cavities into which primers are installed can be dimensioned so that the primer, when reconsolidated, is flush with the top of the cavity or recessed a pre-determined distance. Generally, it is considered better engineering practice to recess the primer. By recessing the primer, the cavity can be ring or flat staked to retain the primer in the cavity and to facilitate sealing. If the primer were flush, staking could deform the crown area or change primer sensitivity. Also, recessing the primer tends to protect the primer, which can contribute to unit safety in drop tests. Primer Selection A generalized selection chart, Fig. 4, has been developed by Lake!® and should be used as an initial guide in primer selection. Referring to Fig. 4, the designer should make this initial selection based on anticipated maximum continuous operating temperature. For conditions where the maximum con- tinuous temperature does not exceed 160°F, a thiocyanate-chlorate mix could be chosen. For maximum continuous temperatures of 200°F, a styphnate mix should be selected and for temperatures between 200°F and 400°F, a G-11 mix should be chosen. Following selection of the primer mix, consideration must be given to the primer output requirements, including the brisance desired and type of material to be ignited (such as pyro delay, explosive, and propellant). Selection of these two characteristics leads to the recommendation of a flash hole diameter and primer, including the input energy requirements necessary to fire the primer. Primer Sensitivity Primer sensitivity is a relative quantity and varies inversely with the ini- tiation energy. Primers requiring less input energy compared to others are more sensitive while primers requiring more energy are less sensitive. Sensitiv- ity will vary from primer to primer within a given explosive composition, and with different compositions. Statistical data on sensitivity are gathered on a lot-by-lot basis, giving the user information on the primer performance and acceptability. Statistical data are generated using rundown sensitivity testing, which is conducted using a ball of known weight that can be suspended at varying heights above the primer to be tested. The test primer is loaded into a Percussion firing pin test fixture and an observation is made as to whether a primer fire is achieved for a series of specified ball-drop heights. Since testing is destructive, no primer may be tested more than once. Typical procedures may call for starting the ball at a height of one in. and testing 50 primers before raising the ball an additional inch and testing 50 more. A record is kept of how many do and do not fire at each height until a sufficient height is reached to fire the entire group of 50 without a misfire. A statistical analysis of the data is made to calculate the height, H, at which 50% of the samples is fired and the standard deviation, o, is associated with H.A. M. VARNEY 12 “COL PA) LEyP d1Bo} uoRDaI—s sau UoKSsNOIEg “BLY WaWINd NOISSNOWdPRIMERS AND IGNITERS 13 Taking the 50% fire point height and adding five standard deviations provides the all-fire height H + So, and multiplying that by the weight of the ball used provides the all-fire energy (normally expressed in inch-ounces). The all-fire energy level calculated is then compared with the specification limit for the primer being tested to ensure that the maximum allowable all-fire level is not exceeded. A check on minimum energy (H — 20) also is done to ensure that the primer is not too sensitive. The all-fire energy is the calculated input which, when delivered to the primer, will result in a statistically insignificant number of failures, keeping in mind that a high percentages of primers will still fire below the statistical minimum. However, this energy must be the minimum delivered by any firing mechanism in order to maximize reliable operation, plus any energy required as a margin to compensate for the favorable laboratory conditions under which the primer testing is conducted. Unfortunately, this type of testing is success oriented. Any primer which does not fire during testing is assumed to have received insufficient input energy. Individual defects are not detected. To alleviate this, rundown sensitivity must be augmented by dud testing in which quantities of primers are struck at the all-fire energy level in a search for no fires or duds. The quantity tested is dependent on the ultimate reliability desired. Reliability testing is a combina- tion of the sensitivity and dud tests, and one without the other cannot provide a complete picture of the primer’s overall reliability. Electric Primers"! Unlike the development and standardization of the FA 956 percussion primer, where the metallic components were already developed, i.e., cups and anvils (both bipod and tripod), the development of a suitable priming mixture for electric primers was concommitant with all development aspects of electric primers. This was a new item and consequently the development of the mixture was simply an item along with components, assembly, component testing, charging and all methods of manufacture together with testing and evaluation. The early electric primers manufactured in the U.S. were operated at low voltage and incorporated a small resistance wire. This design was very prob- ably dictated by the German designs which were available by 1943. The problems associated with wired primers were very extensive. They were extremely difficult to manufacture, and consequently quite costly; their perfor- mance in Cal .60 ammunition, and later in 20 mm and .60/20 mm, proved that the rate of fire was greatly compromised by the long primer firing times. It was obvious that the total time of the ballistic firing cycle was excessive, and a large contributor to this time interval was the time required to heat the resistance wire to a sufficiently high temperature to cause the priming mixture to explode. Other problems became evident too, with the low (24 volt) voltage wire primers. Any series resistance, which would easily and quickly build up in the firing of machine gun bursts, would decrease the energy available to the Primer and would cause hangfires and misfires. It did not take long to abandon the wired primer in favor of a conductive mixture.14 A.M. VARNEY Once the choice had been made in favor of the conductive mixture, development proceeded at a very advanced and successful pace. There existed two main development efforts, one an in-house effort at Frankford Arsenal (FA), and secondly, a contractor effort at Remington Arms Co., Inc. The two development projects pursued slightly different designs. The FA primer con- tained a coined electrode made from a Monel-metal electrode. The design advantage of this electrode was that it was coined as a symmetrical piece, thereby easing assembly of the primer. (It did not have to be positioned for assembly into the primer cup.) The Remington design was much more daring, containing as an assembly, three simple pieces: a primer cup with pierced base, a coined brass electrode requiring orientation, and a performed vinylite cup separating the button or electrode from the cup. The conductive priming mixture was charged, compressed, and a thin gilding cup inserted over the mixture. The original version was designated M52, which was suceeded by MS52A1, M52A2, and others, until the final version M52A3B1 was achieved through a series of product improvements. The early firing tests of the M52 primer in 20 mm rounds were sufficiently impressive to render a decision to discontinue the Frankford design and to place full emphasis on the M52. In this period, Remington studied a variety of conductive mixtures. As is often the case in technical developments, the early work was very successful, and almost at the very beginning, mixture XP-73 was formulated, which, although slightly improved and sophisticated, was never really displaced by the great number of experimental mixtures prepared over the next five years. Mixture XP-73 was used initially, later modified and standardized as a U.S. Army mixture, designated FA-874: FA-874 Dry basis, wt% Lead styphnate (normal) 40.00 2, 4, 6 Trinitroresorcinol (TNR) 1.00 Barium nitrate 44.25 Calcium silicide 13.00 Acetylene black (carbon) 75 Acacia, (gum arabic) 1.00 100.00 FA-874 contains a pretreated calcium silicide which, before incorporation into the mixture, is washed in successive stages with a solution of styphnic acid. This treatment apparently imparts a new degree of passivity to the calcium silicide. As a result, the completed, wet (approximately 10%; water), priming mixture can be stored for longer periods of time before being loaded into primers. The factor that is kept in control by this procedure is the electrical resistance of the completed, dried primers. It was found that without the styphnic acid treatment, the damp mixture had to be charged into primers within several hours or the electrical resistance of the finished primers began to wander over a very wide range. In many instances, this resulted in thePRIMERS AND IGNITERS 15 resistance becoming so wide and spurious so as to cause rejection of the lot. In early 1950, a new type of ball powder was developed, used primarily in an experimental 30 mm cartridge containing approximately 1000 grains of propellant. Early firing tests confirmed fears that the standard M52A3 model of that time would be incapable of providing adequate propellant ignition. In addition, some ballistics difficulties were being encountered in the ever chang- ing 20 mm rounds of the day. Based on this somewhat nebulous lack of confidence in the lead styphnate primer, Frankford Arsenal was urged by the Office, Chief of Ordnance, to expand rapidly a minor effort which revolved around a promising combination of powdered zirconium, lead dioxide and barium nitrate. In approximately two years, a new priming mixture, unique because it contained none of the usual primary initiators, particularly lead styphnate, evolved, and the final formulation was known as FA-878. FA-878 Dry wt, % Zr (powdered) 75 Zr (granular) 32.5 Lead dioxide 20 Barium nitrate 20 PETN 20 This mixture was loaded in 4.0-4.5 grain pellets into M52 primer compo- nents, with slight adjustment (lengthening) of the vinylite cup to provide adequate electrical resistance. This new primer was designated as Primer, Electric, M52A4, and was found to be an exceptionally good igniter for heavily deterred and large propellant grains. Thus, a new sense of security was achieved, since it was not thought possible to handle difficult ignition situa- tions without resorting to the use of flash tubes and black powder boosters. There must have been considerable interest in the 30 mm, for in excess of 10 million M52A4 primers were immediately manufactured. The bulk of these were never used because of the continued development and interest in the 20 mm. The use of M52A4 to achieve superior ballistics in 20 mm ammunition was very unsatisfactory, due to over-ignition and consequent high pressures, In addition, comprehensive test firings in the M39 revolver gun revealed excessive break sparks and intermittent, but very voluminous, muzzle flashes which were attributed to the high zirconium content, No further work was conducted on the M52A4 primer. One very important spinoff of this development was the emergence of granular grades of zirconium metal which could be handled safely as dry material, and which were found to be very useful as igniter and Pyrotechnic ingredients. The only other large electric primer developed at this time was designated the M52A5. This primer contained a modified lead styphnate mixture with a large percentage of titanium powder. The chief characteristic of this primer was that it greatly reduced impact Sensitivity without appreciable change to either its electrical characteristics or its ability to ignite 20 mm powders16 A. M. VARNEY adequately. The bulk of this electric primer work was conducted in a relatively short span of time, and for all practical purposes was completed by 1955. In this period, the design of 20 mm had been rather well standardized, together with the advances and standardization in propellant powders in 20 mm. Satisfactory ballistics, therefore, were obtained by the total accumulation of all improvements and a slight increase of 0.25 grains in pellet weight of the standard M52A3 primer, which was then designated Primer, Electric, MS52A3B1. Performance Assessment Techniques In order to assess adequately the applicability of existing techniques for evaluating primer output performance, a qualitative picture of the primer functional behavior is presented, Fig. 5. It is presumed that the primer is one element in an ignition train whose final purpose is to ignite a propellant or powder charge. The primer, following initiation by either a percussion firing pin or electrical stimulus, produces gas phase and condensed phase products which pressurize the surrounding confined volume, while transferring energy to the next element in the ignition train. Depending upon the strength of the primer and the firing train configuration (such as gap and booster), a finite time interval is required for the primer pressure and temperature to develop, leading to ignition of the final element in the train. It is important to note that the solids and liquids in the primer products contain a significant portion of the primer output energy, but contribute almost nothing to the pressure. Consequently, any device which does not permit the determination, either analytically or experimentally, of how well the condensed phase solid and Hot Gases and Solids y \__ : l Initiation Impetus re Gap Booster Powder | (Some- (Some- times) times) Fig. 5 Functional description of primer process.PRIMERS AND IGNITERS 17 liquid products are being formed cannot adequately evaluate primer output performance on a reproducible basis. . Open air plume photography tests are conducted to evaluate primer perfor- mance by firing a cased primer, as indicated in Fig. 6, in open air and using still or high-speed photography to document the luminous plume issuing from the case. These tests are conducted under atmospheric conditions and do not permit the primer pressure to fully develop; consequently, the ultimate reac- tion products may never be formed and incomplete combustion may occur. Also, since the firings are conducted in free air, an excess of available oxygen is present, relative to the real primer application, and may induce an erroneous set of plume reactions in the visible plume; consequently, the resultant plume photograph has very little, if any value. In fact, since very little is known about how the primer material breaks up during the ignition process, repeated open air shots with perfectly good primers may not yield plumes of the same shape, size, or luminosity content. Finally, the question must be raised as to how much of the primer energy output is in the visible spectrum, thus casting another question mark on the open air plume test technique. Open Air Plume Technique - Free oxygen (air) may induce reactions totally different from actual primer firings Open Air Firing - Open air firings conducted at atmospheric pressure may lead to incomplete burning in the primer region 1 Visible light may not be representative of primer Luminous ‘Plume energy transfer processes Fig. 6 Open air plume photography technique. CRUSH BLOCK TECHNIQUE CRUSH BLOCK TECHNIQUE - Crush block technique measures primer gas phase energy ~ Primer products consist of gas phase products and condensed phase products--but only gases Produce pressure (p,) Honeycomb Crush Block ~ Crush block neglects the energy contribution of solids and liquids in primer Time Fig. 7 Crush block energy absorption technique.18 A. M. VARNEY Crush block performance tests have been conducted by Schimmel and Drexelius!? to evaluate primer performance by firing a properly fixtured primer into a cylindrical bore, Fig. 7, closed at the downstream end by a movable piston which is free to translate into an energy absorbing material, such as a honeycomb block. The crush block technique provides positive containment of the primer products (which is good), but primarily measures the integrated energy content of the gas phase primer products. Since the crush block technique neglects the contributions of the condensed liquids and solids, it is an incomplete test. Closed and vented bomb techniques, schematically shown in Fig. 8, are interior ballistic methods which measure the pressure produced by a primer fired into a precisely controlled volume. In the closed bomb technique, the primer pressure-time history is measured. Analyses have been developed for the closed bomb to assess the condensed phase products. The uncertainty of the primer function time and the heat transfer losses, however, negate the reproducibility of the closed bomb approach because of the extremely small primer masses involved (e.g., typically milligrams). In the vented bomb technique, also shown in Fig. 8, primer product gases are permitted to escape through an exit orifice during the primer functioning, thus providing a positive determination of the filling and venting time frame. Because of the small primer mass involved, the vented bomb experiments are fast (50-200 ps) and reduce the uncertain losses from heat transfer effects. Since the vented bomb acts like a small rocket motor, the exit mass flow rate through the vent can be calculated by conventional procedures. These proce- dures are integrated over the experimental time frame to give the total mass vented from the bomb, and are then compared with the original primer charge mass, thus providing quantitative determination of the primer mass conversion efficiency. In addition, the experimentally measured pressure-time curve, coupled with theoretical data treatment, will permit complete primer output = Vented bonb permite Ealculation Of Re and ana 1° $40 to deter of "OS ‘mine combustion con version efficiency Cloces Bone = Closed bomb = Closed bomb P a uncertain beat. 7 . tranater losses. . Fig. 8 Closed and vented bomb techniques.PRIMERS AND IGNITERS 19 performance evaluation, including calculation of the condensed phase energy contribution. Primer Characterization A review of the open literature was conducted in 1976 by Kuo” to identify information available for characterizing primer systems, and very little was found beyond that previously presented. The effects of primer vent geometry and primer strength were experimentally investigated by Gerri et al.!* using granular ball propellant in a 7.62 mm vented chamber (see Fig. 9). The results of Gerri’s experiments show that: 1) The velocity of the flame front (as inferred from the relative velocity of the pressure front and the peak pressures) does indeed increase with the bed length although there is some indication that the flame front is increasing at a decreasing rate. 2) The degree of compaction of the propellant bed by the primer action is of utmost importance. 3) The initial interaction of the propellant-primer interface during the ignition of the bed is also of extreme importance. Poor ignition almost invariably leads to excessive pressures and erratic pressure profiles. Exces- sively strong ignition leads to multiple ignition points and erratic pressure profiles. 4) Above some critical value of the shear disc rupture pressure, the pressure rises at a very sharp rate, without a proportionate increase in the velocity of the pressure front. T. R. Davis'> performed a preliminary investigation of primer characteriza- tion for small arms using a theoretical model based on single-phase gas flow. The necessary thermochemical data were lacking at the time of his investiga- tion, and assumed values of adiabatic flame temperature and specific heat ratio were varied around 2700°K and 1.2, respectively. Summarizing his zee THREAD 10,8tem nes [ema fe ¢ runs fens cae sat osc i os Fig. 9 The 7.62 mm cal, 10.84 cm vented chamber (Ref. 14).20 A. M. VARNEY findings, T. R. Davis concluded that: 1) Predicted flow rates are primarily controlled by the slope of the pressure-time trace. The mass flow rate reaches a maximum when the pressuri- zation rate attains its highest value. 2) Increases in adiabatic flame temperature T, and holding all other oper- ating conditions constant results in only slight decreases in the igniter mass flow rates. In general, mass flow rates are relatively unaffected by substantial changes in T,. 3) Similarly, primer mass flow rate decreases slightly with an increase in specific heat ratio y. 4) The time required for total consumption of the primer was found to be around 70 to 80 microseconds. The most extensive primer characterization to date has been performed by Kuo et al.!> in which the instantaneous mass flow rate, percentage of con- densed phases in the primer products, and the energy fluxes associated with the product gases have been theoretically determined for experimentally measured primer pressure-time curves. Using the apparatus schematically shown in Fig. 10 and referring to the schematic diagram of the control volume used in the primer characterization, Fig. 11, Kuo assumed an ideal gas law and treated the primer gas phase with a lumped parameter analysis. Applying conservation of mass to the gas phase control volume for a sonic gas exit flow provides a first order, ordinary differential equation for the gas tempera- ture, T, aT, we Rapa , | MT. TAP, Mtin,r, = — Min, | + dr V.P.| RT. Vio, " P. dt vp, ® where Px) = Yala + yyornaer KISTLER GAGE CAVITY RETAINER: IGNITION STEEL MODIFIED GLO-PLUG ‘SHAVINGS (PRESSURE WAVE. ABSORBER) CABLE CONNECTOR RETAINER CAP COVER-VENT RETAINER Fig. 10 Primer output characterization test fixture (Ref. 13).PRIMERS AND IGNITERS 21 P(t) and dP.(t)/dt are experimentally measured data and are used as input for the analysis; the other variables are defined in the Nomenclature. Under the assumption of negligible heat losses and the assumption that the primer incoming sensible energy is greater than the incoming kinetic energy, con- servation of energy applied to the control volume for a calorically perfect gas gives P, P, ap, ~~ thin, + —titin + Ve Ps By dt : 5 eae = sie = (1 = DET ti, = (= 1 gl = fea @ The primer mass generation rate, 7;,, consists of gas phase products, 7i1;, , and condensed phase products, 7a;,, which are produced in ratios defined as follows: ¥, = thin /titin = Gas phase ratio (3a) ¥, = ii;,,/ti, = condensed phase ratio (3b) Combining Eqs. (1-3) and solving for the primer mass generation rate m,, give (y¥- DI) PA, dP, yar (&™) thea P. P. (4) ¥(y- Yet - = + v= Pp Ps PRIMER CONTROL VOLUME PRESSURE WAVE CONTROL SURFACE, ABSORBER Fig. 11 Schematic di i i analysis (Ref. 13) iagram of the control volume used in the Primer characterization22 A. M. VARNEY Under the assumption that the mass ratio fractions ¥, and ¥, are independent of time, Eq. (4) may be integrated over the ballistic event for assumed values of ¥, and ¥, subject to the constraint that the integral of Eq. (4) must equal the known primer mix mass. Several iterations with different values of ¥, and W, are required to satisfy the constraint, but when satisfied, the final results determine the respective primer mass generation rates in the gas and con- densed phases. Diagnostic experiments characterizing percussion primer output have been conducted by Stiefel and Kuo'® and Doris and Stiefel'” for different primer mix compositions. Experimental data were reduced using the method in Ref, 13 and indicated that approximately 20% of total energy content of the FA-956 mix was in the condensed phase. Complementary NASA Lewis code!* computations indicated that the theoretically predicted condensed phase mass fractions in the product species were approximately equal to the experimen- tally calculated condensed phase energy content values for the primer mixes. Since the specific heat values for the condensed phase products are generally higher than the gas phase values, the similarity between the mass fraction and condensed phase energy content suggests that the condensed phase product material is cooler than the gas phase products. Igniters Functional Considerations As mentioned in the Introduction, the term igniter was defined as the principal energy source for initiating the propelling charge. Implied in this definition is an igniter output energy profile (input to the propelling charge), in the spatial and temporal planes, of sufficient amplitude and distribution so that propellant ignition and sustained combustion result. The igniter stimulus must be controlled upon entry into the propellant bed in order to avoid propellant fracture and non-uniform propellant ignition phenomena, such as adverse pressure wave conditions. Charge design considerations and their effects on ballistics are covered by May and Horst!?; consequently, the present section will focus on the factors which influence igniter behavior and affect the coupling between the igniter and the propellant during the ignition process. Two igniter configurations are presented in Fig. 12, each representing a different approach to achieving propelling charge ignition. Figure 12a presents a piccolo tube igniter which is filled with black powder or other suitable ignition material, and is installed in a case containing loose granular propel- lant; communication of the igniter energy input stimulus is via radial vents positioned at several axial stations along the tube body. Propellant bed ignition is dependent upon several factors, including initial soak temperature, igniter material quantity and type, length of primer tube penetration into the bed, and number and location of vents. Figure 12b presents a center core igniter which is installed directly in the gun barrel spindle housing; communi- cation of the igniter energy input stimulus is in the axial direction through a spit hole to ignite a black powder base pad attached to a bagged propellingPRIMERS AND IGNITERS 23 CARTRIDGE BARREL PRYWER CASE VOID REGIONS PROJECTILE POLYETHYLENE CORK OR POLYURETHANE PROPELLANT BED ” FOAM WAD FOAM CLOSURE PLUG GRANULAR — CENTERCORE PROPELLANT IGNITER Gl ae PROPELLING CHARGE GUN TUBE PROJECTILE BASEPAD Fig. 12 Typical igniter-propelling charge configurations: a) piccolo tube igniter for cased ammunition; b) center core igniter for loaded bag charges. charge. Axial ignition propagation within the bag may be enhanced by a center core tube containing a black powder snake. Bag propellant ignition is influenced by several factors, including initial soak temperature, bag standoff, and bag misalignment between the spit hole axis and the base pad. General details of a typical piccolo tube igniter and bagged charge igniter are shown in Fig. 13. The piccolo tube igniter, Fig. 13a, is characterized by an ignition element (percussion or electric primer) which is positioned upstream of an axially venting spit tube. This ignites the igniter tube material. The piccolo tube is lined with a paper or foil liner to provide positive containment of the igniter material during storage, handling, and the early phases of primer ignition. The tube body contains a number of radial vents which permit the igniter products to be jetted into the granular propellant bed. The bagged charge igniter, Fig. 13b, contains an ignition element assembly which is threaded into the igniter case upstream of a spit tube which serves to ignite the charge. To use the bagged charge igniter, the assembly is inserted into the firing block of the weapon and, when fired, the igniter charge flashes through a flashtube downstream of the igniter and onto the black powder base pad which is attached to the bagged propelling charge. Details of Navy primers and igniters are summarized in Ref. 20; no comparable summary of Army primers and igniters has been prepared for distribution.24 A.M. VARNEY i hla, so ZZTEPLL, CLALIT: SO IGNITION ELEMENT BLACK POWDER VENT ‘PLUNGER NOTES: PRIMER,NO 72M 7 LOMO WITH 22 21 GRAINSBL ACK POWDER CLASS CUR, CONTAINER CONTAINER CHARGE ASSEMBLY (wore 1) oaamax Fig. 13 Typical piccolo tube and bagged charge igniters: a) piccolo tube igniter; b) bagged charge igniter. Igniter Materials The role the igniter material plays in the ignition process has historically been viewed as a source of energy for pressurizing and heating the propelling charge to ignition and sustained combustion. Only recently, with the advent of difficult igniting propellants, have the rate and mode of energy input to the propelling charge been regarded as potentially important to the ignition process. As a consequence, it is appropriate to evaluate an igniter material in terms of a set of performance factors, including 1) ignitibility, 2) energy content (heat of explosion), 3) flame temperature, 4) ability to produce pressure, 5) flamespread rate, 6) energy output mode (gas phase, condensed phase), and 7) chemical reaction potential of igniter products with propellant. The preceding set of performance factors implies that it may be possible to ignite a given propellant equally well with several different igniter materials. For example, assume that propellant ignition is achieved when the following two criteria are satisfied simultaneously: 1) the integral of the incident heat flux to the propellant surface exceeds 5 j/cm?, and 2) the surface temperature of the propellant exceeds 500°K. It is conceptually possible for both a hot, all gas igniter and a hot, low gas/high condensed phase igniter to satisfy the hypothetical ignition criteria; however, it is probable that the two igniter systems would have different total energy contents, as well as different total weights. The apparent but unfor-PRIMERS AND IGNITERS 25 tunate conclusion is that igniter material selection may be propellant depen- dent and, if system weight and volume are important, then the final selection becomes configuration dependent. Diagnostic experiments have been conducted by Varney”!-? to evaluate the ignition effectiveness of five igniter materials. A range of igniter materials was characterized using the NASA Lewis code!* and five were selected, as shown in Table 3, based upon calculated differences in gas phase and condensed phase products mass fractions; the fifth igniter material, ammonium perchlo- rate (AP), was included because of the high oxidizer content of its product species. NACO, LOVA, NOSOL-318, NOSOL-363, and PYRO were selected as test propellants for the experiments. Experimental firings were conducted with a high pressure, flow through combustor, Fig. 14, to determine the ability of various igniter materials to ignite gun propellants beyond the immediate vicinity of the gun igniter (after filtering through and being cooled by an inert propellant simulant zone positioned between the igniter vents and the live propellant). Ignition effectiveness was determined quantitatively by the amount of igniter energy, based on its heat of explosion, required to ignite a propellant 50% of the time. With the determination of the ignition effectiveness of a Table 3 Igniter material characterization (NASA Lewis code calculations) P, = 500 psia Igniter Material Item BP BKNO, NC MTV AP Density (g/enr) 16 Te 1s 19 Heat of Explosion (Cal/g) 709 1495 920-1540 826 Flame temperature, T, °K) 1930 2890 2350 2650 1400 Gas constant (ft-lb;/1b,,-°R) 28 2562 2655 Specific heat (Cp, Btu/lb,,-°R) 0.62 161 0.46 1.01 0.36 Molecular Weight (Products) 56 6325 60 (28 Ratio of specific heats (7) 111 108 122 109 1.26 Products mass fraction (%) Vapor-solid 10 54.9 0 39.6 0 Liquid-solid 40.9 3.5 0.6 471.7 0 Solid 0 16.9 0 12.4 0 Total solid at 14.7 psi 41.9 75.3 0.6 99.7 0 Gas 54.8 24.7 90.2 03 75.6 Total 96.7" 100.0 90.8" 100.0 75.68 Raion Water Vapor fateris Composition BP Black powder (ffg) BKNO, 23.7% B, 70.7% KNO,, 5.6% Laminac NC IMR 4895 MTV Magnesium-Teflon-Viton (54%/30%/16%) AP Ammonium perchlorate26 A. M. VARNEY variety of ignition materials which have a range in their distribution of physical states, one can in principle determine the more effective combinations of physical states (hot gases, vapors, liquids, and solids), heat of explosion, flame temperature, and oxidizer content. Successful implementation of this approach would assist in the search for better igniter materials for existing primers, for new igniter designs for new guns, and for existing guns for difficult ignition conditions. Based upon predictions generated using a two phase heat transfer model*, the suggested effective stimuli for the five materials tested to heat the propellant grain surface to an assumed ignition surface temperature of 500°K are shown below: Calculated ranking Material —_ Effective Stimulus 1 (Most effective) MTV Liquids 2 BKNO, _ Gases, vapors, solids 3 BP Liquids, gases 4 NC Gases 5 (Least effective) AP Gases (oxidizer rich) Experimental 50% fire point results for conventional NACO propellant and a difficult to ignite LOVA propellant fired with 1.5 in. of inert simulant positioned between the igniter vent plane and the live propellant are shown below: Overall ranking NACO LOVA 1 (Most effective) BP AP 2 BKNO, BKNO, 3 MTV NC 4 NC BP 5 (Least effective) — MTV These results suggest that Magnesium Teflon Viton (MTV), as a result of its low gas phase mass fraction, lacks the ability to drive the high energy content JECD ASSEMBLY J rise cwanen CCOMBUSTUIDN CHAMBER ‘OGNG CHAMBER (WERT ZONE MAY = 0. INCHES Fig. 14 ACT vented combustor.PRIMERS AND IGNITERS 27 liquids through the propellant bed. On the other hand, Boron Potassium Nitrate (BKNO,) and Black Powder (BP), because of their balance between gases and liquids in the product stream, are relatively effective igniter materi- als, particularly with NACO propellant. Oxidizer-rich ammonium perchlorate proved to be the most effective igniter material with the LOVA propellant, suggesting that the initial LOVA product species are very active, but fuel rich. Energy output characteristics of different pyrotechnic igniter systems have been investigated by Klingenberg”*-?* and Brede”®. An electrically initiated vented combustor, Fig. 15, has been used to measure the energy output of four different igniter formulations in terms of gas pressure, flame temperature, and gas velocity. The experimental arrangement employed shadowgraph and schlieren photography, spectroscopic temperature measurements, and laser- doppler-velocimeter gas velocity measurements; details of the experimental arrangement may be found in Ref. 25. The criteria for selecting the four igniter material formulations were based upon the objective to obtain the following igniter vent characteristics: 1) Hot, gas poor; 2) Cold, gas poor; 3) Hot, gas rich and 4) Cold, gas rich. In addition, it was desired to obtain one extremely particle-poor and one particle-rich igniter outflow in order to study both the gas and gas particle ignition. Based upon these criteria, four igniter materialh—BKNO,, BP, Nitrocellulose (NC), and NC/C/KNO,-were selected, as shown in Table 4, INERT PROPELLANT 035635-6 “PRESSURE PORT OPTICAL WINDOW IGNITER ‘COMPOSITION INITIAL IGNITER Fig. 15 Test device for firings into inert propellant beds (Ref. 25).