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    Leo Hansen - Culture and Architecture - An Integrated History (SecondEdition) - Cognella Academic Publishing (2017)

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    Rzer 97

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    SECOND EDITION il LEO. HANSEN _ | Culture and Architecture: Fp cognellar | sisi Bassim Hamadel, CEO and Publisher Kassie Graves, Director of Acquisitions Jamie Gigansi, Senior Managing Ealitor John Remington, Senior Field Acquisitions Editor ‘Monika Drain, Project Editor Brian Fahey, Licensing Specialist ‘Miguel Macias, Graphic Designer Kaela Martin and Berenice Quirino, Associate Baitors Kar Ragudos, Interior Designer ‘Copyzight © 2017 by Cognella Ins Al rghteresceved. No part of this publication may be epetd, reproduced, ananit- ted or ulized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known of hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, ad resording, or in any information retrieval eystom without the writen permission of Cognelia, Ine “Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be uademauls or registered trademarks, and are used only for lemti- cation and explanation without intent to infringe Cover image copyright © Depositphotos/deliay77 Printed in the United Stater of America ISBN 978. -$165-1082-5 (pbk) / 978-1-5165-1083-2 (br) yp cognellar | tis PART ONE: INTRODUCTION The Beauy of Architectre Culture and Architecture Colloguial Architece PART TWO: PREHISTORY The Meg Culeuce and Architecure PART THREE: THE ANCIENT WORLD ptin the New King Acgean Chilzationsof the Bronze Ag The Casical W Ancient Gr Iron Age Civilizati and the Nese East dhe Mediterranean Ancent Rome Hellenisn Ancient Asia PART FOUR: LATE ANTIQUITY Eauly Chistiniey The Byzansine Empire Taam PART FIVE: HE MIDDLE AGES (Castles and Fortified Towns Romanesque Gothic Sesular Culture and Atchitectare in the Late Middle Ages PART SIX: PRE-MODERN The Far East The European Renaissance Baroque Hiscoriim PART SEVEN: THE MODERN ERA roto: Modemism Mademnien Expressionism (General Ahitectaral Terns 161 169 179 191 199 27 27 27 259 an ass, 2s 323 tae Led This book is di tory. the remainder of the texts separated into six general eras or ages nto seven parts. After Part One, which is introduc ‘of cukural and architectural history. Prehistoric, Ancient, Late Antiquity, Mi hapters within eval Pre-Modem, and Mo ich era describe the most significant styles and periods of each Some Notes by the Author on the Conventions of Dates and Measures The tem ie Christan AD for, dh have been replaced in some nt academic Era, and CE, Common Era. This has raised the ire of some, who conside the novel of the reference to Christ after more than a thousa ni will not change the basic fact that the birth date of Jesus Christi the indelible be just as insensitive as its inclusion. Removing the term Ax demarcation line separating ‘postie” year from “negative” years. The nom the Gregorian, or Western calendar (whose adoption is universal with only a few exceptions) is unlikely to be changed any time soon, The days of the week controversy over these because they are named after gods whose adherents have long been silent “That noted in thie textbook year dates after the year O do not have any Aesignation, neither the taditional, A.D. ot AD, nor the CE. or CE. Yeas before ate noted with the designation BCE, which is an abbreviation of both Before Critian Bre and Be BC confision,Itis commonly believed that the birth of Chris actully 4BCE accurate term than Before Chr 1 Ens. The authors hopefal that, because Similar tothe tational B.C.,or BC, Before Cvs, there will bel place in Christian Bras a mnore 5 BCE, and thus, by being les specific, Bef The notation of ¢ bere a date (an abbreviation of the Latin thar there is an uncertainty about the exact year: The notation of «after the date i an abbreviation for century The notation, before a date indicates the year given is that in which an indvidasl was born. The notation 1 before a date indicates the years ae those the individual reigned. The metric ystems used for acatly all measurements of distance. The table below will help readers convert berween the meric system and the English system. Historically, various systems of measurement have been used. Te earliest measurement of length ithe subi, whieh vas based upon the length of the human forearm. The Bayptian royal cubit,or mabe, was further divided into palms and digits and was approximately 52.3 centimeters in length. A Roman cubitus was 44.4 centimeters or about 1.5 fect(afootand one-half). Roman fot, called ap was abort A Roman digit was one-sxteenth (0.016) ofa pes. A Roman pal war one-fourth (0.25) of pes. A sda was 625 _podes"The axes system was fst adopted by the French in 1799, and ie nox universal, with the exception, cunently, of the United States and Myanmar (Burm). wera UM 4 mitimeter + centimeter 1 meter 1 kilometer 1 Hlometer ssywE0L km km eenENATION 0.06 ore xa x06 3280 actor 0.020370 0.398700787 3.280839608 os2is7119 3260.8309 wr Inches Inches feet foot Wi Culture and Architecture: An Integrated History ONE Introduction Architecture is the most easily observable of all art forms and the most visible remnant of past civilizations. Artifacts such as pottery, tools, or literature ean be more valuable in helping to recreate the religious beliefs, socioeconomic structures, or ways of life of populations, but it is the monuments these groups leave behind that provide the most ‘tive images—the pyramids of ancient Egypt, the temples of ancient Greece, the cathedrals of Medieval Europe. Although some ‘works of architecture have been removed from their original sites and placed in museums (for example, the Pergamonmuseum in Berlin contains several whole ancient structures), works of architecture are freely found in civic and pastoral environments on every continent. “To properly study a work of architecture, itis important to view it within its cultural context; otherwise it loses much of its meaning, and ‘thus, its value as an art form. Ifyou take away a building's situation, its history, its mythology, the social mores ofits builders, and the stories, of its construction and occupation, then it becomes merely brick, stone, concrete, metal, or glass. With all of these factors included, a building becomes ative Even in cuins, the magnificence of the great ‘monuments of history is scarcely diminished. Forsome, ruins elicit a nostalgic mourning for civilizations that have perished or otherwise been lost. The stone walls of the citadel at “Mycenae in Greece call to mind Homer and the Iliad. The Roman Forum calls to mind Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. For others, it is the ‘ruins themselves that are admired and become objects of the pacans of writers and poets: For Time both not rebile them, but upreard Barbaric dwellings on their shatter sit, Which oniy makemoremourniiand morcondearid Th last fos rays of their fr- seater ight And thei rush eles of hee wanishid might = fiom Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, Lov Byron (George Gordon) (1788-1824), about the suins of Corinth, Greece All cultural aspects, such as artifacts, art literature, etc.,are categorized to help historians examine these elements in their proper contexts, which in turn, allows for the identification of patterns of ideas and thought, cross-cultural comparisons of these pattems and ideas, the chronological development of methods and artistic trends, and the influences of or upon other aspects of culture. The most common classification of cultural artifacts is by period or style. The terms period and style axe often used conjunctively in broad discussions ofeultural history. The online Art and Architecture Thesaurus (AAT) sponsored by the Getty Research Institute classifies works of art and architecture using the single category consisting of “any named, defined style, historical or artistic period, movement, group, or school.” Inart,styleis simply a one-word description of a work’ cultural and historical situation. Some works of art fit neatly into categories, and others do not. "The works of, Frank Lloyd Wright, perhaps in testament to his comportment or disposition, defy compartmentalization. Familiar terms, such as Medieval and Renaissance, were not products of their own ages, but rather labels applied long after their time period. The Middle Ages referred to the period between the ancient world and the modern world, but the passage of time has shifted whatis considered to be modern. Gothic architecture was once considered “modern.”"The term “Renaissance” was scarcely used until 1860, when Jakob Burckhardt published the work ‘The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy Some buildings—especially monumental works like churches—took centuries to complete from start to finish. Some, such as the Kéln (Cologne) Cathedral in Germany, maintained its original style, even though the prevailing styles had changed several times during its construction process. Other buildings or building groups have an amalgam. of styles, as subsequent generations of builders and architects reacted to changes in social, economic, technological, and aesthetic values. “There isa fluidity inherent in styles and periods, both in place and time. However, the communication of ideas from one community to another was considerably slower previously than it is today. In the fifteenth century, the Flamboyant Gothic style was prevalent in France at the same time that the Renaissance 2 Culture and Architecture: An Integrated History prevailed in neighboring Ttaly. The German architectural theorist Paul Frank! wrote that “the development of a style isan intellectual process overriding national characteristics and individual artists.” Nonetheless, there are exceptions. Some styles are uniquely ‘nationalistic, such as English Tudor. Some are individualistic: Andrea Palladio (Palladian) and Henry Richardson (Richardsonian) are among several individuals who have styles named after them, Eugéne-Emmanuel Viollet-Le-Due (1814-1879), the French theorist, wrote a ten-volume Descriptive Dictionary of French Architecture. In it, he defined style as “the manifestation of an ideal based upon a principle.” Style belongs to mankinds itis independent of the object. A period, or era,isa particular length of time defined by a unique social, political, or natural condition or circumstance. A period ‘may contain several styles that have enough differences to warrant their independence from ‘one another but have enough similarities to support their afiliation within a single period. “There is not always universal agreement by historians on the names of periods and styles. ‘The term “Late Antiquity” has emerged relatively recently as a distinct period in cultural history, its styles previously seen as cither Ancient or Medieval. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, new styles have emerged at unprecedented rate. If critical history can offer any guidance, itis likely that ‘the final nomenclatures and divisions of what wwe presently call the Modern Era will not be settled until sometime in the distant furure, CHAPTER ONE ecture: An Integrated History The Beauty of Architecture Architecrare isthe art which sedsparesand adorns the eis sed by man for whatever wer, Hat th right of tem contributes to bis mental bealth, power and pleasure. Weir wery necessary, in te outset fall inguiy, to distinguish areflly beeen Avditctre and Building Ts bul iteraly to confirm, by common wndertanding to put together and adjust the several pees of any eifie or reeptate of a ‘oniderable ize. Those Boe church building, Bowe building, hip uitdng, and coacsbuilding. That one edifice tands, noth flaws, and another is rupended om iro springs, makes no diferenc in tbe ature ofthe art, i wit may be called, oP building or edifeation Die persons who pofiss tat art are severally buildo, celeste nae, ar of whatever other name this work may justi: ut building des nat baeame architecture merely by the stabilty of wha eee: and ic smo more architecture sich ries a cure or which fist recvow and contain with comfort a required munber of persons scupid in certain religis ofc, than iti architecare ‘which maker a carriage sommadiou or. sbip ete. do net, ofcourse, ‘mean that the word sno offen, or even may not be legitimately, applied in sucha ens: fas we souk of rasa architecture); but is that sense architecture ceaes tbe ome ofthe fine ars and itis therefore batter atta rum the vis, by lose nomenclature, ofthe ‘oni eich would arte, and has offen ase, fom extending principles which blog altogether to building, into he sphere of larsitscture proper! fiom The Seven Lamps of Architecture by John Reskin Art is a means of selfexpression; itis the expression ‘of an idea and satisfaction derived from its exploration, both by the artist and the person experiencing the at. Ruskin, Joi, The Seven Lamp of Architecture. hell woe /sles!35898/35898.0x0 Howeves, artis mote than just an idea, It hae substance. Tr rnust peak « universal—nor a personal—language. It must have larity and integsty and it should be harmoni- cous. It should be a complete entity within itself, so that nothing could be added or taken away without affecting ‘The Beauty of Architecture 5 its value. Artspesks symbolically nt directly It x ood for thought It must he sincere, and it must be tthfl Tf the end purpose of a work is praise ar fame or prot, then itis self-conscious, and therefor, tart, not Art “These thoughts are select few of many in the his- tory of human thought that have proposed well-essoned responses to the question “What is Art?" The inquirers have been philosophers, artists, ites, cic, and the merely inquisitive, Providing a definition of art ie a relatively striightforward tak. To define Art, however, is more elusive; ite journey with no certain end, Some have proposed shar any analysis of arts completely sub {ostve, while others have scen a potential for objectivity. A chile’sschoothouse drawing hung on the door of a ‘sfiigerator ie art, yot the deceptively simplistic abstract works of ar by Paul Klee—the Swiss artist who once mused that “art does not reproduce the visible, it makes visible"—are called Art. Te seems reasonable enough to assume that a child's enyon drawing should not be given the same considerstion as a drawing by Leonardo: da Vinci, but what are the tools of rational thought tha give

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