a

project report on
geotechnical engineering
SUBMITTED BY
Mr. Saikrishna Mithapalli (2202)

Mr. Shekhar Gavade (2206)

Mr. Raghvendra Banda(2221)

Mr. Balaji Date(2222)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF MENTOR

PROF. M.N.RANADE

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

S.E.S.POLYTECHNIC , SOLAPUR
Budhawar Peth, Samrat chowk,
Solapur PIN - 413002,
Maharashtra, India
(APPROVED BY AICTE, NEW DELHI,RECOGNIZED BY DTE,MUMBAI AND AFFILIATED
TO MSBTE,MUMBAI.)
2022-2023
 ACKOWLEDGMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompanies the successful

completion of any task would be impossible without a profound
acknowledgement of the people whose constant guidance,
encouragement made it possible for us to execute our project with
success

We are highly indebted to PROF. M.N.RANADE for his guidance

and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary
information regarding the project and also for his support in
completion of this project

We express our sincere thanks to Prof. A.A.BHAWTANKAR

(Principal,) and Prof. N.A.EKHANDE (H.C.E.D) for giving us
immense co-operation in completing this project

“GEOLOGY AND ITS BRANCHES”

Finally, our thanks and appreciation goes the menial staff and other
people who have willing helped us out with their abilities.
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that project entitled

“GEOLOGY AND ITS BRANCHES”

Has been successfully submitted by following students:

Mr. Saikrishna Mithapalli (2202)

Mr. Shekhar Gavade (2206)

Mr. Raghvendra Banda(2221)

Mr. Balaji Date(2222)

HAS BEEN APPROVED IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

FOR THE AWARD OF DIPLOMA ( CIVIL ENGINEERING)
“DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING” BY MSBTE,MUMBAI.

PROF.M.N.RANADE PROF. N.A.EKHANDE PROF.A.A.BHAWTANKAR

PROJECT GUIDE H.C.E.D. PRINCIPAL
 GEOLOGY
The word geology means 'Study of the Earth'. Also known as geoscience or
earth science, Geology is the primary Earth science and looks at how the earth
formed, its structure and composition, and the types of processes acting on it.

IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING
1. Geology provides a systematic study of the structure and properties of
construction materials and their occurrence. The civil engineers need to know
the properties of rocks accurately to enable them to consider different rocks
for any required purpose that is as a foundation rock, as road metal, as
concrete aggregate, as building stones, as the roofing material for decorative
purpose.
2. The selection of a site is important from the viewpoint of stability of
foundation and availability of construction materials. Geology provides
knowledge about the site used in the construction of buildings, dams, tunnels,
tanks, reservoirs, highways and bridges.
3. Geology helps to identify area susceptible to failures due to geological hazards
such as earthquake, landslides, weathering effects, etc.
4. The knowledge about the nature of the rocks is very necessary for tunnelling,
constructing roads and in determining the stability of cuts and slopes.
5. The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly related to
the geology of the area where they are to be built.
6. The knowledge of groundwater is necessary for connection with excavation
works, water supply, irrigation and many other purposes. Hydrological maps
provide information about the distribution of surface water channels and the
groundwater depth.
7. Geological maps help in planning civil engineering projects. It provides
information about the structural deposition of rock types in the proposed area.
8. Geology helps in determining the earthquake-prone areas. If any geological
features like faults, folds, etc. are found, they have to be suitably treated to
increase the stability of the structure.
9. The knowledge of erosion, transportation and deposition (ETD) by surface
water helps soil conservation, river control, coastal and harbour works.
10. A geological survey of a site before starting a project will reduce the overall
cost.
BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
1) Physical Geology 6) Stratigraphy
2) Geomorphology 7) Paleontology
3) Mineralogy 8) Historical Geology
4) Petrology 9) Applied Geology
5) Structural Geology 10) Hydrology

1) Physical Geology.

Physical geology is the broad division of geology concerned with the

physical and compositional properties of minerals and rocks, their
formational processes, and the surficial, shallow and deep structures.
Physical geology covers mainly inorganic components, such as structural
geology, stratigraphy, sedimentology, petrology, geophysics, mineralogy,
geochemistry and geomorphology.
A scale is one of the most important subjects in geology and it is essential in
understanding the micro and macro-Earth materials, physical processes and
their end products.
There are various active geological processes, but the rock cycle (Figure 1)
has been shaping the surface and subsurface of our Earth for centuries, with
changes such as weathering, erosion, deposition, earthquakes, flooding,
volcanism and glacial movements.
Physical geology studies formation, development and results of each of
these processes, and their dynamic effects on shaping the Earth. Historical
geology focuses on understanding the changes of Earth structures,
materials and processes through time.
2) Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the study of landforms and the processes that shape

them. In essence, landforms reflect an interaction between Earth's tectonic
framework and its atmospheric canopy, and the biota they both support.
But the earth beneath and the sky above undergo continuing changes to
which landforms and land-forming processes also respond, and feedbacks
generated by these processes influence both framework and atmosphere.
Earth's surface is thus mobilized as a restless system of solids, liquids, and
gases for which change is a common denominator.
In various guises, tectonism and climate have interacted from early in Earth
history, although 90% of Earth time had passed before continents began to
acquire the vascular plants and animals that also influence landforms.
However, because tectonic and climatic forcing and biotic adjustments vary
across time and space, continents develop changing suites of landforms. By
determining the location and shape of landmasses and ocean basins,
tectonism influences the relative importance of continentality and
oceanicity to climate. It also influences climate change by promoting uplift
favourable to cooling and perhaps glaciation, by opening and closing land
corridors and ocean gateways, and by affecting atmospheric composition by
generating and consuming crustal matter, although more subtle, climate-
induced geomorphic processes in turn affect tectonism by reorganizing
continental mass through erosion and deposition, thereby generating
isostatic responses to crustal loading and unloading.

3) Mineralogy

Mineralogy is scientific discipline that is concerned with all aspects

of minerals, including their physical properties, chemical composition,
internal crystal structure, and occurrence and distribution in nature and
their origins in terms of the physicochemical conditions of formation.
The goals of mineralogical studies may be quite diverse, ranging from the
description and classification of a new or rare mineral, to an analysis of
crystal structure involving determination of its internal atomic arrangement,
or to the laboratory or industrial synthesis of mineral species at high
temperatures and pressures. The methods employed in such studies are
equally varied and include simple physical and chemical identification tests,
determination of crystal symmetry, optical examination, X-ray diffraction,
isotopic analysis, and other sophisticated procedures.
Although much mineralogical research centres on the chemical and physical
properties of minerals, significant work is conducted on their origin as well.
Investigators are frequently able to infer the way in which a mineral species
forms on the basis of data obtained from laboratory experiments and on
theoretical principles drawn from physical chemistry and thermodynamics.

4) Petrology

Petrology is the branch of geology concerned with the compositions,

structures, and origins of rocks. Rocks contain a great deal of information,
and the task of a petrologist is to unravel and interpret that information.
Traditionally, petrologic studies have been based on field work, often
involving mapping to learn the field relationships between different kinds of
rocks. During the last few decades, however, much petrologic research has
moved indoors, into labs. Yet even petrologists who spend their entire
careers in laboratories are studying materials that relate directly to natural
materials and thus to a better understanding of planet Earth.

Petrology is also important because it is the key to discovery and

development of mineral resources. Ore deposits are intimately associated
with rocks, so understanding rocks guides mineral exploration and
development. The shiny minerals present are pyrite (gold-colored) and
pyrrhotite (slightly less golden than the pyrite), and both minerals contain
valuable amounts of the metals platinum and palladium. Petrologic
investigations at Stillwater have allowed miners to extend mining
operations so the Stillwater Mine is the number one platinum and
palladium producer in North America.

5) Structural Geology

Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution

of rock units with respect to their deformational histories. The primary goal
of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock
geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation
(strain) in the rocks, and ultimately, to understand the stress field that
resulted in the observed strain and geometries. This understanding of the
dynamics of the stress field can be linked to important events in the
geologic past; a common goal is to understand the structural evolution of a
particular area with respect to regionally widespread patterns of rock
deformation (e.g., mountain building, rifting) due to plate tectonics.
The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in economic
geology, both petroleum geology and mining geology.[1] Folded and faulted
rock strata commonly form traps that accumulate and concentrate fluids
such as petroleum and natural gas. Similarly, faulted and structurally
complex areas are notable as permeable zones for hydrothermal fluids,
resulting in concentrated areas of base and precious metal ore deposits.
Veins of minerals containing various metals commonly occupy faults and
fractures in structurally complex areas. These structurally fractured and
faulted zones often occur in association with intrusive igneous rocks. They
often also occur around geologic reef complexes and collapse features such
as ancient sinkholes. Deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, and other
metals, are commonly located in structurally complex areas.
Structural geology is a critical part of engineering geology, which is
concerned with the physical and mechanical properties of natural rocks.
Structural fabrics and defects such as faults, folds, foliations and joints are
internal weaknesses of rocks which may affect the stability of human
engineered structures such as dams, road cuts, open pit mines
and underground mines or road tunnels.

6) Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy is a branch of Geology and the Earth Sciences that deals with
the arrangement and succession of strata, or layers, as well as the origin,
composition and distribution of these geological strata.

The study of archaeological and natural stratification therefore involves the

assessment of TIME and SPACE. Specifically, the vertical arrangement of
layers represents the time dimension (oldest at the bottom, youngest at the
top), while the horizontal (lateral) distribution of layers represent the space
dimension (i.e. spatial variations in the stratigraphy).

With the vertical (time) dimension, stratigraphy is often used as a relative

dating technique to assess the temporal sequence of artefact deposition
Law of Superposition. There are a number of underlying principles that
should be taken into consideration when studying stratigraphy, these being:

• Law of Superposition: geological layers, or strata, are overlain by

progressively younger layers. Older layers at the bottom and younger
layers at the top.
• Cross-cutting: a feature (e.g. pit, river channel) cutting into a layer must
be younger than that layer.
• Inclusions: material from an older layer can be reworked into a younger
layer, or vice versa.
• Correlation of biological material: layers may be correlated based on the
presence of a diagnostic (unique) biological assemblage and the relative
position of these layers in the sequence.

7) Paleontology

Palaeontology is scientific study of life of the geologic past that involves the
analysis of plant and animal fossils, including those of microscopic size,
preserved in rocks. It is concerned with all aspects of the biology of ancient
life forms: their shape and structure, evolutionary patterns, taxonomic
relationships with each other and with modern living species, geographic
distribution, and interrelationships with the environment. Paleontology is
mutually interdependent with stratigraphy and historical geology because
fossils constitute a major means by which sedimentary strata are identified
and correlated with one another. Its methods of investigation include that
of biometry (statistical analysis applied to biology), which is designed to
provide a description of the forms of organisms statistically and the
expression of taxonomic relationships quantitatively.

Paleontology has played a key role in reconstructing Earth’s history and has
provided much evidence to support the theory of evolution. Data from
paleontological studies, moreover, have aided petroleum geologists in
locating deposits of oil and natural gas. The occurrence of such fossil fuels is
frequently associated with the presence of the remains of certain ancient
life-forms.
8) Historical Geology

Geology can roughly be divided into physical geology, which studies the
materials of the Earth and the processes operating in it, and historical
geology, which aims at a reconstruction of the history of the Earth.
Historical geology requires some knowledge of physical geology for its
elucidation. (Imagine, by way of analogy, forensic scientists diagnosing
cause of death as a gunshot wound, which is a historical question. It would
obviously be necessary for them to know something about the behavior of
guns, which would be a physical question.) However, the aim of historical
geology is to understand the past, and knowledge of physical geology is
merely an adjunct to this aim.
We may also speak of applied geology: for example, finding and extracting
oil would fall under this category. This depends on both physical and
historical geology: when petroleum geologists extract oil, it is certainly their
understanding of the physical nature of rocks that allows them to extract it;
but when they locate oil, it is their understanding of historical geology that
makes them able to find oil with a success rate better than that which
would be achieved just by guessing.
That is one application of historical geology. Here is another example:
suppose someone wants to build a structure such as a major dam or a
nuclear power plant at a certain site, and it is discovered that a geological
fault runs under the site. It would then be crucial to discover when last
there was movement along the fault: if it was a hundred or even a thousand
years ago, then the proposed location is dangerous; if it was ten million
years ago then it is probably safe.
However, historical geology is by no means confined to facts about the past
that are presently useful: it is what is called a "pure" science, in which
knowledge is sought for the sake of knowledge itself, whether it turns out
to be useful or is merely interesting.
9) Applied Geology

It is used for benefit of man.

❖ Types of Applied Geology

• Economic geology
Economic geology is a branch of geology that deals with aspects of
economic minerals that humankind uses to fulfill various needs.
Economic minerals are those extracted profitably for various practical
uses. Economic geologists help locate and manage the Earth's natural
resources, such as petroleum and coal, as well as mineral resources,
which include metals such as iron, copper, and uranium.
• Mining geology
Mining geology consists of the extractions of mineral resources from
the Earth. Some resources of economic interests
include gemstones, metals such as gold and copper, and many
minerals such
as asbestos, perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, pumice, quartz,
and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine, and helium.
• Petroleum geology
Petroleum geologists study the locations of the subsurface of the
Earth that can contain extractable hydrocarbons,
especially petroleum and natural gas. Because many of these
reservoirs are found in sedimentary basins,[48] they study the
formation of these basins, as well as their sedimentary and tectonic
evolution and the present-day positions of the rock units.
• Engineering geology
Engineering geology is the application of geological principles to
engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the geological
factors affecting the location, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of engineering works are properly addressed.
Engineering geology is distinct from geological engineering,
particularly in North America.
10) Hydrology

Hydrology is an extremely important field of study, dealing with one of the

most valuable resources on Earth: water. All aspects of the Earth’s available
water are studied by experts from many disciplines,
from geologists to engineers, to obtain the information needed to manage
this vital resource. Hydrologists rely on their understanding of how water
interacts with its environment, including how it moves from the Earth’s
surface, to the atmosphere, and then back to Earth. This never-ending
movement is called the hydrologic cycle, or the water cycle.

Water takes on various forms in the environment in response to changes in

temperature and other influences. Water from the surface of oceans and
other bodies of water is warmed by the sun and evaporates as water vapor.
As this moist air rises high into the atmosphere, it cools and condenses into
clouds. Moisture in the clouds then returns to the Earth’s surface
as precipitation. Once it reaches the ground, the water is absorbed, and it
becomes groundwater. Groundwater that is not absorbed will return to
creeks, rivers, streams, and eventually to the oceans. The cycle repeats
itself as the surface of bodies of water once again evaporates. Moisture
captured by plants can also return to the atmosphere through a process
called transpiration.

The field of hydrology consists not only of studying the

natural distribution and movement of water, it is also concerned with the
impact of human activities on water quality and with problems in water
management. People use water for many purposes. In their homes, people
use water for drinking, cooking, cleaning, and bathing. Many industries have
a great need for water. In agriculture, water is used for the irrigation of
farmland and for livestock. Water in many dams is used to produce
hydroelectric power. The list of human uses for water is virtually endless.