NITTTR Module 1 Notes

Module 1: Orientation towards Technical Education and
Curriculum Aspects
L-2 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Contributors
Dr. P. MALLIGA
Associate Professor & Head In-charge
Centre for Educational Media and Technology, NITTTR, Chennai.
Orientation Towards Technical Education Quality Assurance in Higher Education
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION 1

1.0 QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 2
2.0 CONCEPT OF QUALITY 5
3.0 QUALITY MOVEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION 7
4.0 MODELS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE 9
5.0 NEED FOR QUALITY TEACHING IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION 21
6.0 ACTIVITIES 22
REFFERENCES
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Module 1- Orientation towards Technical Education and Curriculum aspects NITTTR, Chennai
UNIT – 1
ORIENTATION TOWARDS TECHNICAL EDUCATION
L-2 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1.0 Comprehend quality in higher education from different perspectives
2.0 Explain the concept of quality in higher education
3.0 Explore different quality movements in higher education
4.0 Explain different models of quality assurance in education
5.0 Explain the role of teachers in improving the quality of higher education.
1.0 QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION
It is better to understand what is higher in higher education? You, as a teacher or

stakeholder of higher education, will agree that it is not just about the higher level of
educational structure in the country. There is more to it.
In terms of the level, higher education includes college and university teaching and learning
towards which students’ progress to attain higher educational qualification. Higher
education imparts in-depth knowledge and understanding so as to advance the students to
new frontiers of knowledge in different walks of life that is in their subject domains. It
develops the student’s ability to question and seek truth and makes him/her competent to
critique on contemporary issues. It broadens the intellectual powers of the individual within
a narrow specialization, but also gives him/her a wider perspective of the world around.
According to Ronald Barnett (1992) there are four predominant concepts of higher
education:
I. Higher education as the production of qualified human resources. In this view,

higher education is seen as a process in which the students are counted as
“products” absorbed in the labor market. Thus, higher education becomes input to
the growth and development of business and industry.
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II. Higher education as training for a research career. In this view, higher education is
preparation for qualified scientists and researchers who would continuously develop
the frontiers of knowledge. Quality within this viewpoint is more about research
publications and transmission of the academic rigor to do quality research.
III. Higher education as the efficient management of teaching provision. Many strongly
believe that teaching is the core of educational institutions. Thus, higher education
institutions focus on efficient management of teaching-learning provisions by
improving the quality of teaching, enabling a higher completion rate among the
students.
IV. Higher education as a matter of extending life chances. In this view, higher
education is seen as an opportunity to participate in the development process of the
individual through a flexible, continuing education mode.
Integrating all four views, it gives an overall picture of what higher is in higher education.
If you look at the activities of colleges and universities, you will realize that teaching,
research and extension form the three main functions of higher education. The report of the
UNESCO International Commission on Education in the 21st Century titled “Learning: The
Treasure Within” (popularly known as Delores Commission) emphasized four pillars of
education: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be.
While, higher education intends to inculcate all these four in individuals and the society, the
report highlighted the following specific functions of higher education:
 To prepare students for research and teaching;

 To provide highly specialized training courses adapted to the needs of economic and
social life;
 To be open to all, so as to cater to the many aspects of lifelong education in the
widest sense; and
 To promote international cooperation through internationalization of research,
technology, networking, and free movement of persons and scientific ideas
(UNESCO, 1996).
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The Indian higher education system is in a constant state of change and flux due to the
increasing needs of expanding access to higher education, impact of technology on the
delivery of education, increasing private participation and the impact of globalization.
Taking cognizance of these developments and the role of higher education in society, NAAC
has developed five core values:
 contributing to national development,

 fostering global competencies among students,
 inculcating a value system in students,
 promoting the use of technology and
 quest for excellence.
Excellence in all that they do will contribute to the overall development of the system of
higher education. The seven criteria developed by NAAC to measure excellence are in fact
the main processes for developing the capabilities of an institution. Establishment of an
Internal Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) in each of the HEIs would help develop and raise their
capabilities as institutions. The seven criteria are: curricular aspects; teaching, learning and
evaluation; research, consultancy and extension; infrastructure and learning resources;
student support and progression; organization and management; and healthy practices.
One of the major outcomes of the IQAC establishment would be the internalization and
institutionalization of quality so that the institution strives to excel in serving its students
and other stakeholders. The quest to become a quality institution is a core value that HEIs
must imbibe and demonstrate in their functioning.
In order to illustrate the value framework, Prasad (2005) has identified some parameters
that are given in Table 1.
Values / Goals Suggested Parameters / Activities
1. Contribution to  More access with equity

national development  Developmental thrust in identification of research
areas and academic programs
 Community engagement
2. Fostering global  Development of generic skill
competencies  Development of application skills
 Development of life skills
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amongst students
3. Inculcating value system  Value integration in academic programs

in students  Value integration in management practices
 Value inculcation through co-curricular and extra-
curricular activities
4. Promoting the use of  Enrichment of learning
technology  Increasing access – online programs
5. Quest for excellence  Development of benchmarks of excellence

 Best practices application
 Institutionalization of continuous improvement
systems
Table 1: Indicative parameters of the value framework
Higher education is the backbone of any society. It is the quality of higher education that
decides the quality of human resources in a country. Higher education, as we see today, is a
complex system facilitating teaching, research, extension and international cooperation and
understanding.
2.0 CONCEPT OF QUALITY
Quality has a few central ideas around which the whole concept revolves: Quality as
absolute, Quality as relative, Quality as a process, and Quality as culture. When we
consider quality as absolute, it is given and considered as the highest possible standard. For
example, the picture of “Mona Lisa” by Da Vinci, the Egyptian Pyramids, the Taj Mahal,
Tanjore Brihadeeswara Temple are works of high standards and quality.
In product terms, they are attached with high ‘brand’ values, status and positional
advantages. Educational institutions such as Oxford, Cambridge and Stanford in the west
have this absolute quality standard, though in the case of education it might still be
perceptual. Quality as relative suggests that the quality of a product or service can be
described in relative terms. Quality here can be measured in terms of certain specifications.
‘Quality as a process’ suggests that in order to achieve quality of a product or service, it
must undergo certain processes and conform to the procedural requirements. Thus, quality
is the outcome of systems and procedures laid down for the purpose. The fourth one,
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quality as a culture recognizes the importance of organizational view of quality as a process

of transformation, where each entity is concerned and acknowledges the importance of
quality.
In educational institutions we are particularly concerned with the latter, though all other
ideas of quality too have their respective places. In the book published by NAAC on Quality
assurance in Higher Education, the author Dr. Sanjaya Mishra has quoted a ‘suggestive’
definition by Barrow (1991) to define ‘quality’ in higher education:
“…a high evaluation accorded to an educative process, where it has been

demonstrated that, through the process, the students’ educational development has
been enhanced ... not only have they achieved the particular objectives set for the
course but, in doing so, they have also fulfilled the general educational aims of
autonomy of the ability to participate in reasoned discourse, of critical self-
evaluation, and of coming to a proper awareness of the ultimate contingency of all
thought and action”
As teachers, principals, heads of departments and planners and policy makers in education,
you may be having this question in your mind – why worry about quality? It is not just
because of AICTE or UGC directive that you should think of quality, rather quality should be
a bottom-up approach and every one should be conscious of why we should worry about
quality of our teaching, programs and institutions.
Some of the reasons are:
1. Competition: We are entering a new regime, where competition among educational

institutions for students and funds will be highly significant. With globalization and
the GATS (Global Agreement on Trade in Services), the educational environment will
be seized by increased competition. In order to survive in such a situation,
educational institutions need to worry about their quality.
2. Customer satisfaction: Students, parents or sponsoring agencies as customers of the

educational institutions are now highly conscious of their rights or getting value for
their money and time spent. They are now demanding good quality teaching and
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receiving employable skill sets, and thus we should constantly worry about the
relevance of our courses and programs to the needs of the labor market.
3. Maintaining standards: As educational institutions, we are always concerned about

setting our own standard and maintaining it continuously year after year. In order to
maintain the standard, we should consciously make efforts to improve quality of the
educational transactions as well as the educational provisions and facilities.
4. Accountability: Every institution is accountable to its stakeholders in terms of the

funds (public or private) used on it. Concern for quality will ensure accountability of
the funds utilized and inform the stakeholders about taking appropriate decisions.
Thus, quality can be considered as a monitoring mechanism.
5. Improve employee morale and motivation: Your concern for quality as an

institution will improve the morale and motivation of the staff in performing their
duties and responsibilities. If a quality system is in place, the internal processes
would be systematic making every department complementing each other’s service
domain and helping in developing internal customer satisfaction leading to high
morale and motivation.
6. Credibility, prestige and status: If you are concerned about quality, continuously
and not once in a while, it will bring in credibility to individuals and your institution
because of consistency leading to prestige, status and brand value.
7. Image and visibility: Quality institutions have the capacity to attract better
stakeholder support, like getting merited students from far and near, increased
donations/ grants from philanthropist / funding agencies and higher employer
interest for easy placement of graduates.
Quality has been defined differently in different contexts. It is a much used and least
understood term. But, quality in higher education means the educational process is such
that it ensures students achieve their goals and thereby satisfies the needs of the society
and help in national development.
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3.0 QUALITY MOVEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION
The University Grants Commission (UGC) with its statutory powers is expected to maintain
quality in Indian higher education institutions. Section 12 of the UGC Act of 1956 requires
UGC to be responsible for “the determination and maintenance of standards of teaching,
examinations and research in universities”. To fulfill this mandate, the UGC has been
continuously developing mechanisms to monitor quality in colleges and universities directly
or indirectly. In order to improve quality, it has established national research facilities, and
Academic Staff Colleges to re-orient teachers and provide refresher courses in subject areas.
The UGC also conducts the National Eligibility Test (NET) for setting high standards of
teaching.
Various committees and commissions on education over the years have emphasized directly
or indirectly the need for improvement and recognition of quality in Indian higher education
system. The concept of autonomous colleges as recommended by Kothari Commission
(1964-66) has its roots in the concept of quality improvement. Since the adoption of the
National Policy on Education (1968), there has been a tremendous expansion of educational
opportunities at all levels, particularly in higher education. With the expansion of
educational institutions, came the concern for quality. The constitutional amendment in
1976 brought education to the concurrent list making the central government more
responsible for quality improvement. The New Education Policy (1986) emphasized on the
recognition and reward of excellence in performance of institutions and checking of sub-
standard institutions. Consequently, the Programs of Action (PoA) in 1986 stated, “As a part
of its responsibility for the maintenance and promotion of standards of education, the UGC
will, to begin with, take the initiative to establish an Accreditation and Assessment Council
as an autonomous body”. After eight years of continuous and serious deliberations, the
UGC established NAAC at Bangalore as a registered autonomous body on 16th September
1994 under the Societies Registration Act of 1860.
The main objectives of NAAC as envisaged in the Memorandum of Association (MoA) are to:
 grade institutions of higher education and their programs;

 stimulate the academic environment and quality of teaching and research in these
institutions;
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 help institutions realize their academic objectives;

 promote necessary changes, innovations and reforms in all aspects of the
institutions working for the above purpose; and
 encourage innovations, self-evaluation and accountability in higher education.
Like NAAC (which is responsible for colleges and universities), there are other statutory
bodies in India to assure quality in professional education. Some of these are:
 All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)

 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
 Medical Council of India (MCI)
 Indian Nursing Council (INC)
 Bar Council of India (BCI)
 Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)
 Distance Education Council (DEC)
 Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR)
The AICTE established the National Board of Accreditation (NBA) in 1994 to accredit
programs offered by technical institutions. The NBA accredits programs and it is a voluntary
process like that of NAAC. Other professional statutory bodies mostly undertake review
exercises to recognize or de-recognize the institutions on the basis of their quality audit.
Thus, quality issue is on the top of the agenda of Indian higher education.
4.0 MODELS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE
As there are different meanings and interpretations of quality, there are different models of
quality assurance as well. Across the world, institutions follow different models of quality
assurance, particularly country specific and institution specific models.
Quality has been interpreted in different ways in different domains of knowledge. There are
five generic models of quality assurance used in education, business and software
development. These are:
 Baldrige model,
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 ISO 9000:2000,
 Capability Maturity Model,
 Six Sigma,
 Total Quality Management.
Each one of these is based on a philosophy of its own, and can be applied to education and
training situations with minor adjustments.
The specific application models of ABET, NBA, NAAC, ICAR and DEC are variants derived
from these models to serve specialized needs in specific contexts. The underlying
philosophies of all these models are self-study and external quality monitoring or
assessment.
Accreditation is a process of quality assurance and improvement, whereby a programs in an

approved Institution is critically appraised to verify that the Institution or the programs
continues to meet and/or exceed the Norms and Standards prescribed by regulator from
time to time. It is a kind of recognition which indicates that a programs or Institution fulfills
certain standards.
The purpose of the accreditation by NBA is to promote and recognize excellence in technical
education in colleges and universities - at both the undergraduate and post graduate levels.
Institutions, students, employers, and the public at large all benefit from the external
verification of quality provided through the NBA accreditation process. They also benefit
from the process of continuous quality improvement that is encouraged by the NBA's
developmental approach to promote excellence in technical education.
Through accreditation, the following main purposes are served:
 Support and advice to technical institutions in the maintenance and enhancement of

their quality of provision;
 confidence and assurance on quality to various stakeholders including students;
 assurance of the good standing of an Institution to government departments and

other interested bodies;
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 enabling an Institution to state publicly that it has voluntarily accepted independent

inspection and has satisfied all the requirements for satisfactory operation and
maintenance of quality in education.
The purpose and impact of accreditation goes far beyond quality assurance of an Institution
and its programs. Major impacts of accreditation system are summarized below:
 Encourages quality improvement initiatives by Institutions.
 Improves student enrollment both in terms of quality and quantity.
 Helps the Institution in securing necessary funds.
 Enhances employability of graduates.
 Facilitates transnational recognition of degrees and mobility of graduates and

professionals.
 Motivates faculty to participate actively in academic and related Institutional /

departmental activities.
 Helps create sound and challenging academic environment in the Institution, and
Contributes to social and economic development of the country by producing high
quality technical manpower.
Accreditation is a tool that stakeholders use to monitor, assess and evaluate the standards
and quality of the education a student receives at a college, university or other institution of
higher learning. Some of the major benefits enrolled students receive by attending an
accredited institution / program are as follows:
 Accredited institution / program offers the highest quality education available;
 Accredited institution / program strengthens consumer's confidence, employers

value degrees of an accredited program the most;
 Accreditation helps institutions to know their strengths, weaknesses and

opportunities, pushes them to continuously improve their programs and give them a
new sense of direction, identity and targets; and
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 Accredited institution / program demonstrates accountability to the public,

commitment to excellence and continuous quality improvement.
Let us explore accreditation models of ABET, NBA and NAAC, ICAR and DEC.
A. ABET (ACCREDITATION BOARD FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY)
ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology) is recognized by Council of

higher education Accreditation, USA for accreditation of college and university level
programs in applied sciences, computing, engineering and technology. ABET was established
in 1932 as Engineer’s Council for Professional Development (ECPD). Following the tradition
of accreditation in the USA, the ABET model follows a voluntary participation by institutions
to offer themselves to assess the quality of their programs.
An internal self-study evaluation forms the basis of the beginning of the accreditation
process. Based on the self-study report, the appropriate ABET Commission forms an
evaluation team for the site visit. Following the visit, the peer-team provides the institution
with a written report to allow for correction of errors or misrepresentation of facts. The
peer team examines the following in a comprehensive manner and recommend
accreditation and relevant action.
 Organization and management of the institution

 Educational programs offered
 Maturity and stability of the institution
 Admission process and number of students enrolled
 Teaching staff and teaching load
 Physical facilities, finances, etc.
 Curricular contents
 Sample student work
 Record of employment of graduates
 Support services to the students
 Clearly stated academic policies
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Accreditation is usually granted for a period ranging from 2-6 years. Depending on the
weakness of the program, the peer team recommends specific action to be taken by the
commission such as: Next General Review (six year); Interim Report and Interim Visit (both 2
years); Report Extended and Visit Extended (2 or 4 years); Show Cause (2 years); Show
Cause Extended (2 or 4 years); and Not accredited.
For details of these see ABET Accreditation Policy and Procedures Manual 2006-2007 (ABET,
2006).
B. NATIONAL BOARD OF ACCREDITATION (NBA)
The National Board of Accreditation (NBA), India was initially established by AICTE in the
year 1994, for periodic evaluations of technical institutions & programs basis according to
specified norms and standards as recommended by AICTE council.
 NBA in its present form came into existence as an autonomous body with effect from
7th January 2010, with the objective of Assurance of Quality and Relevance of
Education, especially of the programs in professional and technical disciplines, i.e.,
Engineering and Technology, Management, Architecture, Pharmacy and Hospitality,
through the mechanism of accreditation of programs offered by technical
institutions.
 Outcome based education is targeted at achieving desirable outcomes (in terms of

knowledge, skills, attitudes and behavior) at the end of a program. Teaching with this
awareness and making the associated effort constitutes outcome-based education.
This entails a regular methodology for ascertaining the attainment of outcomes, and
benchmarking these against the program outcomes consistent with the objectives of
the program.
 Initially, NBA accreditation used to be based on ‘input – process – output’ model

with major emphasis on availability of resources / facilities and the outputs thereof.
In the year 2009, NBA aligned its methodology with international benchmarks and
started accreditation on the basis of outcomes. It believes that educational quality
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must be measured by outcomes rather than inputs, because inputs do not

necessarily correlate with quality outcomes. Outcomes are dependent not only on
inputs but also on the processes followed by an institution to convert inputs into
defined outcomes.
Washington Accord
The Washington Accord, originally signed among six countries in 1989, is an International
Agreement among bodies responsible for accrediting undergraduate engineering degree
programs. It recognizes the substantial equivalency of programs accredited by those bodies
and recommends that graduates of programs accredited by any of the signatory bodies be
recognized by the other bodies as having met the academic requirements for entry to the
practice of engineering in the area of their jurisdiction.
The membership of Washington Accord is an international recognition of the quality of

undergraduate engineering education offered by the member country and is an avenue to
bring it into the world class category. It encourages and facilitates the mobility of
engineering graduates and professionals at international level.
 National Board of Accreditation, India has become the permanent signatory member
of the Washington Accord on 13th June 2014.
 The NBA accredited programs offered by the Tier -1 Institutions are eligible for the
recognition of the programs by other signatories of the Washington Accord.
Based on deliberations and consensus among experts, the NBA has accepted accreditation
at the program level as the unit of assessment (post-graduate, graduate and diploma)
instead of institution. The accreditation by NBA is categorical: Accredited or Not Accredited.
The AICTE recognition is accorded to institutions based on their institutional management,
compliance to AICTE Norms and Standards, prior approval by state government and
university and market sensitivity of programs output to avoid imbalance in supply of
qualified manpower.
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However, the accreditation by NBA is at the specific program level and ensures that the
students admitted to the program undergo an acceptable level of teaching-learning process
and are transformed into capable technical professionals, having sound knowledge and
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personal competence for employment in responsible technical assignments.
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The process of accreditation by NBA goes through the following stages:
 Institutions acquire the manual of accreditation and application forms;

 Institution respond to the two-part application form (self-study);
 NBA secretariat scrutinizes the request and constitutes the accreditation team;
 Accreditation team visits the institution and makes recommendations (peer team
visit);
 The sectoral committee considers the recommendations and the results are placed
before the Executive Committee of the AICTE for approval.
These eight criteria are divided differently in a 1000-points scale for different levels of
programs. The accreditation is of ‘yes’ and ‘no’ type, but the duration of accreditation is of
two types – for three years (650-750 score) and for five years (more than 750 score). Thus,
in an institution, there could be a programs with 5 years accreditation, another with 3 years
accreditation and yet another without accreditation (AICTE, 2004).
The criteria of assessment followed by NBA consist of eight major groups as shown in the
figure
C. NAAC MODEL
In India, the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) has identified seven
criteria to serve as the basis for the assessment of higher education institutions in the
country. Assessment is a voluntary process. However, some State Governments have made
it mandatory for their colleges. It follows a four-phase process of assessment of a unit
(Institution or Programs / Department) covering:
 Nationally evolved criteria for assessment

 Self-study by the institution
 Peer team visit
 Final decision by Executive Committee of NAAC.
Criteria for Assessment: NAAC has identified through national consultations and consensus
the following seven criteria to serve as the basis for its assessment procedure.
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They are
1. Curricular Aspects
2. Teaching-Learning and Evaluation
3. Research, Consultancy and Evaluation
4. Infrastructure and Learning Resources
5. Student Support and Progression
6. Organization and Management
7. Healthy Practices
The self-study report is expected to highlight the functioning of the institution with
reference to these criteria.
Self-Study: The Institution seeking assessment prepares a self-study report as per the
guidelines formulated by NAAC. The report consists of two parts – data about the
organization on various parameters; and a critical self-analysis based on the available data.
The self-study is supposed to be a tool for critical reflection on institutional practices and
facilities to identify its own strengths and weaknesses. The self-study report enables the
NAAC and the peer team to understand the institution better.
Peer Team Visit: Based on the self-study report, NAAC constitutes a team of peers in
consultation with the institution. The peer team visits the institution and looks for “pattern
of evidences” to validate the claims in the self-study report through interaction with the
senior management, heads of the departments, teachers, staff and students of the
institution. The institution is provided an opportunity for withdrawal at the end by the peer
team, before finalizing the draft report. The draft assessment report of the peer team is
shared with the institution at the end of the visit. The peer team makes the assessment of
the institution based on a suggested scoring pattern. This is submitted to NAAC as a
confidential score.
NAAC Decision: The Executive Committee of NAAC after reviewing the report takes a
decision on the grade of the institution based on the nine-point grading system. Institutions
receiving equal or more than 55 %. 55% receive “Accredited Status” and institutions which
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do not attain the minimum 55% point for accreditation are intimated that the institution is
“Assessed and Found Not Qualified for Accreditation”. NAAC grading is valid for a period of
5 years. Institutions that complete five-year accredited period may volunteer for re-
accreditation.
D. ICAR MODEL
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) established an Accreditation Board (AB) in
1996 to accredit higher education institutions and programs in different branches of
agriculture and allied sciences, including Agricultural Engineering and Veterinary Sciences.
For the ICAR-AB, “accreditation is a process of assuring acceptable quality and a tool for
improving educational standards” (ICAR, 2002). Accreditation is a three-tier system at ICAR
covering university, college and individual programs and departments. The accreditation
process follows a four-step process:
 Institutions submit a detailed self-study report mentioning how the institution meets
the criteria of accreditation;
 Peer team visits the institution to examine and validate the self-study report;
 Peer team submits a detailed report with recommendation to the AB; and
 Final decision on the accreditation is taken by the AB.
The peer team recommendations and the outcomes of the accreditation process are in the
form of categorical information: full and unconditional accreditation; provisional
accreditation with conditions and advice; and denial of accreditation.
Re-accreditation is done after an interval of 5-10 years, and the initial accreditation is done
only after completion of one batch of students. Though accreditation is criteria-based, no
specific score is given, and the AB takes a final view on the status of accreditation based on
the peer team report, response of the institution, and review by AB secretariat.
The criteria used by ICAR-AB are as follows (ICAR, 2002):
Criterion 1: The institution has clear and publicly stated objectives consistent with its
mission and goals
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Criterion 2: The institution has organized effectively human, financial and physical
resources, necessary to accomplish its objectives.
Criterion 3: The institution is accomplishing its educational objectives.
Criterion 4: The institution can continue to accomplish its objectives and improve its
quality of educational programs and effectiveness.
E. DEC Model
The Distance Education Council (DEC) was established in 1991 under Section 5 (2) of the
IGNOU Act (1985), passed by the Parliament of India. It has the mandate to serve as an
apex body of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in India to promote, coordinate and
maintain its standards. In pursuance of the function mentioned at (18) of Clause 4 (a) of
Statute 28 of IGNOU, an Open and Distance Education.
Assessment and Accreditation Board (ODE-AAB) has been constituted to help students,
parents, ODL institutions, government agencies and employers to identify institutions that
meet the norms and standards prescribed by the DEC. The ODE-AAB develops norms,
standards and formats for assessment and accreditation; assesses programs in-depth and
recognizes institutions and programs as outcomes of assessment. It is mandatory for
institutions offering programs through ODL to seek for DEC recognition and apply for
assessment. The process of assessment follows five steps:
 Institutions apply for approval in the prescribed format giving details of the
institution and programs. This is some sort of self-study by the institution.
 Review of learning materials by experts.
 Visit of the expert team to examine the claims made in the application and validate
them (peer team visit).
 Report of the expert team to the ODE-AAB of DEC.
 Decision of the Council on recognition.
As outcomes of the assessment process, either an institution is recognized or not

recognized. However, provisional recognition may also be given if the Board is convinced
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that there is enough potential for improvement. As an agency with responsibility also to
promote ODL, the DEC takes efforts to improve the quality of the institutions and programs
through developmental grants and conduct of capacity building programs at the
institutional level.
5.0 NEED FOR QUALITY TEACHERS IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION
“We shape our institution and our institution shapes us” - Winston Churchill.
The general scenario of higher education in India is not equivalent with the global quality
standards. The technical education in India is plagued with many inadequacies. It has
rendered the engineers coming out of most of the Institutes are almost unemployable.
If we want to really improve the engineering education in India and make our engineers
really contributing to the growth and prosperity of the nation, the whole domain needs
complete rethinking.
i. PROGRAMMES AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT:
To meet the requirements of rapid changes and developments in technology, the

undergraduate courses are being diversified with an emphasis on specialization.
Continuous monitoring of technological advancements that are taking place in the world in
the emerging areas need to be observed and the respective courses and the faculty need to
be updated regularly and continuously from time to time.
There is need in the technical education system to generate the trained faculty for meeting
this rapidly changing requirements.
ii. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT:
In India, engineering research and development programs exist, but the focus on
fundamental research and applied research activities are rather on a low key.
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Polytechnics and Engineering Colleges should encourage research and development. Active
involvement through publication of articles in journals, presentation of papers in seminars
and conferences should be made mandatory.
There must be a strong interaction of engineering educational institutions with the industry
in the role of consultancy. It will enable and offers an opportunity to the faculty to
contribute to the real-world problems and to solve the problems too.
There is a tremendous scope for technical education institution to play their vital role in
promoting entrepreneurship. In our country, there are very few initiatives taken to support
and nurture the entrepreneurship.
iii. IMPROVING QUALITY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING:
If we want our engineers to be of world –class quality, we need to make our institutions
world-class. In order to make our institutions world-class, in addition to infrastructure,
human resources particularly faculty plays a crucial role. The quality of students coming out
of the universities and colleges largely depends upon the quality of the teaching staff
employed.
Staff appraisal and assessment on a continuous basis in respect of the potential for
teaching, research, interaction with students, etc., should be incorporated as a regular
feature.
Hence, the faculty should understand their role and their contribution in building world class
institutions. There is a huge need for faculty development both in terms of pedagogical
development and engineering domain training.
6.0 ACTIVITIES
Activity 1
a. Consider an Engineering College / Institute. It may be the college / Institute you

have studied or studying / worked or working.
b. Check whether that Institute or department in the institute / programs has been
accredited. If so what type and how much is their score.
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c. Find out one of the best practices in that Institute that have contributed to the
quality of Institute.
REFERENCES
1. Quality Assurance in Higher Education - An Introduction,
http://naac.gov.in/index.php/resources#books
2. https://mhrd.gov.in/
3. https://www.aicte-india.org/
4. https://www.ugc.ac.in/
5. https://labour.gov.in/organizationsofmole/directorate-general-employment-training-dget
6. http://www.tndte.gov.in/site/
7. http://www.isteonline.in/
8. http://www.naac.gov.in/
9. http://www.nbaind.org/
10. https://dgt.gov.in/
11. http://nitttrbpl.ac.in/hindi_final/index.php
12. http://www.nitttrchd.ac.in/sitenew1/index11.php
13. http://www.nitttrkol.ac.in/
14. http://www.nitttrc.ac.i
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Module 1: Orientation Towards Technical Education and
Curriculum Aspects
Unit 1: Orientation Towards Technical Education
L -1 STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
Contributors
Dr. P. MALLIGA
Orientation Towards Technical Education Structure of Technical Education
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1 STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION 1

1.0 ROLE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN THE SOCIETY 1
2.0 STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA 2
3.0 TYPES OF TECHNICAL INSTITUTES 4
4.0 NATIONAL AGENCIES 14
5.0 ACTIVITIES 23
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UNIT – 1
ORIENTATION TOWARDS TECHNICAL EDUCATION
L1: Structure of Technical Education
LEARNING OBJECTIVES :
1.0 Explain the role of higher education in the society.
2.0 Describe the structure of Technical Education.
3.0 Recognize the different types of Technical Institutes.
4.0 Interpret the roles of National Agencies – MoE, AICTE, UGC, NITTTR, DTE, ISTE.
1.0 ROLE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN THE SOCIETY
Technical education contributes a major share to the overall education system and plays a
vital role in the social and economic development of the nation. Today the advancements
made in the field of science and engineering has made life sophisticated and moreover, has
improved the quality of life. Hence the Technical education, which plays a vital role in human
resource development of the country has the need
 to create skilled manpower
 to enhance industrial productivity and
 to further improve the quality of life.
The bridge from human resource development to economic growth must be built by well
trained teachers. The most important ‘agent of change’ in ‘Knowledge Society’ is the teacher.
The twenty first century presents a radically different economy and society, which is likely to
have profound implications on Technical Education and Training (TET). The Technical
education system must adapt to the key features which include Globalization & Sustainability,
ICT Revolution, Emergence of Knowledge Society Rapid Knowledge Obsolesces.
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There is at least one generation gap between the Learners and the Teachers. ICT provides
powerful tools to support the shift from teacher-centered to learner-centered paradigm and
new roles of teacher, learner, curricula and new media.
A teacher requires many educational and didactical skills to deal with new situations. These
are
 Knowing subject matter deeply
 Learning to learn Skills
 A large knowledge of digital educational tools.
 How to be a facilitator and motivator of learning environment.
Teachers must be curriculum leaders. Ensuring that teachers are central to the reformation
of curriculum will enable the development of pedagogy that provides the most favorable
condition of learning and the highest quality learning outcomes for all students.
The new role of teachers demands a new way of thinking and understanding of the new vision
of the learning process. There is enough evidence in different fields of educational practice to
understand that learning does not happen in the absence of teacher expertise in what to
teach and how to teach it. Strong formal teaching and learning, aided by various educational
technologies and premised on an up-to date understanding of the vocational, technical and
professional field of practice is what is ‘good enough’ for Technical education.
This module delivers necessary foundations for shaping teacher education and refining the
role of teachers and learners in the new, independent and engaging environment that has
been created for them.
2.0 STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN INDIA
India is witnessing the age of science and technology. There is a huge demand of Technical
Education in modern age. Technical Education offers good opportunity for employment and
successful career.
We all know that technical education system in our country has grown into a fairly large-sized
system, offering opportunities for education and training in a wide variety of trades and
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disciplines. In India, technical education is imparted at various levels such as craftsmanship,

certificate, diploma, degrees at undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral levels through
institutions located throughout the country.
Technical Education covers programs in engineering, technology, management, architecture,

town planning, pharmacy, applied arts and crafts, hotel management and catering
technology.
The educational structure in India is generally referred to as the Ten + Two + Three (10+2+3)
pattern. The first ten years provide undifferentiated general education for all students. The
+2 stage, also known as the higher secondary or senior secondary, provides for differentiation
into academic and vocational streams and marks the end of school education. In some states,
the plus two stage is located in intermediate, junior or degree colleges but is not regarded as
a part of the tertiary stage of education.
The technician educational program in Polytechnics has been shown to exist after the ten
years of general education. The location of one year or two-year programs of the Industrial
Training Institutes exist at VIII+ and X+ levels followed by the apprenticeship training.
Students completing higher secondary education enter professional courses like engineering,
medicine, law, applied science and craft, architecture, agriculture, other technology courses
like leather technology, chemical technology, fashion technology, etc., Some enter into art,
literature and science streams. Students entering Engineering Institutions graduate as
Engineers usually after four years of study. Some of them enroll into Post graduate studies
for specialization followed by Research programs like Ph.D.
For acquiring technical education, there are two structural streams in India – formal and non-
formal.
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Figure 1: Structure of Technical Education system in India
Technical Institutes, Engineering Colleges, Polytechnics, Industrial training centers, Vocational

Secondary Education are the formal sources of technical education in India. Self-learning and
small private institutes providing short term technical course are covered under informal one.
The non-formal systems operating at elementary stage, secondary stage (open school) and
tertiary stage (open university) also exist.
3.0 TYPES OF TECHNICAL INSTITUTES

A. INDUSTRIAL TRAINING INSTITUTES (ITIs)
There are two notable training programs for primarily skilled workers for the organized
industrial sector.
They are
I. CRAFTSMEN TRAINING SCHEME
II. APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING SCHEME
I. CRAFTSMEN TRAINING SCHEME
The Directorate General of Employment & Training (DGE&T) in the Ministry of Skill
Development and Entrepreneurship, Government of India initiated Craftsmen Training
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Scheme (CTS) in 1950 by establishing about 50 Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) for imparting
skills in various vocational trades to meet the skilled manpower requirements for technology
and industrial growth of the country.
Several new private ITIs were established in 1980’s in southern states mostly in Kerala,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, etc. from where trained craftsmen found placement mainly
in Gulf countries.
According to the Ministry, there are 14312 Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) functioning in
the country. Out of them, 2204 are Government and 12108 are Private ITIs. All of them,
however, are affiliated to the National Council of Vocational Training.
Under the constitution of India, Vocational training is the concurrent subject of both Central
and State Governments. The development of training schemes at National level, evolution of
policy, laying of training standards, norms, conducting of examinations, certification, etc. are
the responsibilities of the Central Government, whereas the implementation of the training
schemes largely rests with the State Governments /UT Administrators.
Let us see the Salient Features of the Scheme
 Training is imparted in 70 engineering and 63 non-engineering trades.

 ITIs are functioning under the administrative control of the respective State Govts.
/UTs / Private Organizations.
 The period of training for various trades varies from six months to two years and the
entry qualification varies from 8th to 12th class pass, depending on the requirements
of training in different trades.
 The institutes are required to conduct training courses as per the curriculum
prescribed by National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT). The admission to the
new courses are made in the month of August every year.
 The trainees after completion of the training period are required to appear in the All
India Trade Test conducted under the aegis of National Council for Vocational Training.
The successful trainees are awarded National Trade Certificate which has been
recognized by Govt. of India for the purpose of recruitment to subordinate posts and
services under the Central Govt.
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 About 70% of the training period is allotted to practical training and the rest to
theoretical training relating to Trade theory, Workshop Calculation & Science,
Engineering Drawing, Social Studies including environmental science & family welfare.
 Training in Govt. ITIs is provided at nominal fee. They are also provided with library,
sports and medical facilities etc.
 Syllabi of various trades are periodically revised to keep pace in tune with changes in
technology.
 Seats are reserved for SC/ST, OBC, differently abled and women candidates as per
norms There is a provision of re-affiliation for existing affiliated ITIs for more than 5
years old to ensure standards/norms prescribed by NCVT.
 Work of inspection & accreditation of ITIs has been entrusted to the Quality Council
of India with effect from 1.9.2012 and applications are submitted online for opening
of new ITIs as well as addition of trades in existing ITIs.
APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING SCHEME
The Apprentices Act, 1961 was enacted with the objective of regulating the programs of
training of apprentices in the industry by utilizing the facilities available therein for imparting
on-the-job training. The Act makes it obligatory for employers in specified industries to
engage apprentices in designated trades to impart apprenticeship training on the job in
industry. The apprenticeship training is for youth and person having National Trade certificate
issued by National Council for Vocational Training (NCVT) to develop skilled manpower for
the industry.
Apprenticeship training refers to a course of training in any industry or establishment.

Apprenticeship training consists of basic training (theoretical instructions) and practical on
the job training at actual work place.
Any individual, who has completed 14 years of age, is physically fit and having minimum
educational qualification prescribed for a trade can undergo apprenticeship training.
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Benefits of apprenticeship training
Apprentices get an opportunity of undergoing 'on the job' training and are exposed to real
working conditions. They get a chance to work on advanced machines and equipment,
industry specific best practices and learn more about their field. Apprentices become skilled
workers once they have acquired the knowledge and skills in a trade or occupation, which
help them in getting wage or self - employment. In addition, apprentices get stipend at the
prescribed rates during the training.
One can undergo apprenticeship training in any industry/ establishments in the Central/State
Public Sector or Private Sector, where apprenticeship seats are available.
Categories of apprentices
There are four categories of apprentices namely
a. Trade apprentice
b. Graduate apprentice
c. Technician apprentice
d. Technician (vocational) apprentice
a. Trade apprentice
A person undergoing apprenticeship training in any designated trade. Designated trade is

any trade / occupation / any subject field in engineering / non - engineering / technology /
any vocational course as notified by the Government.
8th, 10th, 12th standard and ITI pass - outs are eligible to undergo apprenticeship in
designated trades for trade apprentices. In certain trades, B.Sc. pass is also a prescribed
qualification.
b. Graduate apprentice
A person who holds a degree in engineering /non - engineering and undergoing

apprenticeship training in designated trade.
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c. Technician apprentice
A person who holds a diploma in engineering / non - engineering and undergoing

apprenticeship training in designated trade.
d. Technician (vocational) apprentice
A person who holds certificate in vocational course after the completion of the secondary
stage of school education recognized by the All - India Council.
Figure 2: Types of Apprentice
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship is responsible for monitoring the

implementation of the Act with respect to trade apprentices. Graduate, Technician and
Technician (Vocational) apprentices are covered by the Ministry of Education.
B. POLYTECHNICS
The Diploma in Engineering or Diploma in Technology is a program focused on practical and

skills-oriented training. Many countries in the world recognize it, as equivalent to pre-
engineering or bridging course when considered for continuing studies in engineering
related bachelors or associate degree programs. In India, Diploma in Engineering is a
3-year course awarded in specific branch of engineering. It is usually offered in polytechnic
institutes recognized by the respective State Boards of Technical Education.
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Candidates seeking admission into Full-Time and Part-Time Diploma Courses shall be required
to have passed X standard examination of the State Board of Education, or any other
equivalent examination already recognized by the Directorate of School Education Board. The
age of the candidate must be 15 +
Candidates seeking admission to the Second Year (III Semester) of Regular Diploma Courses
under Lateral Entry shall be required to have passed the Higher Secondary Certificate
Examination (HSC) in Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics (PCM) combination, (Vocational)
or 2-year Industrial Training Institute (ITI) Certificate Examination after passing X Std.
examination of State Board of Education. Admission criteria is prescribed by the State
Directorate of Technical Education.
Diploma in Engineering is a technical course that only covers the essentials when ranked with
an undergraduate engineering degree. It aims to provide students with industry or job related
engineering knowledge, scientific skills, computing and analysis, mathematical techniques, a
sound knowledge of English to communicate in the field and ability to apply problem solving
techniques.
Diploma in Engineering is a specific academic award usually awarded in technical courses e.g.
Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, etc.
A few institutions also offer programs in areas like Chemical Technology, Leather Technology,
Textile Technology, Catering Technology, Architecture and Pharmacy. Some institutions also
offer programs in non-engineering subjects like Commercial Practice, and Library Science.
90% of the Polytechnics follow the curriculum prescribed by the respective State Boards of
Technical Education. Only 10% of them have Academic Autonomy. In Tamil Nadu, the
government is revolutionizing its technical education by upgrading its diploma courses with
newer schemes (L Scheme, M scheme and forward) to make it equivalent with UK's Higher
National Diploma (HND) programs.
The ratio of weightage between theory (knowledge) and skill is approximately 50:50.
Sandwich type of programs (in collaboration with industries) are offered by about 10% of the
Polytechnics. Public examination is conducted by State Directorate of Technical Education.
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 Based on the funding agency, they are classified into three types
 Government Polytechnics
 Government Aided Polytechnics
 Un-aided Polytechnics / (Self-financing) Polytechnics
After successful completion of Diploma in Engineering course, students can either continue
further Engineering studies in undergraduate level or get employment as Junior Engineers,
technicians, technologists, supervisors, superintendents, foremen, machinist, workshop
technicians, draftsman, station technicians in the field of energy, thermal, aeronautics,
automobile technicians, maintenance and service technicians, equipment mechanics and
technicians, CAD/CAM programs, agricultural overseers, instrument technicians, junior
instructors, manufacturing, tool and die designers, electricians...etc. Some become
entrepreneurs or join colleges for higher studies. Diploma Holders can sit for the examination
of Associate Member of the Institution of Engineers (A.M.I.E) membership, from Member of
Indian Institution of Industrial Engineering, Navy Mumbai which is equivalent to the Associate
engineering bachelor's degree.
Diploma holders can enroll for advanced diploma programs in concentrated job sectors within
their area of study. Diploma holders are also eligible for lateral entry to the third semester
Engineering Courses in various Technical Universities.
C. ENGINEERING COLLEGES
In India, there are numerous engineering colleges imparting undergraduate and graduate
courses in engineering, applied engineering and sciences. The Indian Institutes of
Technology (IITs), National Institutes of Technology (NITs) and all State & Central government
owned Engineering & Technology College & Universities are considered the best in the
country. The graduates from IITs and NITs earn higher as compared to the graduates of other
engineering institutes. Many public sector companies prefer to recruit graduates form IITs
and NITs as they very technically skilled and curriculum in those institutes are extremely
competitive. Number of seats available in IITS is around 11,000 and in NITs are around 18000
and in IIIT (Indian Institutes of Information Technology) is around 3500. It may vary year wise.
Around 1.5 million engineers pass out every year from our country.
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Engineering Colleges admit students who have passed 12th grade (who have completed
higher secondary education) and provide education leading to the award of Bachelor’s
degree. Duration of the Degree program is usually four years. The Engineering Programs are
offered in Civil, Mechanical, Electrical, ECE (Electronics and Communication Engineering), CSE
(Computer Science Engineering), Production, Manufacturing, Bio chemistry, Aerospace, etc.,
and Technology programs in Chemical, Leather Textile, Biotechnology etc. There are
Architecture programs like Bachelor of Architecture (B.Arch.).
Curriculum is prescribed by the University to which the college is affiliated. Less than 10% of
institutions have academic autonomy. The ratio of weightage between theory (knowledge)
and skill is approximately 70:30. Sandwich types of programs are offered by very few
institutions. Public Examinations are conducted by the University to which the college is
affiliated.
After completing, the graduates most of them go for
 Employment in Industries
 Entrepreneurs
 Joining PG Programs
 Employment as Teachers of Technical Education Institutions

 R & D Engineers
Engineering Colleges may be classified based on the nature of governance:
 Engineering Colleges affiliated to a Central / State University
 Engineering Education programs conducted by Deemed Universities
 Engineering Departments which are constituent parts of a general or Technical

University.
 National Institutes of Technology (Formerly known as Regional Engineering Colleges)
 Institutes of National importance like Indian Institutes of Technology
Classification of Engineering Colleges based on the funding agency:
 Government Engineering Colleges
 Government Aided Engineering Colleges

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 Un-aided (Self-financing) Engineering Colleges
The world is changing, and engineers are the ones behind country’s development. The
majority of today’s services and products had some element of engineering involved in their
conception at least, paving the way to long, fulfilling and healthy lives for the people
influenced by them. Engineers must be critical yet creative; curious yet capable; as well as
ready to handle the constantly changing world.
In an advanced technological world, we need engineers to bring ideas into reality. By applying
the principles of mathematics and science, engineers develop solutions to the world’s biggest
technical issues. As quoted by N.R. Narayana Murthy “Engineering or technology is all about
using the power of science to make life better for people, to reduce cost, to improve comfort,
to improve productivity, etc.”.
D. UNIVERSITIES
Central universities
Central universities, or Union universities are established by Act of Parliament and are under
the purview of the Department of Higher Education in the Union Human Resource
Development Ministry. There are 49 Central universities in the country like University of Delhi,
University of Allahabad and Indira Gandhi National Open University.
State Universities
State Universities are set up or recognized by an act of the state legislature. There are 281
state universities in the country. Three of the country's oldest institutions of higher learning,
University of Calcutta, University of Madras and University of Bombay are state universities.
Higher Learning Institutes that are not universities but are often in recognition of their high
caliber of education that are granted the status of a university are called Deemed Universities.
As in other universities, students are conferred degrees upon completion of their programs.
There are 131 deemed universities in the country. For example, NIT (National Institutes of
Technology), IISC, Bengaluru, etc.
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Private university
A private university is an institution of higher learning established through a state or central

act by a sponsoring body, such as a society registered under the Societies Registration Act,
1860, or any other corresponding law for the time being in force in a state or a public trust or
a company registered under Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956. They need to be
recognized by UGC to provide a valid degree. There are 87 private universities in India. For
example, BITS Pilani.
Open University (OU)
An Open University (OU) that is open to people without formal academic qualifications and
where teaching is by correspondence or broadcasting or summer school. It is notable for
having an open entry policy, i.e. a student's previous academic achievements are not taken
into account for entry to most undergraduate/post-graduate courses.
The OU uses a variety of methods for distance learning, including written and audio materials,
the Internet, disc-based software and television programs on DVD, Course-based television
broadcasts. Materials are composed of originally-authored work by in-house and external
academic contributors and from third-party materials licensed for use by OU Students.
E. INSTITUTE OF NATIONAL IMPORTANCE (INI)
Institute of National Importance (INI) is a status that may be conferred to a higher education
institution in India by an act of parliament, an institution that "serves as a pivotal player in
developing highly skilled personnel within the specified region of the country/state". There
are 59 such institutions in the country. The common examples are IITs, ISI (Indian Statistical
Institute), and IIITs.
Institutes Under State Legislatures Acts
These are institutes established under the act of the State legislation. Examples include
Nizam's Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad and Sri Venkateshwara Institute of Medical
Sciences, Andhra Pradesh. There are 5 such institutes in India.
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4.0 NATIONAL AGENCIES

A. MINISTRY OF EDUCATION (MoE)
The 42nd Amendment of the Indian Constitution in 1976 brought about drastic changes in the
Indian Constitution. As far as education was concerned, it may be taken to be a historic step.
Before 1976, education was a state subject, while the Central Government used to play an
advisory role. However, the persons related to educational Administration felt that education
should be the joint responsibility of the Central and the State Governments. The idea was put
into practice by a Constitutional amendment in 1976. As a result, education was put on the
Concurrent List with the implication that both the Centre and the States can legislate on any
aspect of education from the Primary to the University level. With education in the
Concurrent List, the Centre can directly implement any policy decision in the States.
As a result of education being brought under the Concurrent List,
 Union Government lays down the norms and standards for education to be followed
and maintained by the States. The Centre has set up institutions like the University
Grants Commission (UGC) for such purposes.
 Moreover, running of some special institutions is the responsibility of the Union
Government. The special institutions are the Banaras Hindu University, the Aligarh
Muslim University, the Delhi University, the Jawaharlal Nehru University, the other
Central Universities, the National Library, the National Museum, NCERT, IITs, UGC,
NITs, NITTTRs, etc.
 Further, one of the functions of the Central government is co-ordination and
determination of standards in institutions for higher education or research and
scientific and technical institutions.
Hence, The Department of Higher Education, MoE, is responsible for the overall development
of the basic infrastructure of Higher Education sector, both in terms of policy and planning.
Under a planned development process, the Department looks after expansion of access and
qualitative improvement in the Higher Education, through world class Universities, Colleges
and other Institutions.
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Objectives
 To expand the Higher Education sector in all is modes of delivery to increase the Gross
Enrolment Ratio (GER) in Higher Education to 30% by the year 2020.
 To expand institutional base of Higher Education (including technical, professional and

vocational education) by creating additional capacity in existing institutions,
establishing new institutions and incentivizing State Governments and Non-
Governmental Organizations/civil society.
 To provide opportunities of Higher Education to socially-deprived communities and

remove disparities by promoting the inclusion of women, minorities and differently-
abled persons.
 To remove regional imbalances in access to Higher Education by setting up of

institutions in unnerved and underserved areas.
 To enhance plan support for infrastructure and faculty development in the institutions
of higher learning and to attract talent towards careers in teaching and research.
 To create conditions for knowledge generation through improved research facilities in

universities and colleges.
 To promote collaboration with International community, foreign governments,

universities/institutions and regional and international institutions, for the
advancement of universal knowledge and intellectual property rights.
 To promote development of Indian languages.
 To promote autonomy, innovations, academic reforms in institutions of higher

learning
 To undertake institutional restructuring for improving efficiency, relevance and

creativity in Higher Education.
Initially, the Engineering and Polytechnic Colleges were under the control of the Directorate
of Public Instruction and Directorate of Industries and Commerce respectively. The Industrial
schools were under the overall control of Department of Labor, Employment and Co-
operation.
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B. ALL INDIA COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION (AICTE)
The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) was setup on 30th November, 1945 by a
resolution of the Government of India on the recommendation made by Central Advisory
Board of Education (CABE).
Abbot Wood Report, 1936-37
Two expert advisors, Messrs. A. Abbot, formerly chief Inspector of Technical Schools Board of
Education, England and S.H. Wood Director of Intelligence Board of Education, England, were
invited to advise the government on certain problems of educational reorganization and
particularly on problems of vocational and technical education. The report of Messer’s Abbot
and Wood recommended major reforms in educational system by suggesting a complete
hierarchy of vocational and technical institutions parallel to that of institutions imparting
general education.
The Government of India realized that it was necessary for the Centre to support, coordinate
and promote research in technical education. The most vital was creation of Board of
Scientific and Industrial Research in 1940 to promote Industrial Research. Second was the
establishment of Delhi Polytechnic in 1941. Based on their recommendations, a new type of
technical Institutions called “Polytechnics” came into existence for training of middle level
technical personnel. In 1943, Constitution of the Technical Education Committee of the
Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) was formed.
Sargent Report (1944)
Sir John Sargent, the Educational Adviser to the Government of India was asked to prepare a
comprehensive report on education. For the purpose, the government formed a Committee
of Enquiry with 22 members. The report of the committee was submitted to the Central
Advisory Board of Education (CABE) in 1944. The Board accepted it in ‘Toto’ and
recommended its enforcement. The scheme was known as ‘Sargent Scheme of Education’ as
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it was prepared by John Sargent. It is also known as ‘Report by the Central Advisory Board of
Education’ and as the plan for post-war educational reconstruction in India.
Thirdly in 1945, an ad hoc committee popularly known as Sarkar Committee was appointed
for advising on the lines of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Fourthly, on 30th
November,1945, the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) was setup by a
resolution of the Government of India on the recommendation made by Central Advisory
Board of Education (CABE) as a national-level apex advisory body to conduct a survey on the
facilities available for technical education and to promote development in the country in a
coordinated and integrated manner.
Lastly in March 1947, Scientific Man Power Committee was appointed to assess the country’s
requirements for different grades of the scientific and technical personnel during the next ten
years and to recommend the measures to meet them. That was the genesis of AICTE.
Let us investigate the responsibilities of AICTE.
AICTE was vested with number of responsibilities as stipulated in the National Policy of
Education (1986). They are
 Statutory authority for planning, formulation, and maintenance of norms & standards
 Quality assurance through accreditation
 Funding in priority areas, monitoring, and evaluation
 Maintaining parity of certification & awards
 The management of technical education in the country
 Role of National Working Group
The Government of India (the Ministry of Education) also constituted a National Working
Group to investigate the role of AICTE in the context of proliferation of technical institutions,
maintenance of standards, and other related matters. The Working Group recommended that
AICTE be vested with the necessary statutory authority for making it more effective, which
would consequently require restructuring and strengthening with the necessary
infrastructure and operating mechanisms.
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The All India Council for Technical Education Act 1987 (No 52 of 1987 as passed by both the
Houses of Parliament). The AICTE Act was constituted to provide for the establishment of an
All India Council for Technical Education with a view to proper planning and coordinated
development of a technical education system throughout the country, the promotion of
qualitative improvements of such education in relation to planned quantitative growth, and
regulation & proper maintenance of norms and standards in the technical education system
and for the matters connected therewith.
The purview of AICTE (the Council) covers programs of technical education including training
and research in Engineering, Technology, Architecture, Town Planning, Management,
Pharmacy, Applied Arts and Crafts, Hotel Management and Catering Technology etc. at
different levels.
C. UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION (UGC)
The University Grants Commission (UGC) of India is a statutory organization set up by the
Union government in 1956, charged with coordination, determination and maintenance of
standards of university education. It provides recognition to universities in India, and
disburses funds to such recognized universities and colleges. Its headquarters are in New
Delhi, and six regional centers in Pune, Bhopal, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Guwahati and Bangalore.
If we look into the history of UGC, UGC was recommended in 1945 and formed in 1946 to
oversee the work of the three Central Universities of Aligarh, Banaras and, Delhi. In 1947, the
Committee was charged with the responsibility of handling all the then existing Universities.
After independence, the University Education Commission was set up in 1948 with Dr. S.
Radhakrishnan as the Chairman and it is recommended that the UGC to be reconstituted on
the general model of the University Grants Commission of Britain. UGC was formally
inaugurated by Abdul Kalam Azad, the then Minister of Education, Natural Resources and
Scientific Research on 28 December 1953. The UGC was however, formally established in
November 1956, by an Act of Parliament as a statutory body of the GOI.
UGC Role and Functions
The prime functions of the University Grants Commission are as follows:
18
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 It provides funds to the various higher educational institutes.

 It carries out the function of coordination, determination and maintenance of
standards in institutions of higher education.
In addition to these the University Grants Commission also performs the following functions
as well:
 Promoting and coordinating university education.
 Determining and maintaining standards of teaching, examination and research in

universities.
 Framing regulations on minimum standards of education.
 Monitoring developments in the field of collegiate and university education;

disbursing grants to the universities and colleges.
 Serving as a vital link between the Union and state governments and institutions of
higher learning.
 Advising the Central and State governments on the measures necessary for
improvement of university education.
D. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNICAL TEACHERS TRAINING AND RESEARCH (NITTTR)
To remove the deficiencies of the Polytechnic institutions and to train better teachers for
polytechnics, on the recommendation of the AICTE, the Central Government started four
Technical Teachers’ Training Institutes.
They are four in number and they were established in the years between 1964 and 1967,
 Chennai for Southern Region (1964)

 Kolkata for Eastern Region (1965)
 Bhopal for Western Region (1966)
 Chandigarh for Northern Region. (1967)
19
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After the formation of Technical Teachers’ Training Institutes (TTTIs), within a short span of
25 years, several review committees were constituted by the Government to review the
scheme of the TTTIs such as, Kelkar Committee (1976), Jha Committee (1978), Bhattacharya
Committee (1991) and Indiresan Committee (2000).
The following recommendations were made for optimal utilization of the facilities, expertise
and experience available in the four TTTIs.
 Extension of reach of the Institute over the entire gamut of the Technical Education.
 Training of teachers in other sectors apart from the polytechnic education should be
undertaken
 Efforts must be made to get the degrees like M.Tech. Ed. / M.E.E. courses recognized
for career advancement.
 Emphasis on Educational Technology including Distance Education & web based
learning.
 Training for overseas teachers particularly from SAARC and ASEAN countries.
 Helping the polytechnics by aiding in laboratory development, improvement of
instruction, testing and evaluation.
 Integration of IT in Teacher Training.
TTTIs were upgraded and renamed as National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training &
Research (NITTTR) vide Government of India order dated 20th October, 2003 with an
objective to play larger role for the improvement of Technical Education in the country.
These institutes strive to cater to needs of Technical Education system particularly in training
of faculty both in pedagogy and in domain areas and thus promoting Excellence in Technical
Education. They offer in-service training and development programs for the staff of
polytechnics and Engineering Colleges, need based Human Resource Development programs
through appropriate modes and develop curricula and instructional resources.
They also foster research in the inter disciplinary area of Technical / Engineering Education
and offer consultancy and extension services for the total development of Engineering
20
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Colleges, Polytechnic Colleges, Vocational institutions, Industry, Service sector and the
Community at large.
E. DIRECTORATE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION (DTE)
There was no machinery responsible for the coordinated development of Technical Education
in its different branches and at different levels. As a result, the Directorate of Technical
Education was established with the objective of bringing about coordinated development of
Technical Education in the State with effect from 14th October 1957 consequent to the
suggestion made by the State Standing Advisory Board of Technical Education.
DTE, is in charge of academic and administrative management of the technical education

system. Expansion of technical education depends upon the State’s needs as realized by the
respective State Governments. However, AICTE’s approval is needed for
 Starting of new institutions

 Starting of New programs in the existing institutions
 For increasing the student intake in existing programs
The mandate of the DTEs include the following
 Select and admit students into engineering colleges and polytechnics as per prescribed
norms.
 Develop suitable curricula, conduct examinations and award diplomas / certificates.
 Recognize institutions that offer diploma and certificate programs and evaluate the
performance of students
 Ensure adequate human resources and infrastructural facilities in all the technical
education institutions to impart education and training as per the respective norms of
the universities / State Board of Technical Education / AICTE
 Provide finance to and supervise its utilization by the technical education institutions
(Govt. and Govt. Aided) for development of facilities / resources.
 Implement the Programs and Policies of the State Government with respect to the
development of technical education.
F. INDIAN SOCIETY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION (ISTE)

21
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 Indian Society of Technical Education (ISTE) is a professional society of technical

teachers, administrators and students.
 About 70% of the teachers in technical institutions are members of the ISTE. Major
Activities of ISTE
o Summer / Winter schools for teachers
o Development of instructional resources
o Publication of Newsletter, Journal, Handbook and Instructional materials
o National and State awards to individuals and institutions
o Advocacy for formulation of Policies by Central and State Governments
5.0 ACTIVITIES AND REFLECTION QUESTIONS
Activity 1
1. What is meant by formal, informal and non-formal education. Give examples. Each has
its own merits and demerits. List at least one advantage and one disadvantage for each
one. 22
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Activit 2
Activity 2
2. Look for Industrial Training Institute (ITIs) in your geographical area. Mention the areas
of trades offered with duration. Also explore the curriculum for any one trade.
Activity 3
1. Find out the number of Polytechnics available in your State.
..  Government Polytechnics
 Government Aided Polytechnics
 Self- Financing / Private Polytechnics
2. Out of these Polytechnics, which Polytechnics have Academic autonomy.
3. How do Sandwich diploma coursed differ from Regular Diploma Courses
Activity 4
4. Visit AICTE website
https://www.aicte-india.org/
Learn more about the various student and staff development Schemes by AICTE .
23
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UNIT 2: THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING
Lesson 3: Three domains of Learning
Contributor
Dr. P. MALLIGA
Three Domains of Learning
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
3.0 THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING 1

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING 1
3.2 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN 3
3.3 REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN 4
3.4 KRATHWOHL’S TAXONOMY FOR AFFECTIVE DOMAIN 12
3.5 DAVE TAXONOMY FOR PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN 13
REFERENCES 18
Module 1- Orientation Towards Technical Education and Curriculum Aspects NITTTR, Chennai
3.0 THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
➢ Explain three domains of Learning
➢ Describe Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain
➢ Explain Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain
➢ Explain Krathwohl’s Taxonomy of Affective Domain
➢ Explore Dave’s, Simpson’s and Harrow’s Taxonomy for Psychomotor
Domain
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO THREE DOMAINS OF LEARNING
Every person is involved in learning something all the time. To a lay man, learning may
mean reading a passage, memorizing a formula, understanding a process or even listening
to a teacher. To educators and teachers, Learning is relatively permanent change in
behavior resulting from reinforced practice. When a student can do something after
instruction which he could not do before, he is said to have learnt.
According to Berelson and Steiner, learning refers to changes in behavior that result from
previous successful behaviour in similar situations. If one is really learning, one's behavior
becomes more effective and more adaptive than what it used to be before. Learning can
occur in three domains:
• Cognitive
• Affective
• Psychomotor.
Teaching is a catalytic process for bringing about desirable changes in learners. The relation
between teaching and learning related to each domain is shown in the following diagram.
The basic idea behind the cognitive domain involves the knowledge and intellectual skills
that a student will develop. The affective domain includes the feelings, emotions and
attitudes that learners will develop. The psychomotor domain (physical and Kinesthetic)
includes utilizing motor skills and the ability to coordinate them.
1
Figure 1: Relationship between teaching and learning
All teachers should know about these domains and use them to construct lessons. Each
domain has a taxonomy associated with it. Taxonomy is simply a word for a
classification. Domains may be thought of as categories.
Instructional designers, trainers and educators often refer to these three categories as KSA
knowledge (cognitive), Skills (psychomotor), and attitudes (affective).
2
Figure 2: Three Domains of Learning
3.2 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN
In 1956, Benjamin Bloom with collaborators Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill, and
David Krathwohl published a framework for categorizing educational goals: Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. It is familiarly known as Bloom’s Taxonomy. This framework has
been applied by generations of school and college teachers in their teaching. It is most often
used when designing educational, training and learning processes.
The basic idea behind the cognitive domain involves the knowledge and intellectual skills
that a student will develop. There are six categories involved within the cognitive domain,
and they are usually considered to be stages of difficulty. Usually, the first category must
be mastered before a student can move on to the next one. These categories are
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
3
Figure 3: Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Traditional)
Skill Definition Key Words

Knowledge Recall information Identify, describe, name, label,
recognize, reproduce, follow
Comprehension Understand the meaning, paraphrase Summarize, convert, defend,
a concept paraphrase, interpret, give
examples
Application Use the information or concept in a Build, make, construct, model,
new situation predict, prepare
Analysis Break information or concepts into Compare/contrast, break down,
parts to understand it more fully distinguish, select, separate
Synthesis Put ideas together to form something Categorize, generalize,

new reconstruct
Evaluation Make judgments about value Appraise, critique, judge, justify,
argue, support
Like any theoretical model, Bloom’s Taxonomy has its strengths and weaknesses. Its greatest
strength is that it has taken the very important topic of thinking and placed a structure
around it that is usable by practitioners. Those teachers who keep a list of question prompts
relating to the various levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy undoubtedly do a better job of
encouraging higher order thinking in their students than those who have no such tool. On
the other hand, as anyone who has worked with a group of educators to classify a group of
questions and learning activities according to the Taxonomy can attest, there is little
consensus about what seemingly self-evident, terms like “analysis,” or “evaluation” mean. In
addition, so many worthwhile activities, such as authentic problems and projects, cannot be
mapped to the Taxonomy, and trying to do that would diminish their potential as learning
opportunities.
3.3 REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN
Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and David Krathwohl revisited the cognitive
domain in the mid-nineties and made some changes, with perhaps the three most
prominent ones being (Anderson, Krathwohl, Airasian, Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths,
Wittrock, 2000):
• changing the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms
4
• rearranging them as shown in figure. Making evaluate as the fifth level and taking
create to the top level
• creating a processes and levels of knowledge matrix
Figure 4: Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Action Verbs are given in the Table: 1
Table 1: REVISED Bloom’s Taxonomy Action Verbs
I. Remembering II. Understanding III. Applying IV. Analyzing V. Evaluating VI. Creating
Demonstrate Examine and break

Present and defend Compile information
Exhibit memory of understanding of Solve problems to information into
opinions by making together in a
previously learned facts and ideas by new situations by parts by identifying
judgments about different way by
material by recalling organizing, applying acquired motives or causes.
information, validity combining elements
facts, terms, basic comparing, knowledge, facts, Make inferences and
of ideas, or quality in a new pattern or
concepts, and interpreting, giving techniques and rules find evidence to
of work based on a proposing new
answers. descriptions, and in a different way. support
set of criteria. solutions.
stating main ideas. generalizations.
5
define ask act advertise appraise adapt

describe associate administer analyze argue anticipate
duplicate cite apply appraise assess assemble
enumerate classify articulate calculate choose collaborate
examine compare calculate categorize compare combine
identify contrast change classify conclude compile
label convert chart compare consider compose
list describe choose conclude convince construct
locate differentiate collect connect criticize create
match discover complete contrast critique design
memorize discuss compute correlate debate develop
name distinguish construct criticize decide devise
observe estimate determine deduce defend express
omit explain develop devise discriminate facilitate
quote express discover diagram distinguish formulate
read extend dramatize differentiate editorialize generalize
recall generalize employ discriminate estimate hypothesize
recite give examples establish dissect evaluate infer
recognize group examine distinguish find errors integrate
record identify experiment divide grade intervene
repeat illustrate explain estimate judge invent
reproduce indicate illustrate evaluate justify justify
retell infer interpret experiment measure manage
select interpret judge explain order modify
state judge manipulate focus persuade negotiate
tabulate observe modify illustrate predict originate
tell order operate infer rank plan
visualize paraphrase practice order rate prepare
predict predict organize recommen produce
relate prepare plan d reframe propose
report produce prioritize score rearrange
represent record select select reorganize
research relate separate summarize report
restate report subdivide support revise
review schedule survey test rewrite
rewrite simulate test weigh role-play
select sketch simulate
show solve solve
summarize teach speculate
trace transfer structure
transform write test
translate validate
write
Adapted from Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing,
Abridged Edition. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
This revised taxonomy attempts to correct some of the problems with the original taxonomy.
Unlike the 1956 version, the revised taxonomy differentiates between “knowing what,” the
6
content of thinking, and “knowing how,” the procedures used in solving problems.
The Knowledge Dimension is the “knowing what.” It has four categories: factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive. Factual knowledge includes isolated bits of information, such
as vocabulary definitions and knowledge about specific details. Conceptual knowledge
consists of systems of information, such as classifications and categories. Procedural
knowledge includes algorithms, heuristics or rules of thumb, techniques, and methods as
well as knowledge about when to use these procedures. Metacognitive knowledge refers to
knowledge of thinking processes and information about how to manipulate these processes
effectively.
3.3.1 The Knowledge Dimension
Dimension Definition
Factual Knowledge The basic elements students must know to be
acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it
Conceptual Knowledge The interrelationships among the basic elements within
a larger structure that enable them to function
together
Procedural Knowledge How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria
for using skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods
Metacognitive Knowledge Knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness
and knowledge of one’s own cognition
There are four major knowledge types in Knowledge Dimension and the subtypes with
Examples are given in the following table.
Major Types and Subtypes of Knowledge Dimension with Examples
A. Factual Knowledge - The basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a
discipline or solve problems in it
A1. Knowledge of terminology Technical vocabulary, music symbols
A2. Knowledge of specific details and Major natural resources, reliable sources of
elements information
B. Conceptual knowledge – The interrelationships among the basic elements within the
7
larger structure that enable them to function together

B1. Knowledge of classifications and Periods of geological time, forms of
categories business ownership
B2. Knowledge of principles and Pythagorean theorem, law of supply and

generalizations demand
B3. Knowledge of theories, models and Theory of evolution, structure of Congress

structures
C. Procedural Knowledge-How to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria for using
skills, algorithms, techniques, and methods
C1. Knowledge of subject-specific skills Skills used in painting with water colors,
and algorithm whole-number division algorithms
C2. Knowledge of subject-specific Interviewing techniques, scientific method

techniques and Methods
C3. Knowledge of criteria for determining Criteria used to determine when to apply a
when to use appropriate procedures procedures involving Newton's second law,
Criteria used to judge the feasibility of using
a particular method to estimate business
costs
D. Metacognitive Knowledge - Knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness

and knowledge of one's own cognition
D1. Strategic knowledge Knowledge of outlining as a means of

capturing the structure of a unit of subject
matter in a text book, knowledge of the use
of heuristics
D2. Knowledge about cognitive tasks Knowledge of the types of tests particular
including appropriate contextual and teachers administer, knowledge of the
conditional knowledge cognitive demands of different tasks
D3. Self Knowledge Knowledge that critiquing essays is a

personal strength, whereas writing essay is
a personal weakness; awareness of one's
own knowledge level
.3.3.2 The Cognitive Process Dimension
The Cognitive Process Dimension of the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy like the original version
8
has six skills. They are, from simplest to most complex: remember, understand, apply,
analyze, evaluate, and create
1. Remember
Categories & Alternative

Definition
Cognitive Processes Names
Remember Retrieve knowledge from long- term
memory
1.1 Recognizing Identifying Locating knowledge in long-term
memory that is consistent with
presented material
1.2 Recalling Retrieving Retrieving relevant knowledge from
long-term memory
2. Understand
Categories & Cognitive

Alternative Names Definition
Processes
Understand Construct meaning from
instructional messages,
including oral, written, and
graphic communication
2.1 Interpreting Clarifying Paraphrasing Changing from one form of
Representing Translating representation to another
2.2 Exemplifying Illustrating Instantiating Finding a specific example or
illustration of a concept or
principle
2.3 Classifying Categorizing Subsuming Determining that something
belongs to a category
2.4 Summarizing Abstracting Generalizing Abstracting a general theme or
major point(s)
2.5 Inferring Concluding Extrapolating Drawing a logical conclusion
Interpolating Predicting from presented information
2.6 Comparing Contrasting Mapping Detecting correspondences
Matching between two ideas, objects,
and the like
2.7 Explaining Constructing models Constructing a cause and
effect model of a system
9
3. Apply
Categories & Cognitive Alternative Definition

Processes Names
Apply Applying a procedure to a familiar task
3.1 Executing Carrying out Applying a procedure to a familiar task
3.2 Implementing Using Applying a procedure to an unfamiliar task
4. Analyze
Analyze Alternative Break material into its

Names constituent parts and determine
how the parts relate to one
another and to an overall
structure or purpose
4.1 Differentiating Discriminating Distinguishing relevant from
Distinguishing Focusing irrelevant parts or important from
Selecting unimportant parts of presented
material
4.2 Organizing Finding coherence Determining how elements fit or
Integrating Outlining function within a structure
Parsing Structuring
4.3 Attributing Deconstructing Determine a point of view, bias,
values, or intent underlying
presented material
5. Evaluate
Evaluate Alternative Make judgments based on

Names criteria and standards
5.1 Checking Coordinating Detecting Detecting inconsistencies or
Monitoring Testing fallacies within a process or
product; determining whether a
process or product has internal
consistency; detecting the
effectiveness of a procedure as
it is being implemented
5.2 Critiquing Judging Detecting inconsistencies
between a product and external
criteria; determining whether a
10
product has external

consistency; detecting the
appropriateness of a procedure
for a given problem
6. Create
Categories & Cognitive Alternative

Definition
Processes Names
Create Put elements together to form a
coherent or functional whole;
reorganize elements into a new
pattern or structure
6.1 Generating Hypothesizing Coming up with alternative
hypotheses based on criteria
6.2 Planning Designing Devising a procedure for
accomplishing some task
6.3 Producing Constructing Inventing a product
According to Revised Bloom’s taxonomy, each level of knowledge can correspond to each
level of cognitive process, so a student can remember factual or procedural knowledge,
understand conceptual or metacognitive knowledge, or analyze metacognitive or factual
knowledge. According to Anderson and his colleagues, “Meaningful learning provides
students with the knowledge and cognitive processes they need for successful problem
solving”.
11
3.4 KRATHWOHL TAXONOMY FOR AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
Bloom's Taxonomy second domain, the Affective Domain, was detailed by Bloom, Krathwohl
and Masia in 1964 (Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Volume II, The Affective Domain.
Bloom, Krathwohl and Masia.) Bloom's theory advocates this structure and sequence for
developing attitude - also now commonly expressed in the modern field of personal
development as ‘beliefs’
Figure 5: Krathwohl’s Taxonomy for Affective Domain
Affective learning is demonstrated by behaviours indicating attitudes of awareness, interest,

attention, concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and respond in interactions with
others, and ability to demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values which are
appropriate to the test situation and the field of study.
12
Receiving Receiving refers to the student's willingness to attend to particular

phenomena of stimuli (classroom activities, textbook, music, etc.).
Learning outcomes in this area range from the simple awareness that a
thing exists to selective attention on the part of the learner.
Being aware of or attending to something in the environment
Responding Responding refers to active participation on the part of the student. At

this level he or she not only attends to a particular phenomenon but also
reacts to it in some way. Learning outcomes in this area may emphasize
acquiescence in responding (reads assigned material), willingness to
respond (voluntarily reads beyond assignment), or satisfaction in
responding (reads for pleasure or enjoyment).
Showing some new behaviours as a result of experience
Valuing Valuing is concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a

particular object, phenomenon, or behaviour. Showing some definite
involvement or commitment
Showing some definite involvement or commitment
Organization Organization is concerned with bringing together different values,

resolving conflicts between them, and beginning the building of an
internally consistent value system.
Integrating a new value into one's general set of values, giving it some
ranking among one's general priorities
Characterization The individual has a value system that has controlled his or her behaviour
by Value for a sufficiently long time for him or her to develop a characteristic “life-
style.” Thus the behaviour is pervasive, consistent, and predictable.
Learning outcomes at this level cover a broad range of activities, but the
major emphasis is on the fact that the behaviour is typical or
characteristic of the student. Acting consistently with the new value
3.5 DAVE TAXONOMY FOR PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
The Psychomotor Domain was ostensibly established to address skills development relating
to manual tasks and physical movement, however it also concerns and covers modern day
business and social skills such as communications and operation IT equipment, for example
telephone and keyboard skills, or public speaking. Dave's Psychomotor Domain is probably
the most commonly referenced and used psychomotor domain interpretation. There are
other two namely - Simpson's, and Harrow's.
13
Figure 6: Dave Taxonomy for Psychomotor Domain
Examples of activity or demonstration

Category or Behaviour
and evidence
'level' descriptions
to be measured
Imitation copy action of another; watch teacher or trainer and repeat
observe and replicate action, process or activity
Manipulation reproduce activity from carry out task from written or verbal
instruction or memory instruction
Precision execute skill reliably, perform a task or activity with
independent of help expertise and to high quality without
assistance or instruction; able to
demonstrate an activity to other
learners
Articulation adapt and integrate expertise relate and combine associated
to satisfy a non-standard activities to develop methods to meet
objective varying, novel requirements
Naturalization automated, unconscious define aim, approach and strategy for
mastery of activity and use of activities to meet strategic need
related skills at strategic level
Simpson’s Taxonomy for Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and
use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured
in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. Thus,
14
psychomotor skills range from manual tasks, such as digging a ditch or washing a car, to
more complex tasks, such as operating a complex piece of machinery or dancing.
Figure 7: Simpson’s Taxonomy for Psychomotor Domain
15
The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:
Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Perception (awareness): The ability to use Examples: Detects non-verbal
sensory cues to guide motor activity. This communication cues. Estimate where a ball
ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue will land after it is thrown and then moving to
selection, to translation. the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts
heat of stove to correct temperature by smell
and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the
forks on a forklift by comparing where the
forks are in relation to the pallet. Key Words:
chooses, describes, detects, differentiates,
distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates,
selects.
Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence
physical, and emotional sets. These three sets of steps in a manufacturing process.
are dispositions that predetermine a person's Recognize one's abilities and limitations.
response to different situations (sometimes Shows desire to learn a new process
called mindsets). (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of
Psychomotor is closely related with the
“Responding to phenomena” subdivision of
the Affective domain.
Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves,
proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
Guided Response: The early stages in learning Examples: Performs a mathematical
a complex skill that includes imitation and equation as demonstrated. Follows
trial and error. Adequacy of performance is instructions to build a model. Responds hand-
achieved by practicing. signals of instructor while learning to operate
a forklift.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react,
reproduce, responds
Mechanism (basic proficiency): This is the Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a
intermediate stage in learning a complex leaking faucet. Drive a car.
skill. Learned responses have become Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs,
habitual and the movements can be dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds,
performed with some confidence and heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes,
proficiency. organizes, sketches.
Complex Overt Response (Expert): The skillful Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight
performance of motor acts that involve parallel parking spot. Operates a computer
complex movement patterns. Proficiency is quickly and accurately. Displays competence
indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly while playing the piano. Key Words:
coordinated performance, requiring a assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs,
minimum of energy. This category includes dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds,
performing without hesitation, and heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes,
automatic performance. For example, players organizes, sketches. NOTE: The Key Words
are often utter sounds of satisfaction or are the same as Mechanism, but will have
expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the
throw a football, because they can tell by the performance is quicker, better, more
feel of the act what the result will produce. accurate, etc.
16
Adaptation: Skills are well developed, and Examples: Responds effectively to

the individual can modify movement patterns unexpected experiences. Modifies
to fit special requirements. instruction to meet the needs of the learners.
Perform a task with a machine that it was not
originally intended to do (machine is not
damaged and there is no danger in
performing the new task).
Key Words: adapts, alters, changes,
rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.
Origination: Creating new movement Examples: Constructs a new theory.
patterns to fit a situation or specific problem. Develops a new and comprehensive training
Learning outcomes emphasize creativity programming. Creates a new gymnastic
based upon highly developed skills. routine. Key Words: arranges, builds,
combines, composes, constructs, creates,
designs, initiate, makes, originates.
Harrow’s Taxonomy for Psychomotor Domain
Figure 8: Harrow’s Taxonomy for Psychomotor Domain
17
Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Reflex Movements — Reactions that are not Examples: instinctive response
learned, such as an involuntary reaction Key Words: react, respond
Fundamental Movements — Basic Examples: perform a simple task
movements such as walking or grasping. Key Words: grasp an object, throw a ball,
walk
Perceptual Abilities — Response to stimuli Examples: track a moving object, recognize
such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, or a pattern
tactile discrimination. Key Words: catch a ball, draw or write
Physical Abilities (fitness) — Stamina that Examples: gain strength, run a marathon
must be developed for further development Key Words: agility, endurance, strength
such as strength and agility.
Skilled movements — Advanced learned Examples: Using an advanced series of
movements as one would find in sports or integrated movements, perform a role in a
acting. stage play or play in a set of series in a sports
game.
Key Words: adapt, constructs, creates,
modifies
Non discursive communication — Use Examples: Express one's self by using
effective body language, such as gestures movements and gestures
and facial expressions. Key Words: arrange, compose,
interpretation
Summary:
✓ Developing and delivering lessons by teachers are integral in the teaching process. It is
important for teachers to ensure that the three domains of learning which include cognitive
(thinking), affecting (emotions or feelings) and Psychomotor (Physical or Kinesthetic) to be
achieved.
✓ Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchical ordering of cognitive skills helps teachers teach and
student learn. It can be used to create assessment, plan lessons, evaluate the complexity of
assignments, design curriculum maps, develop online courses, plan project based learning
and also for self-assessment.
✓ According to the two main dimension of Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy, there are four types of
knowledge – factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive and the six major cognitive
process categories – Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate and Create.
References:
1. Anderson, L.W. & Krathwohl, D.R. (2001). A taxonomy for teaching, learning, and assessing:
A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, NY: Longman.
2. Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational
goals. New York, NY: Longmans, Green.
18
UNIT 3: INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Lesson - 4 Instructional Objectives and Learning Outcomes
Contributor
Dr. P. MALLIGA
Centre for Educational Media and Technology, NITTTR, Chennai
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
4.0 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND LEARNING OUTCOMES 1

4.1 CURRICULUM AIMS, GOALS and OBJECTIVES 1
4.2 DEFINITION OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES 5
4.3 REASONS FOR STATING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES 6
4.4 WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES 11
4.5 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY 13
4.6 LEARNING OUTCOMES 17
REFERENCES 20
APPENDIX 21
Unit 3: Instructional Objectives and Learning Outcomes
4.0 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES AND LEARNING OUTCOMES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this unit the participants will be able

• To explain Aims, Goals and Objectives in the context of curriculum development
• To explain the need of stating Instructional Objectives
• To formulate Instructional Objectives for a lesson/topic
• To map a given instructional objective in appropriate knowledge dimension and

cognitive process dimension of Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
• To write learning outcomes for a course, lesson, or any learning event.
4.1 CURRICULUM AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
Aims, goals and objectives are sequentially related; they occur in hierarchical order. The limit
or the height of society aspiration is encapsulated in its aim. Ritz (2014) considers aim as “a
general statement that suggests direction”. It provides a guide for the educational and
training processes by which a terminal point of live outcome is focused. Anderson, Krathwohl
et al (2000) see goal as statement of academic intention which are more specific than aim (it
is a subset of aim). The statement of goals denominates the amorphous terms of the aim
which are not directly measurable. Nodding (2007) believes that aims and goals are “brushed
aside in favour of objectives because the last can be cast in language conducive to
measurement”. Curriculum development is concerned with putting activities in place in order
to effect desirable change in learners’ behaviour (Nilcholls, 1973). Therefore, objectives
designed for classroom activities bring into fore the kind of knowledge and skills needed in
the society. Lawton(1975) explains that the structures and elements of curriculum must be
designed in such a way as to promote social utility, social responsibility, common culture and
personal satisfaction.
Module 1- Orientation towards Technical Education and Curriculum aspects NITTTR, Chennai 1
General and broad statement
Broad and narrow statement

as compared to aim
Specific statements
Figure 1 Aims, Goals and Objectives
AIMS and GOALS: Aims are general statements that provide direction or intent to educational
action. Aims are usually written in amorphous terms using words like: learn, know,
understand, appreciate, and these are not directly measurable. An aim is the product of a
long term endevour measured over a program or a course of one or more years
Goals are statements of educational intention which are more specific than aims. Goals too
may encompass an entire program, subject area, or multiple grade levels. They may be in
either amorphous language or in more specific behavioral terms.
Broad descriptions of purposes or ends stated in general terms without criteria of

achievement or mastery. Curriculum aims or goals relate to educational aims and philosophy.
They are programmatic and normally do not delineate the specific courses or specific items
of content. Typically, they refer to the accomplishment of groups (e.g. all learners, learners in
general, most learners) rather than the achievement of individual learners. They are broad
enough to lead to specific curriculum objectives. Examples include: ‘students will learn to
respect and get along with people of different cultures’; ‘students will develop a sense of civic
responsibility’; ‘students will attain an appreciation for literature, art, music’.
OBJECTIVES: Specific statements setting measurable expectations for what learners should
know and be able to do, described either in terms of learning outcomes (what the learners
are expected to learn), products or performance (what learners will produce as a result of a
learning activity) or processes (describing the focus of learning activities). They can be seen
as refinements of curriculum aims/goals that, for example, specify: performance standards or
those skills and knowledge the learners are expected to be able to demonstrate; inferred or
precise degree of mastery; and the conditions under which the performance will take place.
In terms of effectiveness, curriculum objectives should: be concise and understandable to
teachers, learners and parents; be feasible for the teachers and learners to accomplish;
encompass previous learning and require the learner to integrate and then apply certain
knowledge, skills, and attitudes in order to demonstrate achievement; and be measurable on
a cumulative basis and at different stages of the learner’s educational career.
4.2 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Curriculum, syllabus, text book, teaching methods, modes of evaluation - all these are based
on certain theories of learning or teaching models. In order to implement the educational
plan or improve the practice of teaching and learning, the necessary knowledge of various
theories of learning and its outcomes is required. The concept of instructional objectives is
based on those theories. In this unit you will understand the concept of instructional
objectives based on learning theories and their relationship with instructional objectives for
evaluating the teaching-learning process.
Educational research has established the fact that achievement is enhanced in a classroom,
where students can perceive a sense of direction for learning. Classroom management and
teaching blend together as a unified process when instructional objectives provide goal clarity
for teachers and students.
Instructional Objectives is one of the most important components of the teaching learning
process.
Figure 2: Block Diagram of Instructional System
Instructional objectives form the basis for the choice of the following:
 Instructional Planning
 Instructional Methods,
 Instructional Resources (Materials and Media)
 Evaluation Procedure.
DEFINITION OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives, also called behavioural objectives or instructional objectives, are

requirements for high-quality development of instruction.
A learning objective is a statement that specifies in behavioural (measurable) terms what a

learner will be able to do as a result of instruction. It describes the intended outcome of your
instruction rather than a description or summary of your content.
The purpose of objectives is not to restrict spontaneity or constrain the vision of education in
the discipline; but to ensure that learning is focused clearly enough that both students and
teacher know what is going on, and so learning can be objectively measured.
An instructional objective is a statement that will describe what the learner will be able to do
after completing the instruction. According to Dick and Carey (1990), a performance objective
is a detailed description of what students will be able to do when they complete a unit of
instruction. It is also referred to as a behavioral objective or an instructional objective. Robert
Mager(1984), in his book Preparing Instructional Objectives, describes an objective as "a
collection of words and/or pictures and diagrams intended to let others know what you
intend for your students to achieve"
4.3 REASONS FOR STATING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Question Paper setter
INSTRUCTIONAL
OBJECTIVES
TEACHER STUDENT
Figure 3: Instructional Objectives for teacher, learner and question paper setter
Instructional objectives form a basis to assess the learners and the teaching learning
process by providing information to the following persons.
 Give direction to teachers in the selection of methods and instructional resources.
 Assist students in organizing and studying the content material and guide them
what is expected from them.
 Provides scope for the Question paper setter.
The purpose of a behavioral objective is to communicate. Therefore, a well-constructed

behavioral objective should leave little room for doubt about what is intended.
 Objectives communicate and guide development content materials, instructional

methods and assessment.
 Objectives communicate the focus of learning that enables instructors and students
to work toward a common goal.
o The teacher can use objectives to make sure goals are reached.
o Students will understand expectations. Any skill is learned more effectively if
the learner understands the reason for learning and practicing it.
 Objectives communicate the assessment and grading. Objectives provide a means of

measuring whether the students have succeeded in acquiring skills and knowledge.
 Objectives communicate and allow students the opportunity for self-evaluation.
4.4 WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
When to write objectives?
Objectives should be developed:
 Before a lesson or course is developed (by designer).

 Before a lesson or course is taught (by instructor).
 Objectives should be reviewed with students at the beginning of the
course/module/lesson.
How to write Instructional objectives?
When writing instructional objectives, focus on the learner, not the teacher!
Instructional objectives must be written to communicate realistic, measurable, and learner

centered outcomes.
 Realistic objectives can be achieved by the learners within your time frame and in
your given environment.
 Measurable objectives enable you to observe and determine how well learners have
acquired skills and knowledge.
 Learner centered objectives state what the learner can do at the end of training.
They always start with action verbs.
 Specify intended results or outcomes, and not the process. Teaching and lecturing is
part of the process of instruction, but it isn't the purpose of the instruction. The
purpose is to facilitate learning.
 Different types of learning require different learning experiences and hence different
types of objectives.
Objectives can be written for three domains of learning ie
1. Cognitive
2. Psychomotor
3. Attitudes
 Cognitive objectives emphasize THINKING,

 Affective objectives emphasize FEELING and
 Psychomotor objectives emphasize ACTING.
I. The ABCD method of writing Objectives:
Heinich and his colleagues (2002) suggest that well written objectives have four parts. They
call these parts the ABCD's of instructional objectives.
A. Audience
The audience is the group of learners that the objective is written for. Objectives are not
written for the teacher.
This is often written "the learner" or "the student"; however, it could be written as specific
as "The third year mechanical engineering student".
B. Behavior
The behavior is the verb or observable action/behavior that describes what the learner
(audience) will be able to demonstrate, perform, or exhibit after the instruction.
This is the heart of the objective and MUST be
 measurable
 observable (visible or audible)
 specific
Examples:
 Be able to write C programming
 Be able to perform the experiment to find the efficiency of a machine.

 Be able to draw the block diagram of a computer system
 Be able to participate in group discussion.
In each of these examples you can observe behavior. If a statement does not include an
observable, visible, or auditory behavior or performance, then it isn't yet an objective.
Therefore, you should modify your objectives until it answers the question, "What will the
learner be DOING when demonstrating achievement of the objective?"
Here are a couple of poor examples:
 Be able to understand mathematics.

 Develop an appreciation of music.
If you apply the question above, what would somebody be doing if they were "understanding"
mathematics or "appreciating" music? There's really no way to observe "understanding" or
"appreciating" since both of those statements describe abstract states that are not directly
observable.
C. Conditions
Conditions are the circumstances (under commands, materials, directions, etc.) which the
objective must be completed. All behavior relevant to intended student learning outcomes
can best be understood within a context of the conditions under which the behavior is to be
performed or demonstrated. The location of the condition component in an objective may
be at the beginning of the sentence or after the behavior component.
 What will the learners be expected to use when performing (e.g., equipment, tools,
forms, calculator, charts, etc.)?
 What will the learner be allowed to use (or not use) while performing (e.g.,
checklists, notes, textbook, or other study aids)?
 What will be the real-world conditions under which the performance will be
expected to occur (e.g., on top of a flagpole, under water, in front of a large
audience, in a manufacturing plant)?
Examples:
 Given a case study, diagram, clinical problem....

 After completing the reading....
Order and Tense
There is a preferred order when writing objectives. The condition is usually placed first,
followed by the behaviour or verb and then the criteria. Objectives are written in the future
tense
Rules for Writing Objectives
Rule 1 : State the objectives in terms of the learner i.e. what the learner does after
instruction and not in terms of what the teacher does.
Rule 2 : Instructional objectives should not be stated in terms of either the process of
instruction or process of learning, but in terms of observable behaviour described
by an action verb.
Rule 3 : An objective should consist of only one learning outcome, not many.
Rule 4 : Begin every objective with an action verb which precisely indicates the learning
outcome in definite terms.
Rule 5 : Objective should not be mentioned as a mere topic / sub topic / subject matter.
Rule 6 : Objective should specify the standards of minimum acceptable performance.
4.5 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES and REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
A statement of a learning objective contains a verb (an action) and an object (usually a noun).
 The verb generally refers to actions associated with, ie, the intended cognitive process
 The object generally describes the knowledge students are expected to acquire or
construct.
Figure 4: IO = Action Verb + Object (Noun)
The cognitive process dimensions represent a continuum of increasing cognitive complexity

from remember to create. Anderson & Krathwohl identified 19 specific cognitive process that
further clarify the bounds of six categories
The knowledge dimension represents a range from concrete (factual) to abstract

(metacognitive) i.e. factual , conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. Representations of
the knowledge dimension as a number of discrete steps can be it misleading.
For example, all procedural knowledge may not be more abstract than all conceptual
knowledge. And metacognitive is a special case as. in this model, metacognitive knowledge
Is knowledge of one’s own cognitive and about oneself in relation to various subject matters.
Factual – the basic elements a student must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve
problem in it .
Conceptual -The inter relationship among the basic elements within a larger structure that
enable them to function together.
Procedural -How to do something, methods of inquiry and criteria for using skills, algorithm
techniques and methods.
Metacognitive -Knowledge of cognitive in general as well as awareness and knowledge of

one’s own cognition.
Example: The student will learn to apply the reduce-reuse-recycle approach to conservation
Figure 5: Instructional objective mappingusing Revised Blooms Taxonomy
Let us take few more examples:
1) Summarize the features of a new product

Cognitive Process Dimension: Understand
Knowledge Dimension: Factual
2) Recognize symptoms of exhaustion
Cognitive Process Dimension: Remember
Knowledge Dimension: Conceptual
3) Carry out pH tests of water samples
Cognitive Process Dimension: Apply
Knowledge Dimension: Procedural
4) Use techniques that match one’s strengths
Cognitive Process Dimension: Apply
Knowledge Dimension: Metacognitive

5) Select the most complete list of activities
6) Cognitive Process Dimension: Evaluate
Knowledge Dimension: Factual
7) Design efficient project workflow
Cognitive Process Dimension: Create
Knowledge Dimension: Procedural
The objectives reflect different levels of learning. They are:
1. Mastery objectives
2. Developmental objectives
Mastery objectives are typically concerned with the minimum performance essentials ---
learning tasks/ skills that must be mastered before moving on to next level of instruction.
Next is developmental objectives. It is concerned with more complex learning outcomes-

those learning tasks on which students can be expected to demonstrate varying degrees of
progress.
Rules for Writing Objectives
Rule 1 : State the objectives in terms of the learner i.e. what the learner does after
instruction and not in terms of what the teacher does.
Rule 2 : Instructional objectives should not be stated in terms of either the process of
instruction or process of learning, but in terms of observable behaviour described
by an action verb.
Rule 3 : An objective should consist of only one learning outcome, not many.
Rule 4 : Begin every objective with an action verb which precisely indicates the learning
outcome in definite terms.
Rule 5 : Objective should not be mentioned as a mere topic / sub topic / subject matter.
Rule 6 : Objective should specify the standards of minimum acceptable performance.
Imprecisely stated objectives related to classroom instruction can be vague and open to many
interpretations. Badly written objectives are of little use to the instructor concerned.
Objectives prefaced with ambiguous statements such as, at the end of the session, “the
participant will have a sound knowledge of ….” should be avoided because the words “sound
knowledge of” could be interpreted in many ways.
 Action verbs for Cognitive Domain, Affective Domain and Psychomotor Domain are
given in Appendix-I
4.6 LEARNING OUTCOMES
In Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy, the Remember, Understand and Apply are considered as lower
level abilities or cognitive skills. Higher-order thinking skills are reflected by the top three
levels in Bloom’s Taxonomy: Analyze, Evaluate, and Create.
Figure 6: Higher Order Thinking Skills
How do you incorporate High order thinking skills into your syllabus?
The most obvious space to embed critical thinking in a Syllabus is in the Student-Learning
Outcomes section. Learning objectives contain an action (verb) and an object (noun), and
often start with, “Student’s will be able to…” Bloom’s taxonomy can help you to choose
appropriate verbs to clearly state what you want the students to do at the end of the course,
and at what level.
Higher-order thinking, known as higher order thinking skills (HOTS), is a concept

of education reform based on learning taxonomies (such as Bloom's taxonomy). The idea is
that some types of learning require more cognitive processing than others. In Bloom's
taxonomy, for example, skills involving analysis, evaluation and synthesis (creation of new
knowledge) are thought to be of a higher order than the learning of facts and concepts which
requires different learning and teaching methods.
Higher-order thinking involves the learning of complex judgmental skills such as critical
thinking and problem solving. Higher-order thinking is more difficult to learn or teach but also
more valuable because such skills are more likely to be usable in novel situations.
Course outcomes are broad statements of what is achieved and assessed at the end of a
course of study. The concept of learning outcomes and outcome-based education is high on
today's education agenda. The idea has features in common with the move to instructional
objectives which became fashionable in the 1960s, but which never had the impact on
education practice that it merited. The distinction between learning outcomes and learning
objectives is not universally recognized, and many instructors may find that the term ‘learning
outcomes’ describes what they have already understood by the term ‘learning objectives’.
Some scholars make no distinction between the two terms; those who do usually suggest that
learning outcomes are a subset or type of learning objective. Learning objectives, for example,
may outline the material the instructor intends to cover or the disciplinary questions the class
will address. By contrast, learning outcomes should focus on what the student should know
and realistically be able to do by the end of an assignment, activity, class, or course. The same
goals addressed by learning objectives can be equally addressed by learning outcomes, but
by focusing on the application and integration of the course content from the perspective of
the student, learning outcomes can more explicitly and directly address expectations for
student learning.
Many instructors may find that the reflective process of developing learning outcomes is
something that they have already incorporated into their course planning processes. The
phrase ‘learning outcomes’ thus simply offers a more precise term for discussing the creation
of learning aims and expectations that centre on application and integration of course
content.
4.6.1 Why Learning Outcomes?

An outcomes-based approach presents a range of advantages for those who teach and design courses
in higher education. For example, they bring clarity, precision and transparency to curriculum design,
teaching practice and assessment. The shift to learning outcomes opens course design to better
curriculum alignment and accountability in teaching and learning. Well-designed learning outcomes
bring clarity of expectations for student performance, and open up new possibilities for increased
student satisfaction. Learning outcomes and taxonomies of learning are now central for teaching and
learning in higher education. They provide possibilities to achieve what is commonly called ‘curriculum
alignment’. Curriculum alignment involves organizing curriculum in a coherent structure with aims,
learning outcomes, teaching strategies, content and assessment all aligning in order to improve both
the coherence of curriculum and student learning.
Figure 7: Curriculum Alignment
4.6.2 Importance of Learning Outcomes

Learning outcomes are statements of desired results of learning that are expressed in words that make
it clear how measurement can be achieved. Therefore, learning outcomes provide a basis for
measuring and reporting on student achievement. It can be stated as ‘personal changes or benefits
that follow as a result of learning’, and these changes or benefits can be measured in terms of abilities
or achievements.
Learning outcomes can be precisely defined as statements of what a learner is expected to know,
understand, and/or be able to demonstrate after completion of a process of learning.
The learning outcomes are constructed as a taxonomy of what graduates are expected to know,
understand and be able to do as a result of learning. They are expressed in terms of the dimensions
of knowledge, skills and the application of knowledge and skills.
The focus in recent years on learning outcomes represents a shift from the traditional ‘teacher
centred’ approach, where the common practice was to design courses starting from the content or
what the teacher was to deliver in a certain amount of time, to a ‘student-centred approach’. In the
student centred approach the focus is shifted towards what students are expected ‘to know,
understand, and/or be able to demonstrate after completion of a process of learning’.
Learning outcomes have the potential to improve course design and quality in higher education. The
writing and use of learning outcomes shifts the focus to effective learning and teaching and can lead
to greater transparency for students and all stakeholders involved in higher education. Learning
outcomes can serve as a general organising principle for practice in learning and teaching and
encourages a shift to student-centred pedagogies. They open possibilities for diverse assessment
practices that are able to connect curricula to new contexts created by the fast pace of change in
technology and workforce demands.
The advantages of learning outcomes for a clear and transparent curriculum design and assessment
and prescriptive nature of learning outcomes have been disputed by some scholars. It is important to
take into consideration the risks and critical points when we design and write learning outcomes.
Teaching and learning should stay flexible and consistent with a pedagogic ethos that encourages
scholarship, creativity and the unrestricted pursuit of ideas. No one approach has the ability to solve
the complexity that is good curriculum, teaching and learning. Nevertheless, the shift towards learning
outcomes aims to improve learning and in this sense, students, academics, course designers and policy
makers can use learning outcomes as a starting framework for teaching, learning and assessment.
4.6.2 How to write Learning outcomes
A learning outcome is a statement that indicates what students should represent,

demonstrate or produce as a result of what they learn. It describes an intended result of
instruction, rather than the process of instruction itself (Mager, p.5)
Figure 8: Different Outcomes
Programme Educational
Objectives (PEOs)
Programme Outcomes
(POs)
Course Outcomes (COs)

& Learning Outcomes (LOs)
Figure 8: Different Outcomes
Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs) are central to your course’s curriculum. They articulate to
students, faculty, and other stakeholders what students will achieve in each course and how
their learning will be measured. A Learning Outcome (LO) is a measurable, observable, and
specific statement that clearly indicates what a student should know and be able to do as a
result of learning.
Well-written learning outcomes involve the following parts:
 Action verb
 Subject content
 Level of achievement
 Condition of performance (if applicable)
A learning Outcome (LO) is a measurable observable and specific statement that clearly
indicates what a student should know and be able to do as a result of learning.
Figure 9: Format for Learning Outcomes
Steps to Writing Course Learning Outcomes for Your Course
Step 1
Select an action verb using Bloom’s Taxonomy; Make sure that you select a verb that you can
observe and measure. There are many verbs that, can’t be directly observed and therefore
are difficult to assess in the classroom. Do not use the following verbs:
Step 2
Next, select the subject content students are performing that task for. For example,
 To define the structure and components of a Python program
 to use lists, tuples, and dictionaries in Python programs
 to write loops and decision statements in Python.
 To write Python functions to facilitate code reuse,
 to use exception handling in Python applications for error handling.
 to design object‐oriented programs with Python classes.
Step 3: Levels of Achievement
Next, decide if your LO requires either a level of achievement or a condition of performance.

A level of achievement identifies how proficient students need to be in a task. For example,
in an English Language course, you might say “Write a literature critique with no grammatical
errors”. This tells students the level of achievement that’s expected of them. Importantly, you
don’t need a level of achievement for every LO. It is not necessary to say “effectively”,
“accurately”, or “correctly” on a LO, these are all implied. We expect students to achieve all
outcomes in all courses correctly and accurately. Levels of achievement are for specific cases.
Step 4: Conditions of Performance
A condition of performance identifies if students are only performing the outcome in a

specific context. For example, in a Welding course with a field placement, you might say
“Demonstrate oxy-fuel-gas cutting techniques with limited supervision”. This tells students
that they will be performing this task, but that they will be supervised while they do so.
Let us see the difference between aims or goals, learning objectives and learning outcomes?
The structural distinction between learning objectives and learning outcomes is that learning
objectives relate to learning from a teachers’ point of view and are closer to a teacher-centred
approach, while learning outcomes refer to what a student will be able to do as a result of learning,
hence are sources of evidence in the student-centred approach.
Aims or goals in teaching and learning are broad sentences reflecting general intentions and desired
outcomes of an institution, program or course. These important statements stay clearly distinct from
learning outcomes. Aims serve the important function to indicate and promote the main values and
general directions that guide the process of teaching and learning. Aims reflect vision and general
intentions, and the overall desirable results. Example: Curriculum and teaching practices aim to link
students’ learning experiences to the world graduates will confront.
Figure 10: Objectives vs Outcomes
• Learning outcomes are statements of what a student will be able to do or demonstrate at the
completion of a certain sequence of learning (course, program). Learning outcomes are mainly
concerned with the achievements of the learner and less with the intentions of the teacher.
Learning outcomes inform students of what is expected of them in terms of performance, to
achieve desired grades and credits. Example: At the end of the course students will be able
 To demonstrate the ability to use mathematical and statistical techniques.
 To design Entity Relationship Model for a database system.
Learning Objectives tend to describe specific discrete units of knowledge and skill can be
accomplished within a short time frame
SUMMARY
 The objectives are important to the teacher because they make goals more realistic.
Having specific instructional objectives allows you to look at the overall lesson in a more
analytical way and break it down into parts.
 Instructional objectives state what specifically is to be learned. They state the expected
learning outcome. They may be phrased similar to this, “Upon completion of the lesson,
the student will be able to…”
 Clearly articulated learning objectives can provide a roadmap for the instructor and the
student so that both share the same perspective of where their instructional journey is
taking them.
 Instructional objectives serve as central unifying elements for instructional strategy,

instructional media, and assessment.
 Learning Outcomes are statements that describe or list measurable and essential
mastered content-knowledge—reflecting skills, competencies, and knowledge that
students have achieved and can demonstrate upon successfully completing a course.
REFERENCES
1. Anderson, L. W. and Krathwohl, D. R., et al (Eds..) (2001) A Taxonomy for Learning,

Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
Allyn & Bacon. Boston, MA (Pearson Education Group)
2. Eugene E. Haddan, (1970) Evolving Instruction, London: The Macmillan Co.
3. Gagne R.M (1970) The Condition of Learning, (Revised Edition). New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston Inc.
4. Robert M. Gagne & Leslie L. Briggs (1974) Principles of Instructional Design, New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.
5. Walkin. L (1982), Instructional Techniques and Practice, (ELBS Edition). Avon, Great
Britain: Stanley Thornes ( Publishers) Ltd.
6. Learning outcomes resources from DePaul’s Office for Teaching, Learning and
Assessment.
Appendix -1
Elaboration of the six levels of thinking in Bloom’s taxonomy
1 2 3 4 5 6
Remembering Can the Understanding Applying Can the Analysing Can the student Evaluating Can the Creating Can the student
student RECALL Can the student EXPLAIN ideas student USE the new DIFFERENTIATE between and student JUSTIFY an GENERATE new
information? or concepts? knowledge in another RELATE constituent parts? opinion, decision or products, ideas or ways
familiar situation? course of action? of viewing things?
Recognising Interpreting Summarising Executing Differentiating Checking Generating
Locating knowledge Changing from one Drawing a logical Applying knowledge Distinguishing relevant from Detecting Coming up with
in memory that is form of conclusion from (often procedural) to a irrelevant parts or important inconsistencies or alternatives or
consistent with representation presented routine task. from unimportant parts of fallacies within a hypotheses based on
presented material. to another information. Synonyms presented material. process criteria
Synonyms Synonyms: Synonyms  Carry Synonyms or product. Synonyms
 Identifying  Paraphrasing  Abstracting  ing out  Discriminating Determining whether a  Hypothesizing
 Finding  Translating  Generalising  Selecting process or product has  Proposing
 Measuring internal consistency.
 Selecting  Representing  Outlining  Constructing  Focusing Synonyms  Developing
 Indicating  Clarifying  Précising  Demonstrating  Distinguishing between  Testing  Engendering
 Converting  Computing  Separating  Detecting  Synthesising
Recalling  Rewriting Inferring  (Sub)dividing  Providing options
Retrieving relevant Abstracting a  Calculating  Monitoring
knowledge from  Restating general theme or  Manipulating  Examining  Concluding
Planning
 Expressing  Relating Devising a procedure for
long-term memory. major point  Operating  Assessing accomplishing some task.
Synonyms Exemplifying Synonyms  Preparing Organising
Finding a specific Determining how elements fit  Appraising Synonyms
 Retrieving  Extrapolating  Producing  Discriminating  Designing
example or or function within a structure.
 Naming illustration of a  Interpolating  Drawing up Synonyms  Determining  Formulating
 Reproducing concept or  Predicting  Practising  Outlining Critiquing Detecting  Combining
 Recounting principle  Concluding Implementing
 Structuring the appropriateness of  Compiling
Synonyms  Extending Applying knowledge
 Integrating
a procedure for a given
 Devising
 Instantiating  Generalising (often procedural) to a task or problem.
non-routine task.  (Re)arranging Synonyms  Revising
 Illustrating... Comparing
Synonyms  Categorising  Judging  Putting together
 Representing Detecting
correspondences  Using  Ordering  Questioning  Suggesting
 Giving
examples between two  Estimating  Deriving  Justifying Producing Inventing a
ideas, objects, etc  Predicting product Synonyms
of Showing Attributing  Defending
Synonyms  Solving Determining the point of view,  (Re)constructing
Classifying  Discussing
Determining that  Contrasting  Changing bias, values, or intent  Composing
 Criticising
something belongs  Matching  Discovering
underlying  Modifying
presented material.  Arguing
to a category (e.g.,  Mapping  Explaining how  Altering
concept or Synonyms  Including
Explaining
 Verifying  Building
principle). Constructing a  Deconstructing  Rating
Synonyms cause-
 Categorising
Appendix -1
Elaboration of the six levels of thinking in Bloom’s taxonomy
1 2 3 4 5 6
Remembering Can the Understanding Applying Can the Analysing Can the student Evaluating Can the Creating Can the student
student RECALL Can the student EXPLAIN student USE the new DIFFERENTIATE student JUSTIFY an GENERATE new products,
information? ideas or concepts? knowledge in another between and RELATE opinion, decision or ideas or ways of viewing
familiar situation? constituent parts? course of action? things?
 Subsuming and-effect model  Finding  Comparing  Ranking  Enlarging
 Organising of a  Contrasting  Valuing
system.
Synonyms
 Diagnosing
 Elucidating
 Constructing
models
Appendix -1
Appendix -1
Psychomotor Domain – Simpson’s Model

Psychomotor Domain (Simpson)
Action verbs which describe
Level category or Description Examples of activity or demonstration and the activity to be trained or
'level' evidence to be measured measured at each level)
use and/or selection of senses to absorb
data for guiding movement Examples:
Detects non-verbal communication cues. chooses, describes, detects,
Estimate where a ball will land after it is differentiates, distinguishes,
Awareness, the ability to use sensory cues thrown and then moving to the correct feels, hears, identifies,
to guide physical activity. The ability to use location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of isolates, notices, recognizes,
sensory cues to guide motor activity. This stove to correct temperature by smell and relates, selects, separates,
ranges from sensory stimulation, through taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks touches,
cue selection, to translation. on a forklift by comparing where the forks
1 Perception are in relation to the pallet.
“By the end of the music theatre program,

students will be able to relate types of music
to particular dance steps.”
mental, physical or emotional preparation
before experience or task
Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of arranges, begins, displays,
Readiness, a learner's readiness to act. steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize explains, gets set, moves,
Readiness to act. It includes mental, one’s abilities and limitations. Shows desire to prepares, proceeds, reacts,
physical, and emotional sets. These three learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This shows, states, volunteers,
sets are dispositions that predetermine a subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related responds, starts,
person’s response to different situations with the "Responding to phenomena"
(sometimes called mindsets). subdivision of the Affective domain.
2 Set “By the end of the physical education program,
students will be able to demonstrate the
proper stance for batting a ball.”
Appendix -1
category or Action verbs which describe the

Level 'level' Description Examples of activity or demonstration and activity to be trained or
evidence to be measured measured at each level)
3 Guided Attempt. The early stages in learning a imitate or follow instruction, trial and error. assembles, builds, calibrates,
Response complex skill that includes imitation and Examples: Performs a mathematical constructs, copies, dismantles,
trial and error. Adequacy of performance is equation as demonstrated. Follows displays, dissects, fastens, fixes,
achieved by practicing. instructions to build a model. Responds hand- follows, grinds, heats, imitates,
signals of instructor while learning to operate manipulates, measures, mends,
a forklift. mixes, reacts, reproduces,
“By the end of the physical education responds sketches, traces, tries.
program, students will be able to perform a
golf swing as demonstrated by the
instructor.”
basic proficiency, the ability to perform a Competently respond to stimulus for action assembles, builds, calibrates,
complex motor skill. This is the intermediate Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a completes, constructs, dismantles,
stage in learning a complex skill. Learned leaking faucet. Drive a car. displays, fastens, fixes, grinds,
responses have become habitual and the “By the end of the biology program, students heats, makes, manipulates,
4 Mechanism movements can be performed with some will be able to assemble laboratory measures, mends, mixes, organizes,
confidence and proficiency. equipment appropriate for experiments.” performs, shapes, sketches.
expert proficiency, the intermediate stage of Execute a complex process with expertise assembles, builds, calibrates,
learning a complex skill. Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight constructs, coordinates,
The skillful performance of motor acts that parallel parking spot. Operates a demonstrates, dismantles, displays,
involve complex movement patterns. computer quickly and accurately. Displays dissects, fastens, fixes, grinds,
Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, competence while playing the piano. heats, manipulates, measures,
and highly coordinated performance, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
5 requiring a minimum of energy. This “By the end of the industrial education
NOTE: The key words are the same
Complex category includes performing without program, students will be able to
as Mechanism, but will have
Overt hesitation, and automatic performance. For demonstrate proper use of woodworking
adverbs or adjectives that indicate
Response example, players are often utter sounds of tools to high school students.”
that the performance is quicker,
satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit
better, more accurate,
a tennis ball or throw a football,
Appendix -1

Action verbs which describe
Level category or Description Examples of activity or demonstration the activity to be trained or
'level' and evidence to be measured measured at each level)
because they can tell by the feel of the etc.
act what the result will produce.
alter response to reliably meet varying
challenges
6 Adaptation adaptable proficiency, a learner's ability Examples: Responds effectively to adapts, adjusts, alters,
to modify motor skills to fit a new unexpected experiences. Modifies changes, integrates,
situation. Skills are well developed instruction to meet the needs of the rearranges, reorganizes,
and the individual can modify movement learners. Perform a task with a machine revises, solves, varies.
patterns to fit special requirements. that it was not originally intended to do
(machine is not damaged and there is no
danger in performing the new task).
“By the end of the industrial education

program, students will be able to adapt
their lessons on woodworking skills for
disabled students.”
develop and execute new integrated
creative proficiency, a learner's ability responses and activities arranges, builds, combines,
to create new movement patterns. composes, constructs,
Creating new movement patterns to fit Examples: Constructs a new theory. creates, designs,
a particular situation or specific Develops a new and comprehensive formulates, initiate, makes,
7 Origination problem. Learning outcomes emphasize training programming. Creates a new modifies, originates, re-
creativity based gymnastic routine. designs, trouble-shoots.
upon highly developed skills.
Appendix -1
Adapted and simplified representation of Simpson's Psychomotor Domain ('The classification

of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain', 1972). Elizabeth Simpson seems
actually to have first presented her Psychomotor Domain interpretation in 1966 in the Illinois
Journal of Home Economics. Hence you may see the theory attributed to either 1966 or 1972.
The Affective Domain
http://www.humboldt.edu/~tha1/bloomtax.html &
http://academic.udayton.edu/health/syllabi/health/lesson01b.htm
The Affective Domain addresses interests, attitudes, opinions, appreciations, values, and
emotional sets. This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally,
such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The Taxonomy
is hierarchical (levels increase in difficulty/sophistication) and cumulative (each level builds
on and subsumes the ones below). The levels, in addition to clarifying instructional objectives,
may be used to provide a basis for questioning that ensures that students progress to the
highest level of understanding. If the teaching purpose is to change attitudes/behavior rather
than to transmit/process information, then the instruction should be structured to progress
through the levels of the Affective Domain.
Appendix -1
Level Category Description Examples Action Verbs

1 Receiving The student Listens attentively, Attends,
passively attends to shows sensitivity accepts, asks,
particular to social problems. chooses,
phenomena or Listens to others with describes,
stimuli [classroom respect. Listens for and follows, gives,
activities, textbook, remembers the name holds,
music, etc.] The of newly identifies,
teacher's concern is listens,
“By the end of the
that the student's locates,
women's studies
attention is focused. names, points
program, students will
Intended outcomes to, selects,
listen attentively to
include the pupil's selectively
alternative views on
awareness that a attends to,
select issues.”
thing exists. replies, uses.
Emphasis is on
awareness,
willingness to hear,
selected attention.
2 Responding The student actively Completes homework, Acclaims, aids,
participates. obeys rules, answers,
The pupil not only participates in class applauds,
attends to the discussion, shows approves,
stimulus but reacts interest in subject, assists,
in some way. enjoys helping others. complies,
Gives a presentation. conforms,
Emphasis is on Questions new ideals, discusses,
active participation concepts, models, in greets, helps,
on the part of the order to fully labels,
learners. Learning understand them. performs,
outcomes may Knows safety rules and practices,
emphasize practices them. “By the presents,
compliance in end of the elementary reads, recites,
responding, education program, reports,
willingness to students will able to selects, tells,
respond, or comply with PL 94- writes,
satisfaction in 142.” Volunteers.
responding
(motivation).
3 Valuing The worth a student Demonstrates belief in Assists,
attaches to a democratic processes, completes,
particular object, appreciates the role of debates,
phenomenon, or science in daily life, demonstrates,
behavior. Ranges shows concern for denies,
from acceptance to others' welfare, differentiates,
commitment (e.g., demonstrates a explains,
assumes problem-solving follows, forms,
responsibility for the approach. Is sensitive increases
functioning of a towards individual and proficiency in,
group). Attitudes and cultural differences initiates,
appreciation. (value diversity). Shows invites, joins,
Appendix -1
the ability to solve justifies,

Valuing is based on problems. Proposes a proposes,
the internalization of plan to bring about protests, reads,
a set of specified social improvement and relinquishes,
values, while clues follows through with reports, selects,
to these values are commitment. Informs shares,
expressed in the management on studies,
learner‟s overt strongly felt matters. supports,
behavior and are “By the end of the works.
often identifiable. political science
be able to debate
numerous sides to an
argument.”
4 Organization Brings together Recognizes the need for Accommodates,
different values, balance between adheres, alters,
resolving conflicts freedom and arranges,
among them, and responsible behavior, balances,
starting to build an understands the role of combines,
internally consistent systematic planning in compares,
value system-- solving problems; completes,
comparing, relating accepts responsibility defends,
and for own behavior. explains,
synthesizing values Explains the role of formulates,
and developing a systematic generalizes,
philosophy of life. planning in solving identifies,
problems. Accepts integrates,
Organizes values into professional ethical modifies,
priorities by standards. Creates a life orders,
contrasting different plan in harmony with organizes,
systems. The abilities, interests, and prepares,
emphasis is on beliefs. Prioritizes time relates,
comparing, relating, effectively to meet the synthesizes.
and synthesizing needs of the
values. organization, family, and
self. “By the end of the
environmental studies
be able to organize the
conservation efforts of
urban, suburban and
rural communities.”
5 Internalizing At this level, the Concerned with
values: person has held a personal, social,
Characterization value system for a and emotional
by a Value or sufficiently long adjustment: displays Acts,
Value Complex time to control self reliance in working discriminates,
his/her behavior, has independently, displays,
developed a cooperates in group influences,
characteristic "life activities (displays interprets,
style." Behavior is teamwork), maintains listens,
Appendix -1
pervasive, good health habits. maintains

consistent, Uses an objective objectivity
predictable, and approach in problem modifies,
most importantly, solving. Displays a performs,
characteristic of the professional practices,
learner. commitment to ethical proposes,
Instructional practice on a daily basis. qualifies,
objectives are Revises judgments and questions,
concerned changes behavior in respects,
with the student's light of new evidence. revises, serves,
general patterns of Values people for what solves, uses
adjustment they are, not how they evidence,
(personal, social, appear. “By the end of verifies.
emotional). the counseling program,
students will be able to
objectively interpret
evidence presented by
clients during a therapy
session.”
UNIT 4: LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION
Contributor
Dr. S. RENUKA DEVI
Professor & Head
Dept. of Engineering Education, NITTTR, Chennai.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1.4 LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION 1

1.4.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.4.2 TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS 4
1.4.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING 5
1.4.4 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING 7
REFERENCES 9
Unit 4 Learning and Instruction
1.4 LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 State various terms in Psychologies of Learning and Instruction
 Explain the Teaching-Learning Process
 List the Factors Influencing Learning
 State the Principles of Learning
1.4.1 INTRODUCTION
Psychology of Learning and Instruction comes under the branch of Educational Psychology. A
great deal of research has gone into understanding the psychology behind human learning
and instruction. The knowledge of psychology of Learning and Instruction is very useful in
making the teaching learning process, interesting, inspirational and effective (Aggarwal,
2010).
The following are the basics a teacher needs to be aware, before embarking on psychology of
learning:
1. Pedagogy
2. Andragogy
3. Teaching
4. Training
5. Learning
PEDAGOGY
Pedagogy is the method and practice of teaching especially as an academic subject or

theoretical concept. Pedagogy is the discipline that deals with the theory and practice
of education; it thus concerns the study of how best to teach.
Johann Friedrich Herbart is the founding father of the conceptualization of pedagogy, or,
the Theory of education. Herbart's educational philosophy and pedagogy highlighted the
correlation between personal development and the resulting benefits to society
Module 1- Orientation towards Technical Education and Curriculum aspects NITTR, Chennai 1
Herbart suggested 5 steps as crucial components. Specifically, these 5 steps include:
 Preparation,
 Presentation,
 Association,
 Generalization, and
 Application.
ANDRAGOGY
Andragogy is the method and practice of teaching adult learners; Adult Learning. The term
was originally coined by German educator Alexander Kapp in 1833. It was Popularised in US
by the American Educator Malcolm Knowles.
It is the science of understanding (theory) and supporting (practice) lifelong education of

adults. According to Malcolm Knowles, it is a specific theoretical and practical approach. It is
based on a humanistic conception of self-directed and autonomous learners as well as
teachers as facilitators of learning.
TEACHING
Teaching is defined as an interactive process, primarily involving classroom talk which takes
place between teacher and student and occurs during definable activities, thereby resulting
in Learning.
Who is a Teacher?
Teaching is an art, science and Skill
Teacher should have
 the Creative proficiency of an artist,
 the Precise attitude of a Scientist and
 the Perfected Skill of a Craftsman.
Teacher Activities
General Perception is that teacher has work only in the classroom and that too teaches the
subject content to the students. Teachers engage in lot of activities such as
 explaining activities
 guidance activities
 demonstration activities
 order maintaining activities
 mental hygiene activities
 record keeping activities
 assignment making activities
 curriculum planning activities
 testing and evaluation activities
TRAINING
Training is an organized activity aimed at imparting information and/or instructions to

improve the recipient's performance or to help him or her attain a required level of
knowledge or skill. It is basically of a shorter duration. It is expected to give immediate results.
The term training evolved during world war
LEARNING
Learning is relatively permanent change in behaviour resulting from reinforced practice
 Learning is process as well as product
 It is the nature or tendency of human beings
 It is the process of mental development- cognitive, affective and psychomotor
 It is both positive and negative
 It is individual in nature
 Learning is creative: Critical thinking
1.4.2 TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS

“A thousand teachers, a thousand methods.”
-Chinese Proverb
INTRODUCTION
The basics of Psychology of Learning and Instruction were detailed in the previous topic. In
this module, the Basic teaching model, developed by Robert Glaser (Dececco,1968) is
explained. This is one of the most successful teaching models widely in use. Many of the
teacher training programmes are based on this model.
BASIC TEACHING MODEL
The Basic Teaching Model consists of four components namely:
 Instructional Objectives
 Entering Behaviour
 Instructional Procedure
 Performance Assessment
Each one of the components is explained below:
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Instructional Objectives are those the student should attain upon completion of a segment of
instruction. It implies in simple terms what the student will be able to do at the end of the
instruction
ENTERING BEHAVIOUR
Entering Behaviour describes the student’s level before the instruction begins. It refers to
what the student has previously learned, his intellectual ability and development, his
motivational state and certain social and cultural determinants of his learning ability. To be
precise, they are human ability, individual differences and readiness.
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES
Instructional procedures describe the teaching process; Most decisions a teacher makes are
on these procedures. Proper management of this component results in those changes in
student behaviour which we call Learning or achievement.
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
Performance Assessment consists of the tests and observations used to determine how well
the student has achieved the objectives.
If there is an indication that the student has fallen short of mastery or some lesser standard
of achievement, one or all of the preceding components of the basic teaching model may
require adjustment.
1.4.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING

Personal Factors
 Sensation & Perception
 Fatigue & Boredom
 Age & Maturation
 Emotional conditions
 Needs
 Interests
 Motivation
 Intelligence
 Aptitude
 Attitude
Environmental Factors
 Surroundings : Natural, social, Cultural

 Relationship with teachers, parents and Peers
 Media Influence on learning
MODES OF LEARNING
The following are the different modes of Learning :
 Learning By Observation
 Learning By Imitation
 Learning By Trial & Error
 Learning By Insight
TRANSFER OF LEARNING1
There are three types of transfer of Learning :
 Positive
 Negative
 Zero
A positive transfer takes place when the learning of a particular task facilitates the learning of
another task. But on the other hand if learning a particular task interferes with the learning
of a subsequent task, it is called negative transfer. If learning of a task makes no difference, it
is said to be zero transfer. (Aggarwal, 2010).
DOMAINS OF LEARNING
Learning happens in 3 domains, namely cognitive, affective and Psychomotor.
 COGNITIVE (Theoretical knowledge)
 AFFECTIVE (Feelings)
 PSYCHOMOTOR (Practical Knowledge)
LAWS OF LEARNING
Based on his experiment with cats, E.Thorndike (1898) proposed three laws :
 LAW OF READYNESS
 LAW OF PRACTICE
 LAW OF EFFECT
Law of Readyness: According to this, the teacher should prepare the learner ready for
learning the knowledge, skills and Aptitudes. This can be done through motivation, arousing
curiosity and moving from simple to complex.
Law of Practice: According to this, the teacher should ensure repetitive practice of what has
been taught. Drill strengthens the bond of stimulus response.
Law of Effect: According to this, a good environment has to be provided by the teacher.
Students should have satisfying and meaningful experiences inside the classroom. The
teacher should provide motivation and praise for work done.
1.4.4 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
1. ACTIVE PARTICIPATION – Active Participation of the learner should be ensured by

the teacher
2. KNOWN TO UNKNOWN – Whenever a new topic is taught, always teach from what
they know to what they do not know. The teacher should provide real life examples
before teaching a principle or concept.
3. CLARITY OF OBJECTIVES – The teacher should have clarity of objectives as objectives

determine what, when and how to teach
4. KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS ABOUT PERFORMANCE – The student should be provided

information about his performance from time to time so that he/she will be able to
know where they stand.
5. MOTIVATED LEARNER LEARNS MOST – The teacher should provide enough

motivation about why they have to learn.
6. TRANSFER OF LEARNING – The teacher should ensure whatever is taught in the class
is useful to them in the laboratory and also in the workplace.
7. APPEALING TO MANY SENSES – The teacher should avoid monotony in teaching. The
student should be allowed to use all his senses, listening, speaking, reading and
writing.
8. CONGENIAL ATMOSPHERE – The teacher should provide a congenial atmosphere to

the students. Not only the facilities but the teacher should be pleasant. Student
should be interested in coming to the class of the pleasant teacher.
9. REPETITIVE PRACTICE – The teacher should provide enough repetitive practice for
lessons taught. It can be in terms of oral repetition, class test, lab demos and home
tasks.
10. LEARNING UNDER CONTROL OF REWARD – Teacher should provide good feedback
to students on their success. Learners need praise and appreciation.
11. RELEVANT KNOWLEDGE – The teacher should always provide relevant knowledge.
REFERENCES
1. Aggarwal, J.C. (2014). Essentials of Educational Psychology. New Delhi : Vikas

Publishing House
2. Sharma, R.A. (2007). Psychology of Teaching-Learning Process. Meerut : Surya

Publications
3. Mukhopadhyay, B. (1994). Motivation in Educational Management: Issues and

Strategies. New Delhi: Sterling publishers
4. De Cecco(1973). Psychology of Learning and Instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ :

Prentice-Hall
UNIT 5: LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTIVATION
Contributor
Dr. S. RENUKADEVI
Professor & Head In-charge
Engineering Education, NITTTR, Chennai.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1.5 LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS 1

1.5.2 STUDENT TYPES 3
1.5.3 STUDENT DIFFICULTIES 4
1.5.4 STUDENT MOTIVATION 4
1.5.5 CAUSES OF DEMOTIVATION IN STUDENTS 5
1.5.6 STRATEGIES OF MOTIVATION 6
REFERENCES 8
Unit 5 Learner Characteristics and Motivation
1.5 LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
1.5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this segment, we are going to learn about the psychological characteristics of Students. In
the teaching model, emphasis was given on Knowing about the Entering behavior of Learners.
Knowledge of the characteristics of learners is very important for teachers in the teaching
learning process. And most importantly we are dealing with technology savvy people who are
referred to as Digital natives.
Before we list the characteristics, it is important for us to understand the term ‘Personality”.
PERSONALITY
Personality is the brand image of the Individual. Personality is Qualities of a person which
differentiates himself from another person. Personality is Qualities present in a person which
is responsible for his success/failure.
Personality is the sum of the physical, Cognitive, Emotional and Social Characteristics of an
Individual.
ADOLESCENT PERSONALITY
In this segment we are focusing on the learners, who are in the middle and late adolescent
period (17-21 years). The adolescent also has a personality.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENCE
 Crucial and critical period
 A period of Stress and Storm
 A period of difficult adjustments
 Often characterized by outburst of energy
 A movement from adolescence to Adulthood.
LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS
The four characteristics are
 Physical Characteristics
 Cognitive Characteristics
 Emotional Characteristics
 Social Characteristics
Let us examine each of these characteristics in detail.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Rapid Intense growth
 Height and Weight
 Internal Organs
 Bone and Muscles
 Nutrition
 Personal calendar
 Inconsistent and Variable growth
COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS
 Increased ability of understanding
 Increased ability to generalize the facts
 Increased ability to deal with abstraction
 Development of Memory and Imagination
 Ability of Problem solving
 Increased ability to communicate with others
 Ability to make decisions
 Intellectual development reaches its peak
EMOTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Complexity
 Development of Abstract Emotions
 Emotional Feelings are Widened
 Capacity to Bear Tension
 Capacity of Sharing Emotions
 Loyality Expands
 Realism in Emotional Experiences
 Ability to Review Hopes and Aspirations
 Tolerance of Loneliness
 Increased Compassion
SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Explore their personal identity
 Peer relationship takes over
 Possibility of negative peer pressure
 Often test teacher’s and parent’s rules and boundaries
 Self centered attitudes
 Personal / Recreational Interests
 Vocational Interests
1.5.2 STUDENT TYPES

 Compliant
 Anxious Dependents
 Independent
 Heroes
 Snipers
 Attention Seekers
 Discouraged workers
 Silent Students
1.5.3 STUDENT DIFFICULTIES
 Poor concentration
 Easy distractibility
 Excessive sleepiness
 Lack of Motivation & Direction
 Fall in academic standards
 Skipping classes
 Rebelliousness
 Mood changes
 Sensitivity to criticism & Correction
 Bullying
 Social Media Addiction
 Inferiority and Superiority
1.5.4 STUDENT MOTIVATION
Motivation is the process by which individuals are impelled to seek a goal. Motivation
originated from the Latin word “Moveer” which means to move.
There are Many definitions in many perspectives
Some of them are as follows
DEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATION
According to Behaviouristic school , “ It is the why of behaviour”
Freud defines it as “Unconscious Impulse”
Maslow defines it as the “Process of need – drive satisfaction”
Hull says “it is the Process of Tension Reduction”
“The Impetus to do well” is by Mc Clelland
CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVATION
There are several classifications of Motivation, one of them being External and Internal
Motivation.
External
Money, Societal approval, fame or fear
Internal
Pride, Sense of Achievement, responsibility and belief
INTRINSIC VS. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
A Student who is intrinsically motivated undertakes an activity “For its own sake, for the
enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes”
An extrinsically motivated student performs “In Order to obtain some reward or avoid some
punishment external to the activity itself”
Students with an intrinsic orientation tend to prefer tasks that are moderately challenging,
whereas “extrinsically oriented” students gravitate toward tasks that are low in degree of
difficulty. extrinsically oriented students are inclined to put forth the minimal amount of
effort necessary to get the maximal reward.
1.5.5 CAUSES OF DEMOTIVATION IN STUDENTS
The various causes of Demotivation in students are :
 Change in Institutional Environment
 Incompatible Goals
 Unaware About Objectives
 Polluted Home/Social Environment
 Absent from the Class
 Difficulty in following classroom communication
 Scarcity of facilities and resources
 Difficulty with Instructors
 Impractical expectations
 Preoccupied with insecurity
 Excessive control
 Improper use of leisure time
1.5.6 STRATEGIES OF MOTIVATION
The various strategies that May be used by teachers inside and outside the classroom are:
 Encourage students to set personal goal
 Be a role model and mentor to your students
 Discuss employment prospects to eradicate insecurity
 Create friendly environment in the classroom
 Discuss future scope of the subject in professional careers
 Clarify objective of the lesson
 Follow Learner centered approach than teacher centered approach
 Give appropriate feedback and reward
 Award test marks and grades according to merit
 Conduct seminar for the students by the students
 Acknowledge the contribution and participation of students
 Create competition in the academic work for students in areas such as project
work, assignments etc.
 Clarify doubts raised by students
 Deliver instructions and materials to suit the level of students (individual

differences)
 Use audio-visual aids including multimedia
 Encourage students in group discussion
 Organise industrial visits/educational visits
 Encourage students to participate in co-curricular activities
 Organise individual counseling and group counseling sessions
 Make provisions for reward (both material and social) in order to satisfy students’
need for recognition. Punishment must be avoided to the extent possible.
 Create competition in the academic work for students in areas such as project
work, assignments etc.
 Nurture their growth needs.
P21 Framework Definitions
To help practitioners integrate skills into the teaching of key academic subjects, the
Partnership has developed a unified, collective vision for learning known as the
Framework for 21st Century Learning. This Framework describes the skills, knowledge
and expertise students must master to succeed in work and life; it is a blend of content
knowledge, specific skills, expertise and literacies.
Every 21st century skills implementation requires the development of key academic
subject knowledge and understanding among all students. Those who can think critically
and communicate effectively must build on a base of key academic subject knowledge.
Within the context of key knowledge instruction, students must also learn the
essential skills for success in today’s world, such as critical thinking, problem
solving, communication and collaboration.
When a school or district builds on this foundation, combining the entire Framework with
the necessary support systems—standards, assessments, curriculum and instruction,
professional development and learning environments—students are more engaged in the
learning process and graduate better prepared to thrive in today’s global economy.
While the graphic represents each element distinctly for descriptive purposes,
the Partnership views all the components as fully interconnected in the process
of 21st century teaching and learning.
P21 Framework Definitions Page 1 of 9

Publication date: 5/15
21st CENTURY STUDENT OUTCOMES
The elements described in this section as “21st century student outcomes” (represented
by the rainbow) are the knowledge, skills and expertise students should master to
succeed in work and life in the 21st century.
Key SUBJECTS AND 21st CENTURY THEMES
Mastery of key subjects and 21st century themes is essential for all students in
the 21st century. Key subjects include:
 English, reading or language arts
 World languages
 Arts
 Mathematics
 Economics
 Science
 Geography
 History
 Government and Civics
In addition to these subjects, we believe schools must move to include not only a
focus on mastery of key subjects, but also promote understanding of academic
content at much higher levels by weaving 21st century interdisciplinary themes
into key subjects:
Global Awareness
 Using 21st century skills to understand and address global issues
 Learning from and working collaboratively with individuals representing
diverse cultures, religions and lifestyles in a spirit of mutual respect and
open dialogue in personal, work and community contexts
 Understanding other nations and cultures, including the use of non-English
languages
Financial, Economic, Business and Entrepreneurial Literacy

 Knowing how to make appropriate personal economic choices
 Understanding the role of the economy in society
 Using entrepreneurial skills to enhance workplace productivity and career
options
Civic Literacy
 Participating effectively in civic life through knowing how to stay informed
and understanding governmental processes
 Exercising the rights and obligations of citizenship at local, state, national
and global levels
 Understanding the local and global implications of civic decisions

Health Literacy
 Obtaining, interpreting and understanding basic health information and
services and using such information and services in ways that enhance
health
 Understanding preventive physical and mental health measures, including
proper diet, nutrition, exercise, risk avoidance and stress reduction
 Using available information to make appropriate health-related decisions
 Establishing and monitoring personal and family health goals
 Understanding national and international public health and safety issues
Environmental Literacy
 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the environment and the
circumstances and conditions affecting it, particularly as relates to air,
climate, land, food, energy, water and ecosystems
 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of society’s impact on the
natural world (e.g., population growth, population development, resource
consumption rate, etc.)
 Investigate and analyze environmental issues, and make accurate
conclusions about effective solutions
 Take individual and collective action towards addressing environmental
challenges (e.g., participating in global actions, designing solutions that
inspire action on environmental issues)
LEARNING AND INNOVATION SKILLS
Learning and innovation skills increasingly are being recognized as those that separate
students who are prepared for a more and more complex life and work environments in
the 21st century, and those who are not. A focus on creativity, critical thinking,
communication and collaboration is essential to prepare students for the future.
CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION
Think Creatively
 Use a wide range of idea creation techniques (such as brainstorming)
 Create new and worthwhile ideas (both incremental and radical concepts)
 Elaborate, refine, analyze and evaluate their own ideas in order to improve and
maximize creative efforts
Work Creatively with Others

• Develop, implement and communicate new ideas to others effectively
• Be open and responsive to new and diverse perspectives; incorporate group
input and feedback into the work
• Demonstrate originality and inventiveness in work and understand the real
world limits to adopting new ideas

 View failure as an opportunity to learn; understand that creativity and
innovation is a long-term, cyclical process of small successes and frequent
mistakes
Implement Innovations
 Act on creative ideas to make a tangible and useful contribution to the field in
which the innovation will occur
CRITICAL THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Reason Effectively
 Use various types of reasoning (inductive, deductive, etc.) as appropriate to
the situation
Use Systems Thinking

 Analyze how parts of a whole interact with each other to produce overall
outcomes in complex systems
Make Judgments and Decisions

 Effectively analyze and evaluate evidence, arguments, claims and beliefs
 Analyze and evaluate major alternative points of view
 Synthesize and make connections between information and arguments
 Interpret information and draw conclusions based on the best analysis
 Reflect critically on learning experiences and processes
Solve Problems
 Solve different kinds of non-familiar problems in both conventional and
innovative ways
 Identify and ask significant questions that clarify various points of view and
lead to better solutions
COMMUNICATION AND COLLABORATION
Communicate Clearly
 Articulate thoughts and ideas effectively using oral, written and nonverbal
communication skills in a variety of forms and contexts
 Listen effectively to decipher meaning, including knowledge, values, attitudes
and intentions
 Use communication for a range of purposes (e.g. to inform, instruct, motivate
and persuade)
 Utilize multiple media and technologies, and know how to judge their
effectiveness a priori as well as assess their impact
 Communicate effectively in diverse environments (including multi-lingual)
Collaborate with Others

 Demonstrate ability to work effectively and respectfully with diverse teams
 Exercise flexibility and willingness to be helpful in making necessary
compromises to accomplish a common goal
 Assume shared responsibility for collaborative work, and value the individual
contributions made by each team member
INFORMATION, MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY SKILLS
People in the 21st century live in a technology and media-driven environment, marked
by various characteristics, including: 1) access to an abundance of information, 2) rapid
changes in technology tools, and 3) the ability to collaborate and make individual
contributions on an unprecedented scale. Effective citizens and workers of the 21st
century must be able to exhibit a range of functional and critical thinking skills related to
information, media and technology.
INFORMATION LITERACY
Access and Evaluate Information

 Access information efficiently (time) and effectively (sources)
 Evaluate information critically and competently
Use and Manage Information

 Use information accurately and creatively for the issue or problem at hand
 Manage the flow of information from a wide variety of sources
 Apply a fundamental understanding of the ethical/legal issues surrounding the
access and use of information
MEDIA LITERACY
Analyze Media
 Understand both how and why media messages are constructed, and for what
purposes
 Examine how individuals interpret messages differently, how values and points
of view are included or excluded, and how media can influence beliefs and
behaviors
access and use of media
Create Media Products

 Understand and utilize the most appropriate media creation tools,
characteristics and conventions
 Understand and effectively utilize the most appropriate expressions and
interpretations in diverse, multi-cultural environments
ICT (Information, Communications and Technology) LITERACY
Apply Technology Effectively

 Use technology as a tool to research, organize, evaluate and communicate
information

 Use digital technologies (computers, PDAs, media players, GPS, etc.),
communication/networking tools and social networks appropriately to access,
manage, integrate, evaluate and create information to successfully function in
a knowledge economy
access and use of information technologies
LIFE AND CAREER SKILLS
Today’s life and work environments require far more than thinking skills and content
knowledge. The ability to navigate the complex life and work environments in the
globally competitive information age requires students to pay rigorous attention to
developing adequate life and career skills.
FLEXIBILITY AND ADAPTABILITY
Adapt to Change
 Adapt to varied roles, jobs responsibilities, schedules and contexts
 Work effectively in a climate of ambiguity and changing priorities
Be Flexible
 Incorporate feedback effectively
 Deal positively with praise, setbacks and criticism
 Understand, negotiate and balance diverse views and beliefs to reach workable
solutions, particularly in multi-cultural environments
INITIATIVE AND SELF-DIRECTION
Manage Goals and Time

 Set goals with tangible and intangible success criteria
 Balance tactical (short-term) and strategic (long-term) goals
 Utilize time and manage workload efficiently
Work Independently
 Monitor, define, prioritize and complete tasks without direct oversight
Be Self-directed Learners
 Go beyond basic mastery of skills and/or curriculum to explore and expand
one’s own learning and opportunities to gain expertise
 Demonstrate initiative to advance skill levels towards a professional level
 Demonstrate commitment to learning as a lifelong process
 Reflect critically on past experiences in order to inform future progress
SOCIAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL SKILLS
Interact Effectively with Others

 Know when it is appropriate to listen and when to speak
 Conduct themselves in a respectable, professional manner
Work Effectively in Diverse Teams

 Respect cultural differences and work effectively with people from a range of
social and cultural backgrounds
 Respond open-mindedly to different ideas and values
 Leverage social and cultural differences to create new ideas and increase both
innovation and quality of work
PRODUCTIVITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY
Manage Projects
 Set and meet goals, even in the face of obstacles and competing pressures
 Prioritize, plan and manage work to achieve the intended result
Produce Results
 Demonstrate additional attributes associated with producing high quality
products including the abilities to:
- Work positively and ethically
- Manage time and projects effectively
- Multi-task
- Participate actively, as well as be reliable and punctual
- Present oneself professionally and with proper etiquette
- Collaborate and cooperate effectively with teams
- Respect and appreciate team diversity
- Be accountable for results
LEADERSHIP AND RESPONSIBILITY
Guide and Lead Others

 Use interpersonal and problem-solving skills to influence and guide others
toward a goal
 Leverage strengths of others to accomplish a common goal
 Inspire others to reach their very best via example and selflessness
 Demonstrate integrity and ethical behavior in using influence and power
Be Responsible to Others
 Act responsibly with the interests of the larger community in mind
21st CENTURY SUPPORT SYSTEMS
The elements described below are the critical systems necessary to ensure student
mastery of 21st century skills. 21st century standards, assessments, curriculum,
instruction, professional development and learning environments must be aligned to
produce a support system that produces 21st century outcomes for today’s students.
21st Century Standards
 Focus on 21st century skills, content knowledge and expertise
 Build understanding across and among key subjects as well as 21st century
interdisciplinary themes
 Emphasize deep understanding rather than shallow knowledge
 Engage students with the real world data, tools and experts they will encounter
in college, on the job, and in life; students learn best when actively engaged in
solving meaningful problems
 Allow for multiple measures of mastery
Assessment of 21st Century Skills

 Supports a balance of assessments, including high-quality standardized testing
along with effective formative and summative classroom assessments
 Emphasizes useful feedback on student performance that is embedded into
everyday learning
 Requires a balance of technology-enhanced, formative and summative
assessments that measure student mastery of 21st century skills
 Enables development of portfolios of student work that demonstrate mastery of
21st century skills to educators and prospective employers
 Enables a balanced portfolio of measures to assess the educational system’s
effectiveness in reaching high levels of student competency in 21st century
skills
21st Century Curriculum and Instruction

 Teaches 21st century skills discretely in the context of key subjects and 21st
century interdisciplinary themes
 Focuses on providing opportunities for applying 21st century skills across
content areas and for a competency-based approach to learning
 Enables innovative learning methods that integrate the use of supportive
technologies, inquiry- and problem-based approaches and higher order
thinking skills
 Encourages the integration of community resources beyond school walls
21st Century Professional Development

 Highlights ways teachers can seize opportunities for integrating 21st century
skills, tools and teaching strategies into their classroom practice — and help
them identify what activities they can replace/de-emphasize
 Balances direct instruction with project-oriented teaching methods
 Illustrates how a deeper understanding of subject matter can actually enhance
problem-solving, critical thinking, and other 21st century skills
 Enables 21st century professional learning communities for teachers that
model the kinds of classroom learning that best promotes 21st century skills
for students
 Cultivates teachers’ ability to identify students’ particular learning styles,
intelligences, strengths and weaknesses

 Helps teachers develop their abilities to use various strategies (such as
formative assessments) to reach diverse students and create environments
that support differentiated teaching and learning
 Supports the continuous evaluation of students’ 21st century skills
development
 Encourages knowledge sharing among communities of practitioners, using
face-to-face, virtual and blended communications
 Uses a scalable and sustainable model of professional development
21st Century Learning Environments

 Create learning practices, human support and physical environments that will
support the teaching and learning of 21st century skill outcomes
 Support professional learning communities that enable educators to
collaborate, share best practices and integrate 21st century skills into
classroom practice
 Enable students to learn in relevant, real world 21st century contexts (e.g.,
through project-based or other applied work)
 Allow equitable access to quality learning tools, technologies and resources
 Provide 21st century architectural and interior designs for group, team and
individual learning
 Support expanded community and international involvement in learning, both
face-to-face and online
About the Partnership for 21st Century Learning
The Partnership for 21st Century Learning recognizes that all learners need educational
experiences in school and beyond, from cradle to career, to build knowledge and skills
for success in a globally and digitally interconnected world. Representing over 5 million
members of the global workforce, P21 unites business, government and education
leaders from the U.S. and abroad to advance evidence-based education policy and
practice and to make innovative teaching and learning a reality for all.
P21 and member organizations provide tools and resources that help facilitate and drive
this necessary change.
Learn more and get involved at www.p21.org.
Copyright © 2015, The Partnership for 21st Century Learning. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction to E - Learning
Objectives:
After studying this chapter, you will be able to
1.0 Understand the importance of e-learning and its future scope
1.1 Define e-learning

1.2 List the need for e-learning
1.3 Explore other definitions of e-learning
1.4 Know different terminology used synonymous to e-learning
1.5 List the features unique to e-learning
1.6 List the reasons for preferring e-learning
1.7 List the advantages and disadvantages of e-learning
1.8 Explore the different instructional modes in e-learning
1.0 Introduction
For more than thousands of years, human beings have come together to learn and share
knowledge. Until now, it was necessary for us to come together at the same time and place. But
today, the technologies of the Internet have eliminated that requirement. The advent of Internet
in the business and social spectrum the world over has transformed the whole process of
learning. Soon anybody will be able to learn anything anywhere at any time, thanks to a new
development called e-learning. Although classroom –based education faces no direct threat from
the new ways of acquiring and imparting learning, the e-learning space is becoming wider and
increasingly vital with every passing day.
1.1 What is e-learning?
1. Learning, which uses electronic media by utilizing all the facilities of information
technology, is referred to as e-learning
2. e-learning is the use of information and computer technologies to create learning
experiences.
3. e-learning delivers instruction anytime, at any place and in any combination desired
by the learner.
1.2 Need for e-learning
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The world has undergone a transition from the Industrial Age to the Information Age to
the present Knowledge Age. In the Knowledge Age, wherein the economy is knowledge-based,
continuous learning will decide the success or failure of every organization and individual. E-
learning marks the zenith of the evolution of learning. Socio-economic changes in the world
have been causing drastic changes in the way people look at education and training as we have
progressed from agriculturist mode of economy to the information age, education and training
have transformed themselves to answer the needs of the day. Today people want to learn just in
time. Gone are the days when after the stipulated years of education an individual was consider
to be fit for the job. The process of formal learning stopped after one started working. Today,
people have a lifelong learning cycle. One has to keep learning to cope with changes in
technology and in the way business is transacted. Organization is finding it difficult to retain
skilled employees, as the movement of people has become a reality in every business. People
have to learn quickly, at their own business, without having to assemble at the venue of the
training and remain competitive. In the walk of all these changes, the Internet has played the role
of a bridge between learners and learning. e-learning seems to be the panacea for all the learning
issues faced by individuals as well as organization.
E-learning shifts the focus from the “brick and mortal” paradigm to the “brick and
portal” paradigm. The change in paradigm has also shifted the focus from teaching to learning.
The growth in e-learning has been fueled by growth in importance of lifelong learning.
Relevant features of these movements are;
• the need to update knowledge and skills

• the need to retrain, as jobs-for-life
• the need to maintain currency in the face of excluding information on the internet.
1.3 Definitions
Definition of e-learning abounding on the web each has a different emphasis some focus
on the content, some on the communication, some on the technology. One of the early definitions
for e-learning is ASTD’s (American Society for Training & Development), who define it as
covering a wide set of application and processes, such as web based learning, computer-based
learning, virtual classrooms and digital collaboration. ASTD even includes the delivery of
content via audio and videotape, satellite broadcast interactive TV and CD-ROM.
Other definitions confine e-learning to the use of the Internet; for example:
“e-learning refers to the use of internet technologies to deliver a board array of

solutions that enhance knowledge and performance. It is based on three fundamental
criteria
1. It is a networked.
2. It is delivered to the end–user via a computer using standard internet technology.
3. It focuses on the broadcast view of learning.”
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Many definitions highlight the ‘location’ of the learning: e.g. the use of network
technologies to create, foster, deliver and facilitate learning, anytime and anywhere.
“The delivery of a learning, training or education program by electronic mean”. E-

learning involves the use of a computer or electronic device (e.g. a mobile phone) in some way to
provide training, educational or learning material. (Derek Stockley 2003)
A simple yet comprehensive definition has been produced by the Open and Distance
Learning Quality Council of the UK. It recognizes the distinction between the content of learning
and the process:
“E-learning is the effective learning process created by combining digitally delivered

content with (learning) support and services.”
1.4 Terminology
E-Learning can be a confusing topic in part because of the alphabet soup of acronyms,
technology related buzzwords, overlapping definitions, variety of delivery options, and the
converging histories of the two disciplines of technology and training. In the current
marketplace, what most people really mean when they use the term e-learning (and its multiple
synonyms) is Web-based training.
E-Learning is really nothing more than using some form of technology to deliver training
and other educational materials.
Many terms have been used to define e-learning in the past. For example web-based
training, computer-based training or web-based learning, and online learning are a few
synonymous terms that have over the last few years been labeled as e-learning. Each of this
implies a "just-in-time" instructional and learning approach.
E-Learning is the latest, in vogue, all-inclusive term for training delivered by a number of
means. In the past, these have included the use of mainframe computers, floppy diskettes,
multimedia CD-ROMs, and interactive videodisks. Most recently, Web technology (both Internet
and Intranet delivery) has become preferred delivery options. In the near future, e-learning will
also include training delivered on PDA's (e.g., Palm Pilots) and even via wireless devices like
your cell phone. This new, mobile form of education is called, predictably enough, m-learning.
Other Terms Associated with e-Learning
Understanding what is and what isn't e-learning can be confusing due to the wealth of
different terms that exist to define the same thing. Most people prefer the word learning to
training ("dogs are trained, people learn") and use technology-based learning (TBL) or "e-
learning" instead of technology-based training (TBT).
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Other commonly used terms include computer-based training (CBT), computer-based
learning (CBL), computer-based instruction (CBI), computer-based education (CBE), Web-
based training (WBT), Internet-based training (IBT), Intranet-based training (also IBT),
and any number of others. Some of these, like Web-based training, can be seen as specific
subsections of e-learning while others, notably computer-based training, are less specific. Other
confusion arises from technical definitions that differ from their popular use. For example, the
terms CBT, CBI, and CBL are sometimes used generically to refer to all types of e-learning, but
are commonly used to describe older disk-based training.
A term beginning with the word computer frequently, but not always, refers to interactive
tutorials that are distributed on floppy diskettes. The term multimedia training is usually used to
describe training delivered via CD-ROM. This rule of thumb is complicated by the fact that
advances in Internet technology make it possible for network-based training to now deliver audio
and video elements as well.
Browser-based training is the term used to describe courseware that requires a Web
browser to access, but may in fact be running from the Internet or CD-ROM. In fact, some
training programs will pull content from both a Web site as well as a CD-ROM. These courses
are sometimes called hybrids, or hybrid-CD-ROMs.
Distance learning, or distance education, are other commonly used terms. They
accurately describe most types of e-learning, but are most often used to describe instructor-led,
web-based education -- for either corporate training or college classes.
To further complicate matters, some theorists divide e-learning into three distinct
branches: Computer-aided instruction (CAI), computer-managed instruction (CMI), and
computer-supported learning resources (CSLR). The first term, CAI, encompasses the portion
of a given e-learning product that provides the instruction, such as the tutorials, simulations, and
exercises. The second term, CMI, refers to the testing, record keeping, and study guidance
functions of an e-learning product. The last term, CSLR, encompasses the communication,
database, and performance support aspects of e-learning. Although these distinctions can prove
useful in academic research and discussion, it is enough for most of us to know that they exist
and that they all refer to parts of the greater whole, e-learning.
Finally, when it comes to course and student management, the newest descriptor is
Learning Mangement System (LMS). LMS are typically web-based programs that are used to
enroll students, assign and launch courses, and track student progress and test scores. A close
cousin to the LMS is the LCMS which stands for Learning Content Managemet System. An
LCMS manages chunks of Reusable Learning Objects, known as RLO's.
1.5 Features unique to e-learning:
E--learning promises to provide a single experience that accommodates the three distinct
learning styles of auditory learners, visual learners, and kinesthetic learners. Other unique
opportunities created by the advent and development of e-learning are more efficient training of
NITTTR/PM/EL 4
a globally dispersed audience; and reduced publishing and distribution costs as Web-based
training becomes a standard.
E-learning has the greatest advantage of offering the latest, particularly in fast-developing
fields such as computer software. Unlike the textbooks, the online material can be updated
frequently. The learner has the choice as to what information he wants to look at.
E-learning also offers individualized instruction, which print media cannot provide, and
instructor-led courses allow clumsily and at great cost. In conjunction with assessing needs, e-
learning can target specific needs. And by using learning style tests, e-learning can locate and
target individual learning preferences.
The internet is the first mass medium that is interactive. As the concept catches on, e-
learning is bound to offer courses other than computer and management as well.
It allows you to meet different people through email, discussion board, chat room and the
like. This compensates for the physical classroom interaction to a large extent.
Additionally, asynchronous e-learning is self-paced. Advanced learners are allowed to

speed through or bypass instruction that is redundant while novices slow their own progress
through content, eliminating frustration with themselves, their fellow learners, and the course.
Anyone with knowledge on a particular subject can offer a course to a global audience;
this means, the standard of the teacher is difficult to assess. Sometimes the course may be
substandard. So the leaner should exercise his/her discretion before enrolling in a course.
In these ways, e-learning is inclusive of a maximum number of participants with a

maximum range of learning styles, preferences, and needs.
Collaborative Learning
All collaborative learning theory contends that human interaction is a vital ingredient to
learning. Consideration of this is particularly crucial when designing e-learning, realizing the
potential for the medium to isolate learners. With well-delivered synchronous distance education,
and technology like message boards, chats, e-mail, and tele-conferencing, this potential
drawback is reduced. However, e-learning detractors still argue that the magical classroom bond
between teacher and student, and among the students themselves, cannot be replicated through
communications technology.
1.6 Reasons for preferring e-learning:
1. Availability: e-learning can be available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
2. Affinity: People desire to use new technology as it becomes available.
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3. Efficiency: People can often-complete tasks more efficiently if aided by technology.
4. Reinforcement: When people use technology to complete a task correctly on a regular

basis, they will probably use the same technology again in a similar situation.
5. Immediate feedback: When technology is used to complete a task, there is usually

immediate feedback (instantaneous response).
6. Involvement: The learning must require the learner to do more than just read page after
page; requesting frequent responses and interaction keeps learners engaged. A picture or
short video can say a lot more than words and also hold learner’s attention. Being
allowed to pick the module you want and in what sequence is a nice and needed options.
7. Appeal: Technology can be more appealing if it is robust and has color, graphics (even
3D), animations, hyperlinks, voice recognition etc.
8. Reduced cost: Technology enabled transactions are generally cheaper than people
enabled transactions.
9. Easy to find: People are becoming more familiar with Internet technologies. Courses or
leaning objects can be made readily accessible. Many applications are building robust
help functions, which provide the need for formal instructions.
10. Less training time: Effective e-learning solutions can reduce classroom instruction time
by as much as two-thirds.
11. Greater & faster impact: if we have to train 1000 trainees through normal class room
based training and if each trainee has to be trained for 30 hours every year, this will be an
enormous task. If we had equivalent web-based learning solutions the entire population
of trainees could complete the training in as little as four weeks or even in a lesser time.
1.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of E-learning
Advantages of e-Learning to the Trainer or Organization
Some of the most outstanding advantages to the trainer or organization are:
• Reduced overall cost is the single most influential factor in adopting e-learning. The
elimination of costs associated with instructor's salaries, meeting room rentals, and
student travel, lodging, and meals are directly quantifiable. The reduction of time spent
away from the job by employees may be the most positive offshoot.
• Learning times reduced, an average of 40 to 60 percent, as found by Brandon Hall
(Web-based Training Cookbook, 1997, p. 108).
• Increased retention and application to the job averages an increase of 25 percent over
traditional methods, according to an independent study by J.D. Fletcher (Multimedia
Review, Spring 1991, pp.33-42).
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• Consistent delivery of content is possible with asynchronous, self-paced e-learning.
• Expert knowledge is communicated, but more importantly captured, with good e-
learning and knowledge management systems.
• Proof of completion and certification, essential elements of training initiatives, can be
automated.
Advantages to the Learner
Along with the increased retention, reduced learning time, and other aforementioned
benefits to students, particular advantages of e-learning include:
• On-demand availability enables students to complete training conveniently at off-hours

or from home.
• Self-pacing for slow or quick learners reduces stress and increases satisfaction.
• Interactivity engages users, pushing them rather than pulling them through training.
• Confidence that refresher or quick reference materials are available reduces burden of
responsibility of mastery.
Disadvantages to the Trainer or Organization
E-learning is not, however, the be all and end all to every training need. It does have
limitations, among them:
• Up-front investment required of an e-learning solution is larger due to development

costs. Budgets and cash flows will need to be negotiated.
• Technology issues that play a factor include whether the existing technology
infrastructure can accomplish the training goals, whether additional tech expenditures can
be justified, and whether compatibility of all software and hardware can be achieved.
• Inappropriate content for e-learning may exist according to some experts, though are
limited in number. Even the acquisition of skills that involve complex physical/motor or
emotional components (for example, juggling or mediation) can be augmented with e-
learning.
• Cultural acceptance is an issue in organizations where student demographics and
psychographics may predispose them against using computers at all, let alone for e-
learning.
Disadvantages to the Learner
The ways in which e-learning may not excel over other training include:
• Technology issues of the learners are most commonly technophobia and unavailability of
required technologies.
• Portability of training has become strength of e-learning with the proliferation of
network linking points, notebook computers, PDAs, and mobile phones, but still does not
rival that of printed workbooks or reference material.
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• Reduced social and cultural interaction can be a drawback. The impersonality,
suppression of communication mechanisms such as body language, and elimination of
peer-to-peer learning that are part of this potential disadvantage are lessening with
advances in communications technologies.
Do the Benefits Outweigh the Drawbacks?
The pro's and con's of e-learning vary depending on program goals, target audience and
organizational infrastructure and culture. But it is unarguable that e-learning is rapidly growing
as form of training delivery and most are finding that the clear benefits to e-learning will
guarantee it a role in their overall learning strategy.
1.8 E-learning Modes
Just as there are many names for e-learning itself (e.g., online learning, web-based
training, technology-based learning, etc.), there are many names for types of e-learning. For an
analogy, consider how you might categorize a movie. Is it a blockbuster or an independent film,
a psychological thriller or a comedy, a family film or an adult film, a short film or a long film, a
good film or a bad film? It may be all, some, or none of these things. In this way, e-learning
products are often segmented dependent on some sampling of their characteristics.
A number of fundamental modes of training or instructional models make up the

backbone of valid and valuable training. While these can be used as guides no matter what type
of technology is chosen, the specific strengths and weaknesses of a particular training mode
should be considered in order to maximize learner benefits.
Tutorials
Tutorials are one of the most ancient and commonly used modes of education. A good
tutorial presents information and guidance, makes sure the learner has an opportunity to
understand the instruction, and only then continues on to new information. Many tutorials
basically consist of a linear presentation of content. When implemented poorly, a tutorial can
become what is derisively referred to as "an electronic page-turner," or if web-based, a "scroller."
This type of program presents content directly without giving the learner any more opportunity
to interact other than to call for the next screen. When implemented properly, using the classic
principles of instructional systems design, guided tutorials can be engaging and effective. The
key to useful tutorials in e-learning are interactions that establish pace, clarify content, provide
for practice and instill confidence.
Branching can greatly enhance the effectiveness of a tutorial, allowing it to operate in the
way that a skilled teacher does. A question posed following an instructional moment can
determine if the student has mastered the content. If mastery is not achieved, one branch is
followed and another approach is provided to eliminate confusion. Only after mastery is
achieved is the branch containing the next piece of information followed.
Simulations
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Simulations are often used to recreate lifelike job situations. Realism is the key to
successful simulations but not every element of a simulation has to be realistic in order for it to
be instructionally valid. While hearing a telephone ring in the background of an office simulation
adds to the depth of the user experience, being able to answer that phone and talk with a
customer adds value to the user's learning experience.
The best example of a simulation is the complex flight simulator employed by pilots.
More commonly encountered simulations are the scenarios deployed in training classrooms as
role-playing exercises within the group.
Current technology enables students to interact with on-screen participants in non-linear,

discovery-learning scenarios. Sales calls, customer service scenarios, computer repairs, surgery,
and the full responsibility of running a business can all be simulated. Simulations of software
functionality are particularly prolific and have well documented learner benefits. Cutting-edge
programs now exist using virtual reality that enable students wearing goggles and sensor gloves
to actually be immersed in a digitally created environment. The challenge to the trainer is to
isolate the elements of a situation that can be controlled and must be mastered by the learner in
reality and put the learner in control of these elements in the simulation. All the realism in the
world cannot make a simulation a valuable learning tool without the elements of guidance,
remediation, or feedback.
True simulations and simulation-based drill and practice exercises have in common the
ability to reveal a learner's actions and reactions in a realistic, protected environment where time
and distance are collapsed. In sales call simulations learners can try out various sales approaches
without the jeopardy of awkward social situations.
Electronic Performance Support Systems
Electronic performance support systems (EPSSs) are created to give an individual the
tool they need to perform a required task at the time they need it. A performance support system
is in a way the opposite of a tutorial. Where a tutorial instructs the learner and then requires that
the learner perform, a performance support system requires the learner to determine when they
need assistance and then ask for the required guidance. The most ubiquitous example of a
performance support system is the "Help" feature built into Microsoft's Office applications. A
simple example of a non-e-learning performance support tool is an inventory checklist created
for a grocery clerk.
A growing consensus in the industry is that e-learning should include imbedded support
systems that provide instant guidance at the time and place of need. With the advent of Web-
based training and the emergence of the hyperlink paradigm, the convergence of e-learning and
electronic performance support systems is almost complete. Web-based tutorials can be
completed independently as learning exercises for new users and yet be delivered as just-in-time
chunks of information and interactive tools at the desktop.
The challenge of creating useful performance support systems obviously consists of

determining what tools are needed by a population and providing those tools. In the context of e-
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learning, the further challenge is creating systems that allow an individual needing a tool to
recognize that such a tool exists and then be able to use that tool.
Instructional Games
The inclusion of games has often been a hitch in getting management to agree to e-
learning initiatives. Many learning theories contend, though, that games are essential to the
learning exhibited by children and can be usefully extended into the realm of adult learning.
Games can have great value, possibly greater value than any other mode of instruction, in
reducing learner tension and increasing learner engagement. The reluctance toward employing
games to teach is becoming less apparent as supervisors are educated in learning theory and
many who have experience in gaming for educational purpose move into management roles.
Games in the style of TV game shows have long been used in the classroom to provide a
fun and effective method for reinforcement and self-assessment. Instructional games are equally
effective using the latest computer technologies. Games can run the gamut from simple speed
and accuracy typing exercises to complex business simulators where a student might run an
entire factory. Instructional games can also replicate classic, arcade, and game show styles such
as tic-tac-toe, auto racing, and Jeopardy(TM).
The defining characteristic of instructional games is a set of goals or a competitor to

provide motivation in addition to the learning. For maximum success, the motivational element
of the game should run parallel to the overall motivation for the training. The game should have
has instructional value aligned with the objectives of the overall course. There is little merit to
using games as a reward for completing learning objectives exterior to the games themselves.
Tests, Record Keeping, and Guidance
Automated assessments are another commonly used facet of e-learning. When companies
first adopt e-learning initiatives, testing and record-keeping systems are often accepted earlier
than programs that integrate multiple training modes, due to their ease of implementation and
their quickly recognizable returns.
Online tests can be used for self-assessment purposes, or can be computer graded and
reported back to central administration. The explosion of enterprise wide networks now provides
the power to assess thousands of individuals and track their progress against specific job
competencies throughout their life within an organization. The latest and most sophisticated
technology-based tests are tightly linked to learning objectives, which in turn can help create a
completely personalized curriculum.
Combining the Modes
Maximum learner benefit can be typically achieved by combining several training modes
in one project. The merit of each mode varies with training goals and some modes are ill suited
to meet some needs. A solid and frequent model is to use tutorials to teach basic knowledge and
concepts, use simulations for reinforcement and application of the knowledge (leading to skills),
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test or certify the comprehension, and finally provide an on-the-job performance support tool to
aid in recall and application.
SUMMARY
In this Chapter you have learnt the definitions of e-learning, different terminologies,
need and the unique features of e-learning.
• Regardless of the definition you chose to use, designers, developers, and

implementers make or break the instructional courses and tools. E-learning is simply
a medium for delivering learning and like any other medium, it has its advantages
and disadvantages.
• E-learning covers a wide array of activities from supported learning, to blended or
hybrid learning (the combination of traditional and e-learning practices), to learning
that occurs 100% online.
• E-learning can offer different modes of education – tutorials, simulations,
Instructional games, electronic performance support systems, collaborative learning
and combination of these modes.
References
1. htttp://www. learning circuits.org/glossary.html
2. Kevin Kruse : Articles from www.elearninguru.com
3. “E Learning: The Key concepts” – Robin Mason and Frank

Rennie; Routledge, 2007
Compiled by
Dr. P. Malliga, Associate Professor, CEMT, NITTTR, Chennai
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2. TYPES OF E-LEARNING
2.0 OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to comprehend the types of e-learning
2.1 Differentiate Synchronous and asynchronous learning
2.2 Explain the three tiers of e-learning
2.3 Know the varieties of e-learning
2.4 Discuss the degree of Interactivity
2.5 List the different delivery methods
2.6 Define Learning Portal
2.7 State the characteristics of LMS and LCMS
2.1 Synchronous and asynchronous learning
Synchronous e-learning requires the learner to be online with the instructor at the time
they are learning. Other learners may be online at the same time.
Asynchronous e-learning still enables the learner to interact with other learners and the
trainer, but does not necessarily require the learner to be in contact with any other learner or
instructor at the time they are learning. It should be noted that restraints can be put on
asynchronous learning: for example, learners may be required to complete a course within a
given time.
Some e-learning combines both synchronous and asynchronous forms.
Some characteristics and examples of each of these are provided in the following Table
Synchronous learning Mixed mode Asynchronous learning

The learner is online at same time For at least some of the time, the The learner is not online at
as an instructor or other learners. learner is online at same time as an same time as an instructor or
instructor or other learners. other learners.
An instructor usually is required. An instructor is required for at least An instructor is not
some of the time. necessarily required.
The study is not self-paced, but Only some of the study is self-paced. This is truly self-paced study,
when delivered in a blended although time restraints may
mode can be self-directed. be set for completion.
The learner gains immediate The learner can gain both immediate The learner gains feedback
feedback from the instructor and and delayed feedback. from the instructor either not
other learners. at all, or after a delay.
Examples: chat groups, virtual Examples: uses any of the examples Examples: email
classrooms, videoconferences, from both synchronous and communications, online
teleconferences. asynchronous modes. forums, discussion lists.
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2.2 TIERS OF E-LEARNING
Good e-learning involves and engages the learner by allowing them to experience a range of
media during the learning process: sound, video, photographs, and text. In addition, it provides
feedback to the learner about their progress, and generally allows them a degree of
independence in when and where they study, and interaction with other learners and the
instructor.
Broadly speaking, e-learning can be thought of as having three tiers, depending of the degree of
interactivity involved.
• Tier 1 e-learning is the most basic, and may amount to little more than electronic
delivery of content to the learner. There may be some online assessment and use of
media to support the learning, but overall there is a low degree of online interaction.
Examples include placing Microsoft PowerPoint presentations online, e-books, and
online manuals.
• Tier 2 e-learning allows the learner to have a degree of interaction with the content
being delivered on screen, and makes use of a range of media to reinforce the learning.
However, it does not build in interactions between learners, or between learners and
their instructor. Examples include online quizzes and tests, computer games,
demonstrations and simulations.
• Tier 3 is the top tier of e-learning. It encourages self-directed learning, may be rich with
media, and as with traditional classroom training it engages the learner in a learning
community. Examples are virtual classroom or MOOC courses.
In Tier 3 many businesses today are including quite a bit of synchronous learning involving
online interaction of learners and trainers. This is equivalent to an electronic form of classroom
training (the virtual classroom) and has the constraint of requiring all participants to be available
at a particular session time. However, the benefits of asynchronous interaction, where both
organisations and individuals are free to participate at times that suite them, ensure that
asynchronous learning communities are still very prevalent. Often businesses use a
combination of both synchronous interactions supported by asynchronous discussion
environments and learning activities.
Another Tier 3 characteristic that is beginning to emerge are businesses using the
Internet to explore, publish and connect with others with like interests, using social software like
blogs and wikis.
2.3 VARIETIES OF E-LEARNING
e-Learning comes in many variations and often is a combination of the following:
• Purely online - no face-to-face meetings

• Blended Learning - combination of online and face-to-face
• Synchronous
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• Asynchronous
• Instructor-led group
• Self-study
• Self-study with subject matter expert
• Web-based
• Computer-based (CD-ROM)
• Video/audio tape
Standalone courses
Stand-alone Courses are taken by a sole learner. The learning is self-paced without
interaction with an instructor or classmates
Virtual classroom courses

Teaching in a virtual classroom is conducted live. The virtual classroom provides a live,
interactive, Web-based event for communicating with geographically dispersed learners. The
presenters can poll the audience, receive questions, and leverage other network contents.
Among the audience members can chat or break into workgroups. On the other hand the
instructors too can pull elements form other e-learning technologies into the virtual classroom by
simply using a browser.
Virtual classrooms can leverage existing infrastructure to create an online learning

environment. Attendees receive a ‘virtual space’ in a classroom to access live, interactive
desktop training. The environment features full-duplex multicast audio, group polling, and HTML
content viewing. Virtual classrooms provide the benefit of anyone attending or presenting
course material from anywhere as long as they have a network connection and browser. A
central server can handle all interactions, so that an expert in Singapore can make a
presentation to audience in India. It is two-way full-duplex and multicast audio for clarity, so
users can communicate verbally within the same group or classroom.
• Content on demand:
Through this technology the Internet delivers multimedia based learning situation to a global
audience reliably, cost effectively and faster as compared to CD-ROMs, multicasts or satellite
broadcasting. On-demand delivery is a flexible alternative, providing e-learners with any time,
anywhere access to training. It is a cost-effective solution and is viewable via dial-in lines at
14.4, 28.8, and 56 kbps.
This method of learning is useful in keeping everyone in a global organization informed

about latest products, announcements, or product training. The greatest convenience is that it
lets people decide which information they want and when they want
Computer-based Training (CBT)
Computer-based courses are presented most often on CD-ROM, accessible any time for
use at the desired pace of the user.
Benefits of computer-based training:
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• Users can approach the material in a way that best suits them, skipping familiar
sections or spending additional time on the difficult ones.
• Courses are portable and accessible without need for a network.
• Generally high quality of graphics and presentation
Web-based Training (WBT)
Web-based courses permit the learners to access at any time to the training they
require. Learners log into an online training system with a user name and password to begin an
interactive course. Costs are similar to computer-based training, but many web-based programs
go further, permitting interaction with an instructor and an online community of fellow students.
Benefits of web-based training:
• Just-in-time training
• Suits all learning styles
• Higher retention of information/skills
• Continuous updating of materials and access to further resources
Embedded e-learning
E- learning included in another system, such as computer program, a diagnostic procedure or

online help
Mobile learning
Learning from the world while moving about in the world. aided by mobile devices such as PDAs
and smart phones
Knowledge management
Broad uses of e-learning, online documents, and conventional media to educate the entire
population and organizations rather than just individuals.
Blended Learning
Blended or hybrid courses mix online and face-to-face (f2f) components. In fact, courses
in which there is even a minor online component (e.g. a supporting website, email access to the
instructor, an online reading list) are sometimes referred to as e-learning courses. Furthermore,
all courses blend a range of learning media or learning opportunities; at the most basic level,
they involve thinking, reading and blending new information with existing knowledge.
The term-blended learning was originally used to describe courses, which tried to
combine the best of face-to-face and online learning. As the term became popular, more and
more combinations were referred to as blended learning: for example, combining a range of
technologies, a range of teaching methods, a range of learn tug experiences, or a range of
locations of the learning event
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One example where the term leads to useful research results is a study which examines
the relationship of a sense of community across three modes of learning: the traditional
classroom, blended, and fully online higher education learning environments. The research
provides evidence, which suggests that blended courses produce a stronger sense of com-
munity among students than either traditional or fully online courses (Rovai and Jordan, 2004).
In a study of the workplace over two years, Barbian (2002) concludes that blended learning
boost employee productivity over single-delivery options.
The blended solutions commonly used are: 50/50 models of face-to-face and
online learning which combine the best of both worlds; even 75 per cent online with one face-to-
face or residential meeting is successful in overcoming the limitations of online learning while
benefiting from its overall cost-effectiveness and flexibility,
2.4 DEGREE OF INTERACTIVITY
E-learning can be presented and delivered to the learner in many different ways and for a range
of purposes.
Important in any e-learning is the degree of interactivity for the learner, and whether the learner
is able to study at any time, or whether there is a need for the learner to be online or in a
classroom with other learners at the same time (synchronous learning). Other things to consider
are whether an instructor is required, whether the learning is blended or not, how the course is
delivered, whether the course is accessed through a learning portal, and whether a
management system is required to look after the administrative aspects of the course, or
updates to the course content.
Ideally, e-learning should engage the learner, allowing them to interact with the course
materials, obtaining feedback on their progress and assistance whenever it is required.
However, the degree of interactivity in e-learning depends on how the course has been
developed, and generally is dependent on the software used for its development, and the way
the material is delivered to the learner. For example, a learner who accesses their material from
the Internet usually has a lower level of interactivity than one who is accessing material from a
CD-ROM.
The following table summarises different types of e-learning based on the degree of interactivity
required of each. The learning could be delivered on a computer or a mobile learning device,
such as a personal digital assistant (PDA).
Tier 1 learning (low Tier 2 learning (moderate to Tier 3 learning (high

interactivity–mainly text, high interactivity–has some interactivity–includes learner
multimedia or graphic one- degree of learner to to learner and learner to
way communication) computer interaction) trainer interaction)
PowerPoint presentation, Interactive resources, quizzes, Virtual classrooms, streaming
learning on a personal digital tests, reflective learning, media, group games,
assistant, e-books, podcasting, games, simulations, videoconferences, audio
videotape, audiotape. demonstrations. conferences, chat groups,
emails, discussion lists,
blogging, wikis, moblogging,
MOOCs
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Each tier of e-learning has implications for the method of delivery of the learning.
2.5 DELIVERY METHOD
The delivery of e-learning can range from an HTML-based online tutorial, which relies on
web pages accessed through a browser, to text and graphics on a mobile device like a personal
digital assistant, to screens rich in interactive video, text, images and audio delivered from a
CD-ROM.
At the high end, enterprise level systems can provide for the establishment of entire
corporate learning programs, based on detailed competency specifications that allow individuals
to follow customised learning pathways for a multitude of learning outcomes. These enterprise
systems exploit the capacity for online delivery to present multi-media content (text, sound,
video) and complex interactivity (such as real-time feedback and assessment). They provide
also for authoring of learning content and delivery of content authored to interoperable
standards.
Smaller scale technologies include the following:
• HTML pages
• Slide presentations
• webcasts
• podcasts delivered on an iPod or similar technologies
• blogging
• Internet telephony (Voice over IP)
• e-books on PDAs or mobile devices
• wikis.
Larger scale technologies include the following:
• streaming audio -used to deliver the instructors comments over any network
• streaming video - can deliver video over any network
• web pages - very common form of delivering content
• interactive content - often delivered on a CD-ROM, but also deliverable through the
Internet and local area networks
• online tests
• interactive tools - these could include web forums (asynchronous), discussion lists
(synchronous), chat rooms, teleconferencing and videoconferencing
• MUDs (Multi-User Domain, or Multi-User Dimension) – these are computer programs,
usually running over the Internet, that allow multiple learners to participate in virtual-
reality role-playing games
• learning management systems (LMS) and learning content management systems
(LCMS) – these are high-end e-learning applications that allow for online content
development, learning management and learning delivery, and provide additional
technological benefits that can take the concept of organisational learning into the area
of knowledge management.
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2.6 LEARNING PORTAL
A learning portal is a website that contains links not only to learning material, but also to a range
of resources and useful information, making that site a gateway (portal) to this information.
Usually such a portal is a part of the intranet of the organisation. It generally is successful only if
it is kept up to date, and the content is changed regularly to encourage learners to make repeat
visits to the portal.
The following items could appear on a learning portal:
• news about any issues related to the education and training program of the organisation
• a listing of available courses (including those not classified as e-learning, with links to
and information about each
• an overview of the support that is available to learners
• links to resources available to learners
• information about the team of instructors
• contact details for anyone involved with the support of the courses, including support
with the technology
• access to learning communities (such as chat rooms and discussion lists), and a log-in
area to allow learners to access information about the courses they have completed and
their course results. This may depend on a learning management system tracking this
information.
2.7 MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
There are two types of management systems commonly used in e-learning.
LMS. A learning management system (LMS) is a computer program for tracking

learners doing an e-learning course. An administrator can track the progress of
individual learners, their scores on assessments, and have an overview of the
progress of any cohort of learners. Learning management systems can assist
with scheduling, distribution of materials to learners, and provide a great deal of
understanding of how well learners are coping with the course.
LCMS. A learning content management system (LCMS) is software that allows

an administrator to update content on an e-learning website without needing
specialist web page editing skills. An LCMS ensures that the styles of the site are
retained, and that the course content remains current for learners.
Some software incorporates the features of both an LMS and an LCMS.
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Learning Management System (LMS)
When considering a learning management system, take these things into account:
• will it be hosted on your organisation's computers, or do you need to outsource this?

• what information do you want the LMS to track?
• will you be able to customise it to your needs?
• will you easily be able to add or delete learners and courses, and use the other features
of the software?
• does it need to connect to other information in your organisation, such as human
resources records?
• what will it cost, and how are the charges applied?
• should it also have a content management capability?
There are three ways to obtain a learning management system:
• use one of the existing free learning management systems. This has the advantage that
it is free, but it also means that it may have significant limitations for you. Examples
include Moodle (http://moodle.org), ATutor (www.atutor.ca), and The Manhattan Virtual
Classroom (http://manhattan.sourceforge.net), although many others are available
• pay for one of the systems available online (often the charge is based on the number of
learners and the amount of customisation required). These usually can be tailored more
for your specific requirements, but still may not do everything you require. Examples
include Ecampus (www.ecampus.com.au), Blackboard (www.blackboard.com) and
Janison LMS (http://www.janison.com.au/janison/default.asp), but many more are
available. Further information about choosing an LMS can be found on the Australian
Flexible Learning Network website at the page on How to choose a learning
management system
(http://community.flexiblelearning.net.au/ManagingFlexibleDelivery/content/article_6944.
htm)
• pay for the development of an LMS that is tailored to your specific needs. While more
costly initially, this option often proves cost effective in the longer term, and will provide
everything you would require of your LMS.
Learning Content Management System (LCMS)
A learning content management system has a number of characteristics:
• it allows the creation of content, including incorporation of text, graphic and movie files
into the content
• it allows content to be checked for consistency, and old content to be archived
• it allows for creation of online assessments, and for their marking
• it permits content to be searched for by the content producer
• it may allow collaboration between several content producers
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• it allows links to be forged between e-learning and other learning strategies that have
been adopted by the organisation.
The decisions about obtaining an LCMS are similar to those for obtaining an LMS: use freely
available software, purchase software, or pay to have the LCMS developed for your specific
needs. The consequences for each decision are as described above for the LMS software
choices.
Examples of free LCMS software include OLAT (http://www.olat.org/public/index.html), eXe

(http://exelearning.org/), Dokeos (http://www.dokeos.com), Dokebo
(http://www.docebo.org/doceboCms) and Interact
(http://www.interactlms.org/spaces/space.php?space_key=1), and Moodle (http://moodle.org)
that has limited content creation.
Examples of LCMS software you can purchase are ATutor

(http://www.atutor.ca/atutor/links.php) and LearnSwitch Enterprise
(http://www.catalystinteractive.com.au).
2.8 TRENDS IN E-LEARNING
Until recently, many discussions of elearning were about the technology

aspects. For example, a very common opening gambit to explain e-learning would focus on
learning anything, anyplace, at anytime. The discussion would highlight the flexibility of e-
learning and move into the technologies which support learners accessing a course outside the
classroom context. While e-learning is undoubtedly more flexible than face-to-face (f2f),
campus-based Learning, there have always been pedagogical and social limits to totally flexible
learning. There arc three technologies which are just beginning to see a major uptake and
hence might have a major impact on e-learning
Broadband
Cheap, unlimited bandwidth is not yet a reality, however, if and. when it does arrive, it
should give an extremely big boost to e-learning. Real-time events for students at a distance
would add a new dimension to e-learning. For example, tutorials and small group meetings
could be held over software such as Netmeeting or Skype, which provide video, audio and
shared desktop facilities. Group messaging offers near-instant communication as well as
confidentiality and shared tiles, and other software provides buddy systems that allow students
to be in close contact with their peers. Activities could be based around these facilities whereby
students engage in peer commenting, team projects and self-help groups. Web casting using
guest lectures, offers immediacy and the opportunity to engage in discussion with experts and
special advisers. The fact that the lecture can be stored and accessed after the event provides
flexibility as well as immediacy.
Most of these real-rime activities are difficult, costly or actually impossible over dial-up
lines, Broadband offers course designers the opportunity to design courses using the optimal
mix of synchronous and asynchronous modalities, without concern about disadvantaging
remote users.
NITTTR/PM/EL/2 9
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Mobile technologies
The 'anyplace' aspect used to promote e-learning is becoming somewhat more realistic
with the advent of wireless, mobile learning (m-learning] e.g. from a mobile telephone, wireless
laptop, PDA or tablet PC. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), also known as palmtops and
handheld PCs, fit into the hand and are generally very portable, capable of being carried in a
jacket pocket, for example. They were first developed as electronic Organisers, or personal
information managers. These contain information Such as diaries, address books and task lists.
They eventually evolved into mini PCs. able to carry out limited PC tasks such as word and
spreadsheet processing, and nowadays most are capable of web browsing and email functions
via cables connected to networks. PDAs also offer infrared commutation, allowing data to he
transferred across short distances between units without the need for networks. Many PDAs
come with docking stations in order for them, to be connected to desktop computers, allowing
data to be synchronized between the two devices. The tablet PC is an adaptation of the laptop.
It is available in two styles: cither with a keyboard (known as a 'convertible' tablet) or without a
keyboard (known as a 'slate' tablet, and generally slimmer and more lightweight than the
convertible). Convertible tablets normally have detachable or foldable keyboards, and all tablet
PCs have touch-sensitive screens, usually A4 in size, which require stylus pens for input. They
are generally much quicker to boot up yhann desktop PCs. The tablet can be used either in
portrait or landscape mode, and uses wireless technology for connection to the internet or other
networks
For the moment, these technologies arc used not for accessing the content of courses,
but for communication, administration and other peripheral aspects of studying e.g. ordering
books from the library. One area of potential use is for taking photos or notes when on field
trips. Another advantage is the stylus pen used with tablet PCs which is more convenient for
web browsing than a mouse. However, these devices currently have limited storage capacity
and their batteries require regular charging or data can be lost.
Wireless and WiFi networking need to become more popular before learning will boost
the feasibility of learning anyplace and anytime. The trend, however, is for these devices to
converge, so that mobile phones will adopt PDA functions and tablets will adopt more of the
functionality of desktop PCs.
Podcasting
Podcasting is a form of broadcasting over the internet. With podcasting, learners can
download, lectures and pictures to their PC or portable digital device to access at their
convenience. This is a very different learning scenario from reading text on a computer screen,
or from sitting in a lecture hall using an iPod or similar device, the learner listens to the content,
which could talk them through diagrams, graphics, photos or paintings, or could be a
discussion between two experts with opposing views. Language learning, music studies and
other subjects with a strong oral component have obvious applications. This approach to
learning will appeal to learners who prefer to take in information aurally rather titan through text
and circumvents the problems of a mini screen, which limits the use of mobile phones for
learning. Pod casts can provide students with a means of reviewing material, Especially non-
native speakers. Pod casts can be used more informally by teachers to provide feedback on
group assignments or presentations, or to provide supplementary material for a blended course.
NITTTR/PM/EL/2 10
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The supporting technologies of podcasting ire relatively inexpensive and easy to use.
Like blogging, students can be producers of content, rather than passive receivers, The portable
and on-demand nature of podcasting makes it a technology with potential for e-learning
SUMMARY
E-Learning uses computer and network technologies to create learning experiences.

Varieties of e-learning include standalone courses, virtual –classroom courses, mobile learning,
embedded e-learning, blended e-learning, simulations and learning games.
E-learning is not the answer to all educational problems or suitable in all contexts. It is
rather limited for teaching some practical or physical skills; it requires more up-front preparation
time than lecturing; it does not provide the range of interaction, support and socialization that
face-to-face teaching can offer. Despite these shortcomings, e-learning whether as an adjunct
to campus-based learning or as a totally online offering, is gaining in acceptance and growing in
use.
References
1. htttp://www. learning circuits.org/glossary.html

2. Kevin Kruse : Articles from https://www.elearninglearning.com/blog/elearning-
guru/
3. “E Learning: The Key concepts” – Robin Mason and Frank Rennie;
Routledge,2007
4. Compiled by Dr.P. Malliga, Associate Professor, CEMT, NITTTR, Chennai, 2012
NITTTR/PM/EL/2 11
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Cognitive Theory of Learning
MULTIMEDIA PRINCIPLES
P. Malliga | E-Content Development | November 2018

3. Cognitive Theory of Learning
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Most of the organizations are probably experiencing a demand for digitally

delivered training. To save travel costs and instructional time, e-learning in both
synchronous and asynchronous formats is increasingly supplementing or even replacing
face-to-face classrooms.
However, all too often e-learning fails to live up to its potential, and as a result,
learning suffers. Technologists ignore the unique instructional capabilities of e-learning by
importing legacy materials from books or classroom manuals without employing engaging
multimedia features. At the other end of the spectrum, technophiles who are enamored with
technological features use all of them at once. Extraneous auditory and visual effects were
added to the basic content to make it more interesting. The result is too much stimulus at
once.
After hundreds of media comparison studies, it is learnt that it’s not the delivery
media that enables learning; it’s how any given delivery technology supports human
learning processes. If two lessons include all of the elements needed for learning, learning
will occur whether the lesson is offered digitally or in a classroom. Alternatively, if a face-
to-face classroom lesson is interactive, while a comparison digital lesson is not interactive,
learning will be more easily achieved in the face-to-face version. And vice versa. No matter
what mix of delivery media you use, it’s imperative to accommodate the strengths and
weaknesses of the human brain. In this unit you would learn in detail how the humans learn
especially from e-lessons.
Learning Objectives:
The Learning objectives of this chapter are
• State the three metaphors of learning

• Explain the three important cognitive processes in learning
• State the four principles of learning in cognitive science
• Elaborate on the processes of how instructional methods in e-
learning can support and inhibit them.
NITTTR/ PM / ECD / W3 PAGE 1

9.1 THREE METAPHORS FOR LEARNING
The learning psychologists have developed the three major metaphors during the
past one hundred years as summarized in Table 9.1. In response – strengthening view of
learning: the learner is a passive recipient of rewards or punishments and the teacher is a
dispenser of rewards (which serve to strengthen a response) and punishments (which serve
to weaken a response). This metaphor is not that it is incorrect but rather it is incomplete –
it tells only part of the story because it does not explain meaningful learning.
Table 9.1: Three Metaphors of Learning
Metaphor of Learning is Learner is Instructor is

Learning
Response Strengthening or Passive recipient of Dispenser of
Strengthening weakening of rewards and rewards and
associations punishments punishments
Information Adding information to Passive recipient of Dispenser of
Acquisition memory information information
Knowledge Building a mental Active sense maker Cognitive guide

Construction representation
In information- acquisition view of learning, the learner’s job is to receive

information and the instructor’s job is to present it. A typical instructional method is a
textbook or power point presentation in which the instructor conveys information to the
learner. This approach sometimes called the empty vessel or sponge view of learning
because the learner’s mind is an empty vessel into which the instruction pours information.
The third metaphor can be called knowledge acquisition. According to the
knowledge construction view, people are not passive recipients of information, but rather
are active sense makers. They engage in active cognitive processing during learning
including attending to the relevant information, mentally organizing it into a coherent
structure and integrating it with what they already know.
Although there are some merits in each of the metaphors of learning we focus most
strongly on the third one. In short, the goal of effective instruction is not only to present
information but also to encourage the learner to engage in appropriate cognition processing
during learning.

9.2 PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF LEARNING
Figure 9.2 presents model of how people learn from multimedia lessons. In the left
column, a lesson may contain graphics and words (in printed or spoken form). In the second
column, the graphics and printed works enter the learner’s cognitive processing system
through the eyes, and spoken words enter through the ears. If the learner pays attention,
some of the material is selected for further processing in the learners working memory -
where you can hold and manipulate just a few pieces of information at time one time in
each channel. In working memory, the learner can mentally organize some of the selected
images into a pictorial model and some of the selected words into a verbal model. Final, as
indicated by the “integrating arrow”, the learner can connect the incoming material with
existing knowledge from long – term memory - the learners’ storehouse of knowledge.
There are three important cognitive processes indicated by the arrows in the arrows in
the figure 9.2:
Fig 9.2: Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
1. Selecting words and images – the first step is to pay attention to relevant words and
images in the presented material;
2. Organizing words and images – the second step is to mentally organize the selected
material in coherent verbal and pictorial representations; and
3. Integrating – the final step is to integrate incoming verbal and pictorial
representations with each other and with existing knowledge.

9.3 FOUR PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING IN COGNITIVE SCIENCE
Meaningful learning occurs when the learner appropriately engages in all of these
processes. Thus learning model reflects four principles from research in cognitive
science:
1. Dual channels – people have separate channels for processing visual/pictorial
material and auditory /verbal material;
2. Limited capacity – people can actively process only a few pieces of information
in each channel at one time;
3. Active processing – learning occurs when people engage in appropriate cognitive
processing during learning, such as attending to relevant material, organizing the
material into a coherent structure, and integrating it with what they already know;
and
4. Transfer – new knowledge and skills must be retrieved from long – term memory
during performance
9.4 HOW DO LESSONS AFFECT HUMAN LEARNING?

Cognitive learning theory explains how mental processes transform information
received by the eyes and ears into knowledge and skills in human memory (Refer Figure
9.3)
Instructional methods in the e-lessons must guide the learners’ transformation of

words and pictures in the lesson through working memory so that they are incorporated
into the existing knowledge in long-term memory. These events rely on the following
process:
1. Selection of the important information in the lesion;
2. Management of the limited capacity in working memory to allow the rehearsal
needed for learning;
3. Integration of auditory and visual sensory information in working memory with
existing knowledge in long-term memory by way of rehearsal in working
memory; and
4. Retrieval of new knowledge and skills from long –term memory into working
memory when needed later.

Figure 9.3: Cognitive processing of learning
In the following sections, we elaborate on these processes and provide examples
of how instructional methods in e-learning can support or inhibit them.
9.4.1 Methods for Directing Selection of Important Information
Our cognitive systems have limited capacity. Since there are too many sources of
information competing for this limited capacity, the learner must select those that best
match his or her goals. We know this selection process can be guided by instructional
methods that direct the learner’s attention. For example, multimedia designers may use an
arrow or color to draw the eye to important text or visual information.
9.4.2 Methods for managing Limited Capacity in Working Memory

Working memory must be free to rehearse the new information provided in the
lesson. When the limited capacity of working memory becomes filled processing becomes
inefficient. Learning slows, and frustration grows. For example, most of us find
multiplying numbers like 968 by 89 in our heads to be a challenging task This is because
we need to hold the intermediate products of our calculations in working memory storage
and continue to multiply the next set of numbers in the working memory processor. It is
very difficult for working memory to hold even limited amounts of information and process
effectively at the same time.
Therefore, instructional methods that overload working memory make learning
more difficult. The burden imposed on working memory in the form of information that
must be held plus information that must be processed is referred to as cognitive load.

Methods that reduce cognitive load foster learning by freeing working memory capacity
for learning. In the past ten years, research was carried out to reduce cognitive load in
instructional materials. Many of the guidelines you see in next chapter are effective because
they reduce or manage load. For example, the coherence principle described in next chapter
states that better learning results when e-lessons minimize irrelevant visuals, omit
background music and environmental sounds, and use succinct text. In other words, less is
more. This is because by using a minimalist approach that avoids overloading working
memory, greater capacity can be devoted to rehearsal processes, leading to learning.
9.4.3 Methods for integration
Working memory integrates the words and pictures in a lesson into a unified
structure and further integrates these ideas with existing knowledge in long-term memory.
The integration of words and pictures is made easier by lessons that present the verbal and
visual information together rather than separated. Once the words and pictures are
consolidated into a coherent structure in working memory, they must be further integrated
into existing knowledge structures in long term memory. This requires active processing
in working memory. E-Lessons that include practice exercises and worked examples
stimulate the integration of new knowledge into prior knowledge. For example, a practice
assignment asks sales representations to review new product features and describe ways
that their current clients might best take advantage of a product upgrade. This assignment
requires active processing of new product feature information in a way that links it with
prior knowledge about their clients.
9.4.4 Methods for Retrieval and Transfer

It is not sufficient to simply add new knowledge to long-term memory. For success
in training, those new knowledge structures must be encoded into long-term memory in a
way that allows them to be easily retrieved when needed on the job. Retrieval of new skills
is essential for transfer of training. Without retrieval, all the other psychological processes
are meaningless, since it does us little good to have knowledge stored in long-term memory
that cannot be applied later.
For successful transfer, e-lessons must incorporate the content of the job in the
example and practice exercises, so the new knowledge stored in long-term memory
contains good retrieval hooks. For example, one multimedia exercise asks technicians to
play a Jeopardy game in which they recall facts about a new software system. A better
alternative exercise gives an equipment failure scenario and asks technicians to select a
trouble shooting action based on facts about a new software system. The Jeopardy game
exercise might be perceived as fun, but it risks storing facts in memory without a job
context. These facts, lacking the contextual hooks needed for retrieval, often fail to transfer.
In contrast, the troubleshooting exercise asks technicians to apply the new facts to a job-
realistic situation.

9.5 SUMMARY OF LEARNING PROCESSES
In summary, learning from e-lessons relies on four key processes:
• First, the learner must focus on key graphics and words in the lesson to select what
will be processed.
• Second, the learner must rehearse this information in working memory to organize
and integrate it with existing knowledge in long-term memory.
• Third, in order to do the integration work, limited working memory capacity must
be overloaded. Lessons should apply cognitive load reduction techniques,
especially when learners are novices to the new knowledge and skills.
• Fourth, new knowledge stored in long-term memory must be retrieved back on the
job. We call this process as transfer of learning. To support transfer, e-lessons must
provide a job context during learning that will create new memories containing job-
relevant retrieval hooks.
All these processes require an active learner – one who selects and processes new
information effectively to achieve the learning goals. The design of the e-lesson can
support active processing or it can inhibit it, depending on what kinds of instructional
methods are used.
References:
Ruth Colvin Clark and Richard E. Mayer: “E-learning and the Science of
Instruction”, Second Edition, Pfeffier Wiley, 2008
Compiled by
Dr. P. Malliga, NITTTR, Chennai

UNIT 7: ASPECTS OF CURRICULUM
Contributor
Dr. G.A. RATHY
Associate Professor
Electrical & Electronics and Communication Engineering, NITTTR, Chennai.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1.7 ASPECTS CURRICULUM 1
1.7.2 DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM 1
1.7.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS 2
1.7.4 COMPONENTS OF A CURRICULUM 3
1.7.5 ATTRIBUTES OF A CURRICULUM 5
1.7.6 TYPES OF CURRICULUM 7
REFERENCES 10
Unit 7 Aspects of Curriculum
1.7 ASPECTS CURRICULUM

1.7.1 INTRODUCTION
Curriculum is the heart of any educational system. The curriculum consists of both the plans
for learning and the actual delivery of those plans. Curriculum includes series of planned
instruction that is coordinated and articulated in a manner designed to result in the
achievement by students of specific knowledge and skills and application of this knowledge.
The word curriculum comes from a Latin root meaning “racecourse” or the ground to be
covered to reach a goal.
Traditionally curriculum was regarded as the relatively standardized ground covered by the
student in their race towards the finish line i.e. a degree or diploma.
1.7.2 DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM

Curriculum from different points of view:
There are many definitions of curriculum. The definitions are influenced by modes of
thoughts, pedagogies, political as well as cultural experiences.
This definition is anchored on John Dewey’s definition of experience and education. He

believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not
derived from action but tested by application. Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all
experiences children have under the guidance of teachers”. This definition is shared by Smith,
Stanley and Shores when they defined “curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set
up in the schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking
and acting”
Some influential definitions combining various elements to describe curriculum are as follows
 John Kerr: According to John Kerr a curriculum is a planned and guided by the
school, whether it is carried on in groups, individually inside or outside the school.
 The curriculum is a total learning experience provided by the school. It includes the
content of courses (the syllabus), the method employed (strategies) and other
aspects like norms and values, which relate to the way school are organized.
 Thus a curriculum is neither a development nor a sequence of experiences. It is a
plan for facilitating learning for students.
 This plan starts with where the child is. It enumerates all the aspects and dimensions
of learning that are considered necessary. It gives a reason why such learning is
considered necessary and what educational aims it would serve.
In a nutshell,
 A systematic group of courses or sequence of subjects required for graduation or

certification in a major field of study
 It is a Planned learning experience
 The curriculum is a means followed by the teachers and students for achieving the
set goals and the aims or objectives of education being provided in the school.
 Curriculum, in every sense, is supposed to be used for all experiences. These may be
curricular or co-curricular, imparted by the school for the realization of the stipulated
aims and objectives of the school education.
 The aims and objectives of the curriculum are set by professionals and experts who
believe that they have sufficient technical knowledge to produce the desired product
(Hart, 2002). It assumes that there is agreement by all interested groups (teachers,
students, communities, employers) on common educational goals and, therefore,
dialogue and consensus building among groups are not required.
Examples of Curricula:
 B.E/ B.Tech EEE/ECE/CSE Curricula

 B.Sc Maths/Physics etc
 Similarly for various Engineering science and arts programme of PG level.
1.7.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS

The syllabus is described as the summary of the topics covered or units to be taught in
the particular subject. Curriculum refers to the overall content, taught in an educational
system or a course. Syllabus is descriptive in nature, but the curriculum is
prescriptive. Syllabus is set for a particular subject.
Curriculum Syllabus
Curriculum is for a programme Syllabus is for a course
Curriculum is the superset Syllabus is the subset of the curriculum
Curriculum is a whole document which Syllabus gives the hyphenated content
includes the Objectives, the Instructional to be taught
methods, Subject matter and also the
scheme of evaluation
Curriculum should not simply be seen as a kind of super syllabus because there is a qualitative
difference between the two. On the one hand, curriculum may be viewed as the programme
of activities, the course to learn by pupils in being educated. On the other, curriculum may be
defined as all learning, which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in
groups or individually, inside or outside the school. That is one school of thought regards the
curriculum as a plan, while the other views it as activities.
Allen distinguishes at least six aspects of levels of curriculum:
 Concept formation
 Decision-making
 Syllabus planning
 Materials design
 Classroom activities
 Evaluation
1.7.4 COMPONENTS OF A CURRICULUM
The four components of the curriculum are :
1. Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

2. Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
3. Curriculum Learning Experiences
4. Curriculum Evaluation
These four components of the curriculum are essential. These are interrelated to each other.
Each of these has a connection to one another.
 Aims, goals, and objectives can be simplified as “what is to be done”,

 the subject matter/content: what subject matter is to be included,
 the learning experience” what instructional strategies, resources and activities will
be employed,
 the evaluation approaches, while curriculum evaluation is “what methods and
instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum.
The curriculum aims, goals and objectives spell out what is to be done. It tries to capture what
goals are to be achieved, the vision, the philosophy, the mission statement and objectives.
Further, it clearly defines the purpose and what the curriculum is to be acted upon and try
what to drive at.
In the same manner, curriculum has a content. In here, it contains information to be learned
in school. It is an element or a medium through which the objectives are accomplished.
A primordial concern of formal education is primarily to transmit organized knowledge in
distilled form to a new generation of young learners.
The traditional sources of what is taught and learned in school is precisely the foundation of
knowledge, therefore, the sciences and humanities provide the basis of selecting the content
of school learning.
In organizing the learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration, and

continuity form a sound content.
For the third component, the curriculum experience, instructional strategies and methods are
the core of the curriculum. These instructional strategies and methods will put into action the
goals and use of the content in order to produce an outcome.
These would convert the written curriculum to instruction. Moreover, mastery is the function
of the teacher direction and student activity with the teacher supervision.
For the fourth component, the curriculum evaluation is an element of an effective curriculum.
It identifies the quality, effectiveness of the program, process and product of the curriculum.
In summary, the components of a curriculum are distinct but interrelated to each other. These
four components should be always present in a curriculum, as they are essential ingredients
to have an effective curriculum.
For example, in a curriculum, evaluation is also important so one could assess whether the
objectives and aims have been met or if not, he could employ another strategy which will
really work out.
Curriculum experience could not be effective if the content is not clearly defined. The aims,
goals and directions serve as the anchor of the learning journey, the content or subject matter
serve as the meat of the educational journey, curriculum experience serves as the hands –on
exposure to the real spectrum of learning and finally the curriculum evaluation serves as the
barometer as to how far had the learners understood on the educational journey.
1.7.5 ATTRIBUTES OF A CURRICULUM

1. Related to an occupation: Students perceive themselves to have certain attributes and
quite often think of these as relating to jobs. They need to become aware of how they
can build on their attributes to gain work. For example, a person wishes to become a
Electrician, he should undergo a course related to his Job.
2. Objective oriented content: Objectives are usually specific statements of educational
intention which delineate either general or specific outcomes. The Objectives
specified in the curriculum must guide the students to reach their goals
3. Planned learning experience are a way for teachers to structure, sequence, and plan
outlearning goals for a specific instructional period, typically for the purpose of moving
students toward the achievement of larger, longer-term educational goals such as meeting
course learning expectations, performing well on a standardized tests. Planned
learning experiences provide the means to satisfy objectives. Learning experiences
indicate with different degrees of specificity how teachers and students are to interact
with content
4. Curriculum must be dynamic: A good curriculum must be dynamic. It has to be kept
dynamic in order to keep with the needs. interests, attitudes, abilities and life of
students
5. Criteria for evaluation of students performance
The curriculum document must contain the scheme of Evaluation
1.7.6 TYPES OF CURRICULUM

(i) CORE CURRICULUM:
The term core assumes many meanings. Traditionally includes all required content areas in
the school programme. More recently, the term “core” refers to type of course such as
general education, united studies, common learning, social living and integral programmes.
Regardless of the term that is employed in the school the two ideas common to the concept
of core are that they provide experiences needed by all youth and the experiences cut across
subject lines. The core curriculum deals problems of persistent and recurring deal with youth
and of society irrespective of subject matter lines from martial may be down for the solution
of the problems. Experiences have shown that “core” should occupy only portion of the
school day.
Objectives of Core Curriculum
The following are the Objectives stated as:
 To provide a youth a common body of experience organized around personal and

social problems,
 To give boys and girls successful experience in solving the problem which are real to
them here and now, thus preparing them to solve future problems,
 To give youth experience which will lead them to become better citizens in a
democracy
 To increase the holding power of the secondary school by providing a program that
has meaning for all, these are some of the needs of the core curriculum.
Characteristics of Core Curriculum
 Core Curriculum utilities the problems of personal and social development common
to all youth.
 It develops these problems without reference to the traditional subject matter fields.
 It encourages the use of the problem- solving technique to attack problems. These
core issues are problems not topics of subject matter.
 It requires a wide variety of techniques and materials for their development
 There is a provision for individual and group guidance
 It provides for a scheme of organizing around the core the majority of the teachers
of the school in relation to dominant central purpose that of the school programme
around individual interests and purpose of supplementing the core work
(II) TEACHER CENTERED AND LEARNER CENTERED CURRICULUM:
Though there is a foundational shift from a traditional classroom, a learner-centered

approach does not eliminate the teacher. A learner-centered environment facilitates a more
collaborative way for students to learn. The teacher models instructions and acts as a
facilitator, providing feedback and answering questions when needed. It’s the student that
chooses how they want to learn, why they want to learn that way and with who. Students
answer each other’s questions and give each other feedback, using the instructor as a
resource when needed.
This process is designed so that students can learn how they learn best. Taking into
consideration what works for one may not work for another and at the end of the day it’s not
about what was taught but what was learned.
A Look at the Differences Between Teacher-Centered and Learner-Centered Learning
Teacher-Centered Learner-Centered
Focus is on instructor Focus is on both students and instructor
Focus is on language forms and structures Focus is on language use in typical
(what the instructor knows about the situations (how students will use the
language) language)
Instructor talks; students listen Instructor models; students interact with
instructor and one another
Students work alone Students work in pairs, in groups, or alone
depending on the purpose of the activity
Instructor monitors and corrects every Students talk without constant instructor
student utterance monitoring; instructor provides
feedback/correction when questions arise
Instructor answers students’ questions Students answer each other’s questions,
about language using instructor as an information
resource
Instructor chooses topics Students have some choice of topics
Instructor evaluates student learning Students evaluate their own learning;
instructor also evaluates
Classroom is quiet Classroom is often noisy and busy
Source: The National Capitol Language Resource Center (a project of the George Washington
University)
(iii) ACTIVITY BASED CURRICULUM:
When course material is taught in the form of an activity or hands-on project, the curriculum
is considered activity based. The learning takes place as students are working in labs
completing experiments or collaborating in group work through games or competitions,
according to Study Lecture Notes.
Each activity or project in an activity-based curriculum serves as the means for students to
learn concepts and skills. For example, students may be asked to re-enact a movie, story or
play to physically and visually learn the plot of the piece. Through actions and physical activity,
students are often motivated and enthusiastic about learning concepts versus sitting in the
classroom and merely observing a lecture about the course concepts.
Activity-based learning does not always include physical activity. Students can complete a
project together by brainstorming ideas, designing a web page and collaboratively writing
literature. Students can also complete math problems as a group, identify science definitions
and make a block diagram of manufacturing plant together in an activity-based curriculum.
(iv) INTEGRATED CURRICULUM:
An integrated curriculum is described as one that connects different areas of study by cutting
across subject-matter lines and emphasizing unifying concepts. Integration focuses on
making connections for students, allowing them to engage in relevant, meaningful activities
that can be connected to real life. In general science learning as opposed to separate subjects
such as physics, chemistry and Biology.
Teachers of different subjects within an existing curriculum can determine collectively the
extent to which other domains are addressed already in the teaching learning programs (For
example, Thinking, ICT, Interpersonal skills, Learning etc within English or History etc.).
(v) INTENDED CURRICULUM:
INTENDED CURRICULUM-refers to a set of objectives identified set at the. beginning of

any curriculum plan. It establishes the goal, the specific. purposes, and the immediate
objectives to be accomplished
Figure 1 Relationship between three types of curriculum
(vi) IMPLEMENTED CURRICULUM: This refers to the various learning activities or a experience
of the students in order to achieve the intended curricular outcomes. Implemented
curriculum refers to the ACTUAL activities being practiced in schools.
(vii) ACHIEVED CURRICULUM: Achieved Curriculum- refers to the curriculum outcomes based
on the first two types of. curriculum, the intended and implemented.
(viii) HIDDEN/ LATENT CURRICULUM: A hidden curriculum can be defined as the lessons that
are taught informally, and usually unintentionally, in a school system. These include
behaviors, perspectives, and attitudes that students pick up while they are at school.
This is contrasted with the formal curriculum, such as the courses and activities students
participate in. A hidden curriculum is a side effect of an education which are learned but not
openly intended" such as the transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the
classroom and the social environment.
Any learning experience may teach unintended lessons. Areas of hidden curriculum in our
schools that mold perspectives of students deal with issues such as gender, morals, social
class, stereotypes, cultural expectations, politics, and language. Hidden curriculum is often
found within the formal curriculum of a school; this may be partially in what is not taught.
Various aspects of learning contribute to the success of the hidden curriculum, including
practices, procedures, rules, relationships, and structures. Many school-specific sources,
some of which may be included in these aspects of learning, give rise to important elements
of the hidden curriculum. These sources may include, but are not limited to, the social
structures of the classroom, the teacher’s exercise of authority, rules governing the
relationship between teachers and students, standard learning activities, the teacher’s use of
language, textbooks, audio-visual aids, furnishings, architecture, disciplinary measures,
timetables, tracking systems, and curricular priorities.
Although the hidden curriculum conveys a great deal of knowledge to its students, the
inequality promoted through its disparities among classes and a social status often invokes a
negative connotation. Since the hidden curriculum is considered to be a form of education-
related capital, it promotes this ineffectiveness of schools as a result of its unequal
distribution.
As a means of social control, the hidden curriculum promotes the acceptance of a social
destiny without promoting rational and reflective consideration. Although the hidden
curriculum has negative connotations, it is not inherently negative, and the tacit factors that
are involved can potentially exert a positive developmental force on students. Some
educational approaches, such as democratic education, actively seek to minimize, make
explicit, and/ or reorient the hidden curriculum in such a way that it has a positive
developmental impact on students.
Today, it is considered that the social development of students are important as well as
cognitive development and proving social development they give importance to a second
curriculum, including social and cultural features of school, rather than formal curriculum.
Except from the curriculum which is written at school, this curriculum is referred to as a
second curriculum and referred to names such as ‘the hidden curriculum’, ‘secret curriculum’,
‘stored curriculum or ‘non-written curriculum’, but it does not provide a clear and distinctive
elements of the official curriculum for students, such as feelings, values, attitudes and habits
of the official curriculum of the correct knowledge is stated to be more effective (Yüksel,
2004).
Within the context of hidden curriculum, it is suggested that elements like social class of the
students that they come from and their academic achievement levels, social and academic
life in schools, interactions between school and the environment, management and
organizational preparations of the school, position of the teacher and the students in
classroom and school environment should be properly taken into account during the process
of character education.
(ix) NULL CURRICULUM
The ‘Null’, or ‘excluded’ curriculum is a concept that was formulated by Elliot Eisner (1979).
Eisner suggests that all schools are teaching three curricula: the explicit, the implicit, and the
null. The explicit curriculum simply refers to publicly announced programs of study-what the
school advertises that it is prepared to provide. Such a program typically includes courses in
mathematics, science, social studies, English, art, and physical education.
The implicit curriculum, on the other hand, includes values and expectations generally not
included in the formal curriculum, but nevertheless learned by students as part of their school
experience.
The null curriculum Eisner defines as what schools do not teach: “ ... the options students are
not afforded, the perspectives they may never know about, much less be able to use, the
concepts and skills that are not part of their intellectual repertoire” (1985, p. 107). Like many
terms used in the curriculum field, ‘the null curriculum’ is a multi-faceted concept. Eisner
himself identifies two major dimensions of the null curriculum: intellectual processes and
subject matter. These two dimensions may be supplemented by a third, that of affect. Null
content can also consist of subfields within a discipline.
Topics within sub-fields represent yet a more specific level at which we may identify
components of null content. The concept of evolution omitted from a biology curriculum
would be an example of this type of exclusion. Null content can be considered in terms of
particular facts.
Pelletier also observes the existence of the null curriculum: “what is not taught, addressed,
or even mentioned in education.” Here Pelletier is thinking particularly of the implications of
not teaching philosophy. However, what she has to say about the null curriculum applies to
other subject areas, conspicuous for their absence.
Potentials of Null Curriculum
 Visual and Performance of Arts

 Relationship and sexuality
 Contraceptive method
 Conservational second language
 Home economics
 Carpentry and Industry Arts
 Basic life skills Contribution to Students
 Increased knowledge leads to increased understanding leads to increased
acceptance leads to increased and more collaboration
 More than excluded culture/perspectives, null-curriculum can be expressed through
excluded methods or modes of expressions
 Deeper understanding, more well-rounded students.
(x) SPIRAL CURRICULUM:
A spiral curriculum can be defined as a course of study in which students will see the same
topics throughout their school career, with each encounter increasing in complexity and
reinforcing previous learning
A spiral curriculum is one in which there is an iterative revisiting of topics, subjects or themes
throughout the course. A spiral curriculum is not simply the repetition of a topic taught. It
requires also the deepening of it, with each successive encounter building on the previous
one.
Bruner (1960), when he coined the term `spiral curriculum’, suggested that such a curriculum
would be structured around the great issues, principles and values that a society deems
worthy of the continual concern of its members. A curriculum as it develops should revisit the
basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the full formal
apparatus that goes with them
REFERENCES
1. Brahadeeswaran D and Rathy G A Resource material on curriculum Evaluation
2. KNOWLEDGE AND CURRICULUM. pdf - Bharathidasan University.

http://www.bdu.ac.in/cde/docs/ebooks/BEd/II/KNOWLEDGE%20AND%20CURRICULU
M.pdf. Visited on 14.07.2019
3. Railph W. Tyler (1949) Basic principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Chicago:

University Press Chicago
4. Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The Teacher-Curriculum Encounter. Buffalo: State University of

New York Press.
5. Ornstein, A. and Hunkins. (1998) , F. Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues.

Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation.
6. Kelly A.V (1999) Curriculum Theory and Practice Sage Publications
7. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River,

NJ:Prentice- Hall. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products.
UNIT 8: CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION, MONITORING
AND EVALUATION
Contributors
Dr. G.A. RATHY
Associate Professor
Electrical & Electronics and Communication Engineering, NITTTR, Chennai.
Dr. P. MALLIGA
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1.8 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION MONITORING AND EVALUATION

1.8.1 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 1
1.8.2 CRITERIA OF UTILITY, VARIETY AND
FLEXIBILITY FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 3
1.8.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MONITORING AND EVALUATION 4
1.8.4 ASSESSMENT VS. EVALUATION 4
1.8.5 INTERPRETING THE CURRICULUM 4
1.8.6 CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES 5
1.8.7 CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES 8
1.8.8 EDUCATIONAL VALUES OF CURRICULAR
AND CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES 13
REFERENCES 16
Unit 8: Curriculum Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation
1.8 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

MONITORING AND EVALUATION
1.8.1 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Four phases of Curriculum Process
(i) CURRICULUM DESIGN PHASE
The main objective of this phase is to determine the general and specific objectives of the
particular programme
Tasks to be undertaken
1. For a chosen area of curriculum we have to obtain data on job descriptions and
from that prepare the task analysis. These two are referred as ‘job analysis’. This
can be done by a number of methods
• Well-designed questionnaires
• Actual observation of jobs
• Interview Techniques
• A judicious combination of all the three mentioned above
2. A detailed analysis of different jobs will reveal the clusters of knowledge and skills
that these jobs demand. These clusters of knowledge and skills are then written in
the form of course objectives.
These objectives reveal in general and specific terms what students can do at the end of
specific period of Instruction by the way of achieving these objectives.
In other words the curriculum designer must determine
a) What abilities the student possess on entry in to the course?
b) What abilities they will acquire on leaving the course? (as indicated in the job
analysis)
The difference between (a) and (b) is the gap that must be bridged when designing the
curriculum.
(ii) CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PHASE
1. Sequencing the various subjects
2. Selecting the content in each subject
3. Sequencing the topic in each subject
4. Selecting instructional methods, instructional resources (materials and media)
5. Preparation of plans (Unit plan & Lesson plan) for instruction
6. Development of tests and other materials needed for evaluation of student

performance
7. Pilot trials of instructional resources and evaluation materials
8. Revision of materials based on feedback information collected from pilot trials
9. Printing and supplying the materials to teachers and students
10. Orienting the teachers in the use of methods and materials developed for
implementation of the new curriculum.
(iii) CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION PHASE
1. Preparation of implementation plans
2. Organizing in-service staff development programmes
3. Effecting organizational changes like work distribution, role clarification, provision

of support services and streamlining procedures and communication channels
4. Actual implementation of the curriculum in the identified institutions
5. Monitoring the implementation processes and evaluation of students performance
6. Collection of feedback information
(iv) CURRICULUM EVALUATION PHASE
1. Formative evaluation (carried out during the process of curriculum development)
2. Summative evaluation (carried out after implementing the curriculum once or

twice)
3. Curriculum improvement
1.8.2 CRITERIA OF UTILITY, VARIETY AND FLEXIBILITY FOR CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT
(I) CRITERIA OF UTILITY:
Unless a particular concept or skill contributes directly to the achievement of one or more of
the stated curricula objectives, it cannot be included in the curriculum.
The ‘nice to know’ content must be trimmed and time should be devoted to ‘must know’
curriculum
(ii) CRITERIA OF VARIETY:
Care should be taken to provide an interesting variety of learning experiences, instructional

materials and media to prevent monotony.
(iii) CRITERIA OF FLEXIBILITY:
The curriculum for different stages of education should be so organised that it permits
mobility, both horizontal and vertical of the student. It should be possible for a person to
enter and leave the system at different points.
1.8.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Monitoring Evaluation
Purpose: Why? To improve the efficiency of To determine the
curriculum implementation Effectiveness of the curriculum
process
Time frame When? During curriculum implementation After curriculum implementation
Persons involved Who? Mostly internal Mostly external
Role of the monitor / Facilitator (coach) judge
evaluator
1.8.4 ASSESSMENT VS. EVALUATION
• Assessment is an ongoing process aimed at understanding and improving student

learning.
• Evaluation is a judgment or determination of the quality of a performance, product

or use of a process against a standard.
1.8.5 INTERPRETING THE CURRICULUM
Teachers need a rich repertoire of criteria for interpreting curriculum materials and
revealing the possible educational opportunities embodied in them. A more refined and
differentiated mode of teacher-thinking about curriculum could lead to a better grasp of the
richness and complexity of the educational opportunities offered by curriculum materials.
Metaphorically speaking, one may view the set of criteria teachers use for discerning
characteristics of curriculum materials as a set of goggles. Manifold and varied goggles will
reveal more of the hidden world of educational opportunities embodied in the materials.
Teachers who are able to differentiate between various aspects of curriculum materials,
who are well practiced in thinking about curriculum potential, may be better equipped to
make professional decisions about the way materials could be used in diverse educational
situations.
1.8.6 CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Activities encompassing the prescribed courses of study are called curricular or academic
activities. In simple words it can be said that activities that are undertaken inside the
classroom, in the laboratory, workshop or in library are called “curricular activities.” These
activities are an integral part of the over-all instructional programme. In all these activities,
there is active involvement of the teaching staff of the educational institution.
Curricular activities include:

(i) CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES:
These are related to instruction work in different subjects such as classroom experiments,
discussions, question-answer sessions, scientific observations, use of audio-visual aids,
guidance programmes, examination and evaluation work, follow-up programmes etc.
(ii) ACTIVITIES IN THE LIBRARY:
It deals with reading books and magazines, taking notes from prescribed and reference
books, for preparing notes relating to talk lessons in the classroom. Reading journals and
periodicals pertaining to different subjects of study, making files of news-paper cuttings, etc.
(iii) ACTIVITIES IN THE LABORATORY:
These refers to activities which are carried out in science laboratories, engineering
laboratories, laboratories in humanities (psychology, education, language etc.).
(iv) ACTIVITIES IN THE SEMINARS, WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCES:
These activities refer to the presentations, discussions, performed by delegates and

participants on emerging areas of various subjects of study in workshops, seminars and
conferences.
(v) PANEL DISCUSSION:
For enriching knowledge, understanding and experience of both the teachers and students
panel discussion is essential, which would have be organised in the classroom situation.
Organisation of this programme facilitates scope for interplay of expressions on the topic
under discussion.
As we have seen different curricular activities, it is essential for the teacher to integrate
either some or all these activities in their teaching and learning process.
Committees of Curricular Activities:
To ensure that these activities are integrated, organized in smooth manner, there is the
need for formation of different committees in every educational institution. This will pave
the way for proper institutional management.
These are as follows:
(i) ACADEMIC COMMITTEE:
This committee plays a vital role for ensuring proper academic transaction of the
educational institutions. It comprises the senior academicians of different disciplines. Its
major purpose is to prepare the framework of the courses to be covered during an academic
session and determine the instructional programme for every class.
(ii) LIBRARY COMMITTEE:
A library committee may be formed for proper academic development of students. As it is

true that library is the heart of an institution. For actualizing this the need of formation of
this committee is felt. For this the committee must prepare the list of prescribed books,
reference books and magazines, journals, periodicals of national and international
importance each year.
(iii) TIMETABLE COMMITTEE:
This committee consists of the selected teachers who have ability, efficiency and aptitude
for preparing timetable for the educational institutions.
The timetable preparation work is usually done before the reopening of the classes for a
semester/ year. While preparing timetable for different classes they give importance on the
physical facilities available, the staff position for teaching and principles of timetable
preparation. Besides, the committee gives weightage to different courses in terms of
periods or hours while preparing the timetable and revises or modifies it during the session
as and when necessary.
(iv) INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING COMMITTEE:
It is perennial that planning is a must when there arises the overall improvement of an
educational institution as it results in proper management of every educational institution.
For this every institution should have a ‘planning committee’ under the chairmanship of the
head of the institution.
It is essential to highlight here that planning for every institution should be done in
accordance of the vision, mission and resources available in it. The major concern of this
committee is to co-ordinate both curricular and co-curricular activities. In relation to
curricular perspective this committee co-ordinates the activities of the committees meant
for proper academic or curricular programmes.
(v) EXAMINATION COMMITTEE:
This committee is formed for the purpose of conducting different examinations smoothly.
This committee carries out in overall charge of conducting examination and evaluation
work. For this the committee prepares programme schedules for different examinations,
makes arrangement for questions, answer scripts, invigilation work, evaluation work,
tabulation and publication of results.
(vi) GUIDANCE COMMITTEE:
In recent years formation of guidance committee has become essential for every
educational institution. The prime cause behind it is now “organisation of guidance and
counselling services has become an integral part of curricular activities.” The committee
organizes orientation programmes for the students in selection of their subjects of study,
selection of elective subjects to be taken, choice of job, further education and training.
In addition, it has to provide personal, educational and vocational guidance. This committee
consists of counsellor, career master, teacher having interest and area of specialisation in
guidance headed by the head of the institution.
1.8.7 CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Having seen curricular activities, let us explore the co- curricular activities.
Co-curricular refers to activities, programs, and learning experiences that complement, in

some way, what students are learning in school—i.e., experiences that are connected to or
mirror the academic curriculum. These have indirect reference to actual instructional work
that goes on in the classroom.
Co-curricular activities are typically, but not always, defined by their separation from
academic courses. For example, they are ungraded, they do not allow students to earn
academic credit, they may take place outside of school or after regular school hours, and
they may be operated by outside organizations.
As the modern educational theory and practice gives top most priority on all round
development of the child there is the vitality of the organisation of these activities, in the
present educational situation. So for bringing harmonious and balanced development of the
child in addition to the syllabus which can be supplemented through curricular activities, but
the CO- curricular activities play significant role. These activities are otherwise called as
extra-curricular activities. As we have learnt that
An extracurricular activity or extra academic activity (EAA) is an activity, performed

by students, that falls outside the realm of the normal curriculum of school, college or
university education.
It is therefore said that the co-curricular or extra-curricular activities are to be given

importance like the curricular activities. So now organisation of co-curricular activities is
accepted as an integral part of the entire curriculum.
There are different Types of Co-Curricular Activities:
− Physical Development Activities:
− Academic Development Activities
− Literary Activities
− Cultural Development Activities
− Social Development Activities
− Moral Development Activities
− Citizenship Training Activities
− Leisure Time Activities
− Emotional and National Integration Development Activities
(i) PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
These activities include games, sports, athletics, yoga, swimming, gardening, mass drill,
asana, martial arts, etc.,
(ii) ACADEMIC DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
These activities include formation of clubs in relation to different subjects. Such as science
club, engineering club, ecological club, economics club, robotics club, civic club etc. Besides
this, the other activities like preparation of charts, models, projects, surveys, quiz
competitions etc. come under this category.
(iii) LITERARY ACTIVITIES:
For developing literary ability of students the activities like publication of college magazine,
wall magazine, bulletin board, debates, news paper reading, essay and poem writing are
undertaken.
(iv) CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
The activities like drawing, painting, music, dancing, dramatics, folk song, variety show,
community activities, exhibition, celebration of festivals, visit to cultural places having
importance in local, state, national and international perspective come under this category.
(v) SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
For bringing social development among students through developing social values resulting
in social service the following co-curricular activities are organised. Such as – NSS, red cross,
adult education, NCC, mass programme, social service camps, mass running, village surveys
etc.
(vi) MORAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
The co-curricular activities like organisation of extra mural lectures, social service,
celebration of birth days of great-men of national and international repute, morning
assembly should be organised. These activities bring moral development among individuals.
(vii) CITIZENSHIP TRAINING ACTIVITIES:
The activities like student council, student union, visits to civic institutions like the
parliament, state legislatures, municipalities, formation of student self government, co-
operative stores are essential for providing useful and valuable civic training.
(viii) LEISURE TIME ACTIVITIES:
These activities are otherwise known as hobbies of different students. These include
activities like coin-collecting, album making, photography, stamp collecting, gardening,
candle making, binding, toy making, soap making, play modeling etc.
(ix) EMOTIONAL AND NATIONAL INTEGRATION DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES:
Under this category organisation of camps, educational tours, speech programmes,

celebration of national and international days are included.
Principles of Organisation and Management of Co-Curricular Activities
For making the co-curricular activities meaningful in order to bring all-round development of
students, there is in need of ensuring sound organisation and management of these
activities. For this certain principles should be followed while organizing and managing co-
curricular activities. These are also known as essentials of organisation and management of
co-curricular activities.
So these principles as essentials of organisation and management of co-curricular

activities are given below:
(i) APPROPRIATE SELECTION:
It implies that co-curricular activities are to be selected in such a way that will suit the
interest of the students and facilities available and would be available, shortly in the
educational institution.
(ii) VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES:
A wide variety of activities should be planned for the sake of meeting the different needs of
all the categories of students.
(iii) ADJUSTMENT IN SCHOOL TIMING:
The major purpose of this principle is the co-curricular activities are to be organized during
school hours. For smooth organization of these activities it should be placed in the time
table in such a manner that will be organized mostly one hour before and after the
instructional work of the educational institution. As a result of which the students will be
facilitated to take part in different activities without facing any problems.
(iv) GUIDANCE OF TEACHERS:
All the co-curricular activities should be organised strictly under the guidance of teachers.
(v) CASUAL GROWTH OF THE ACTIVITIES:
This principle states that activities should be started in a slow and steady manner and
developed gradually.
(vi) FACILITIES TO TEACHERS:
Some credit either in the form of less teaching periods or in the form of extra payment to
teachers should be given to encourage teachers.
(vii) PROVISION OF NECESSARY FACILITIES:
It refers to the fact that before organizing any co-curricular programme materials needed
and facilities required are to be prepared in advance and then the programme will be
organised.
(viii) PARTICIPATION OF A LARGE NUMBER OF TEACHERS:
All the teachers should be actively involved in the organization of co-curricular activities in
their institution. For this head of the institution should make the distribution of charges in
such a manner that each member of teaching staff will remain in charge of a particular
activity of his interest.
(ix) PROVISION OF FUNDS:
The financial status of the educational institution in general and financial allocation in
relation to a co-curricular programme should be taken into consideration while selecting
activities. Because the degree of success of any co-curricular programme depends upon
maximum utilization of human and material resources available in the educational
institution. Otherwise no co-curricular activity will be accepted if the financial status of the
educational institution is not permitted.
(x) FIXATION OF REGULAR TIME, DATE AND VENUE:
Before organizing any co-curricular activity the time, date and venue are to be informed to
the pupils earlier, as a result of which there may not be any disturbance in relation to
dislocation and confusion.
(xii) INVOLVEMENT OF COMMUNITY:
Involvement of community members should be ensured at the time of organizing different

co-curricular activities. This will enable them to become aware about different co-curricular
programmes and their role in bringing harmonious development of their wards. Besides this
participation of community members act as safeguard to the authority of an educational
institution in a large scale.
(xiii) EVALUATION:
Provision of evaluation should be made for monitoring the co-curricular programmes

encompassing upon the services and value of these activities.
(xiv) MAINTENANCE OF RECORDS:
A detailed record should be maintained by the educational institution on the organisation of

various co-curricular activities
Due importance has to be given to student welfare services, institutional planning,

institutional climate and discipline, management of educational finance etc.
1.8.8 EDUCATIONAL VALUES OF CURRICULAR AND CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
We have explored different cocurricular and extracurricular activities. Let us investigate the
educational values inculcated through these activities.
1 Physical Development:
Co-curricular activities specially the physical activities, help in the normal growth and
development of the body. The activities like sports, athletes, and games lead to the
muscular development of students. These develop helpful habits and keep the students
physically fit.
2. Social Development:
The co-curricular activities are carried out in social environment. The pupils work together,
act together and live together. This helps in socializing the child and develops social
qualities, like team spirit, fellow feeling, co-operation, toleration etc. Activities like scouting,
first aid, red cross, community living etc. provide complete social training to children.
3. Training for leadership:
In these activities the students are actively involved in the organisation of different
programmes. They discharge various responsibilities and therefore get opportunities to
come forward and lead. They get training for leadership. Their talents are recognized and
developed.
4. Educational Value:
Co-curricular activities supplement class work. These enrich and widen the bookish
knowledge of students. They get opportunities of observation and experience.
5. Moral Development:
The co-curricular activities have a great moral value. These activities encourages the
students to develop sportsmanship. It believes in fair play. While delegating some
responsibilities of these activities, it leads to the moral development like honesty, justice
and impartiality.
6. Emotional Development:
These activities meet the psychological needs of pupils and lead to their emotional
development. Their instincts are sublimated. Instincts like gregariousness and
self-assentation which are so dominant in adolescence period find expression in one activity
or the other. The activities also lead to emotional training.
7. Disciplinary Value:
The pupils get a number of facilities to frame certain rules and regulations concerning
activities. They also act according to the rules. They themselves impose restrictions on their
freedom. Hence, they learn mode of discipline which is self-imposed. They learn to behave
with a sense of responsibility.
8. Cultural Value:
There are co-curricular activities which have great cultural value. The activities like
dramatics, folk- dance, folk-music, variety shows etc. provide glimpses of our culture. These
activities help in the preservation, transmission and development of our cultural heritage.
9. Aesthetic and Recreational Value:
The co-curricular activities bring a healthy change in the dull classroom routine. The pupils
feel relaxed and free when they perform activities like sports, cultural programmes, dances,
drama etc. The activities like drawing, painting, fancy dress, music, preparation of models
etc. develop aesthetic sensibility.
10. Proper Use of Leisure Time:
Some co-curricular activities help in the proper use of leisure time. For example: crafts,
hobbies and other creative activities can be pursued by the pupils. In the absence of such
constructive activities, they may pick up some bad habits.
Co-ordination of Co-Curricular Activities
Before launching programme of any activity (co- curricular) it should be approved

democratically by the staff both the teaching and non-teaching as a whole. Coaches or
sponsors of school activities should be the members of the staff and not outsiders.
Activities that are organised in the school should, aim for achieving civic, social, moral and
other worthwhile values as far as possible. Activities for enjoyment are useless though they
may be harmless. The number of activities which allows students to take part in different
activities in an academic year should be according to their needs and requirements. A
restriction on participation for students is required as it will check the overloading nature of
organizing any co-curricular activity. However, the students having same abilities, interests,
attitudes, aptitudes should be encouraged to participate in large number.
Need of Curricular and Co-Curricular Activities:
it is essential to know the need of these two types of activities.
These are given below:
1. Organisation of curricular activities enables students to be active in the classroom

and the organisation of co-curricular activities brings sound health and proper
physical fitness among the students through organizing games and sports.
2. Proper organisation of curricular activities develops study habits among the

students. And the co-curricular activities develop literary talents of the students.
3. Organisation of curricular activities provide both theoretical and practical

knowledge to students in their taught subject matters and co-curricular activities
provide scope to apply the obtained knowledge in different situations.
4. Proper organisation of curricular activities enable the students to have their

academic brilliance by acquiring mastery over their subjects of study. And co-
curricular activities provide ample scope for the students for social adjustment
through different social activities.
5. Organisation of curricular activities give a sound theoretical knowledge and

understanding about useful, responsible and democratic citizenship to the
students in the classroom situation. This becomes possible through academic
treatment of civics and politics.
REFERENCES
1. Brahadeeswaran D and Rathy G A Resource material on curriculum Evaluation
2. KNOWLEDGE AND CURRICULUM. pdf - Bharathidasan University.

http://www.bdu.ac.in/cde/docs/ebooks/BEd/II/KNOWLEDGE%20AND%20CURRICULU
M.pdf. Visited on 14.07.2019
3. Railph W. Tyler (1949) Basic principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Chicago:

University Press Chicago
4. Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The Teacher-Curriculum Encounter. Buffalo: State University of

New York Press.
5. Ornstein, A. and Hunkins. (1998) , F. Curriculum: Foundations, principle and issues.

Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation.
6. Kelly A.V (1999) Curriculum Theory and Practice Sage Publications
7. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
8. Prentice- Hall. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products.

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Module 1: Orientation towards Technical Education and

L-2 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION

1 QUALITY ASSURANCE IN HIGHER EDUCATION 1

1.0 QUALITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION

It is better to understand what is higher in higher education? You, as a teacher or

I. Higher education as the production of qualified human resources. In this view,

 To prepare students for research and teaching;

 contributing to national development,

Values / Goals Suggested Parameters / Activities

1. Contribution to  More access with equity

3. Inculcating value system  Value integration in academic programs

5. Quest for excellence  Development of benchmarks of excellence

Table 1: Indicative parameters of the value framework

2.0 CONCEPT OF QUALITY

quality as a culture recognizes the importance of organizational view of quality as a process

“…a high evaluation accorded to an educative process, where it has been

Some of the reasons are:

1. Competition: We are entering a new regime, where competition among educational

2. Customer satisfaction: Students, parents or sponsoring agencies as customers of the

3. Maintaining standards: As educational institutions, we are always concerned about

4. Accountability: Every institution is accountable to its stakeholders in terms of the

5. Improve employee morale and motivation: Your concern for quality as an

3.0 QUALITY MOVEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION

 grade institutions of higher education and their programs;

 help institutions realize their academic objectives;

 All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)

4.0 MODELS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE

Accreditation is a process of quality assurance and improvement, whereby a programs in an

Through accreditation, the following main purposes are served:

 Support and advice to technical institutions in the maintenance and enhancement of

 confidence and assurance on quality to various stakeholders including students;

 assurance of the good standing of an Institution to government departments and

 enabling an Institution to state publicly that it has voluntarily accepted independent

 Encourages quality improvement initiatives by Institutions.

 Improves student enrollment both in terms of quality and quantity.

 Helps the Institution in securing necessary funds.

 Enhances employability of graduates.

 Facilitates transnational recognition of degrees and mobility of graduates and

 Motivates faculty to participate actively in academic and related Institutional /

 Accredited institution / program offers the highest quality education available;

 Accredited institution / program strengthens consumer's confidence, employers

 Accreditation helps institutions to know their strengths, weaknesses and

 Accredited institution / program demonstrates accountability to the public,

A. ABET (ACCREDITATION BOARD FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY)

ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology) is recognized by Council of

 Organization and management of the institution

B. NATIONAL BOARD OF ACCREDITATION (NBA)

 Outcome based education is targeted at achieving desirable outcomes (in terms of

 Initially, NBA accreditation used to be based on ‘input – process – output’ model

must be measured by outcomes rather than inputs, because inputs do not

The membership of Washington Accord is an international recognition of the quality of

personal competence for employment in responsible technical assignments.

The process of accreditation by NBA goes through the following stages:

 Institutions acquire the manual of accreditation and application forms;

 Nationally evolved criteria for assessment

The criteria used by ICAR-AB are as follows (ICAR, 2002):

Criterion 3: The institution is accomplishing its educational objectives.

As outcomes of the assessment process, either an institution is recognized or not

5.0 NEED FOR QUALITY TEACHERS IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION

i. PROGRAMMES AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT:

To meet the requirements of rapid changes and developments in technology, the

ii. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT:

iii. IMPROVING QUALITY OF TEACHING AND LEARNING:

a. Consider an Engineering College / Institute. It may be the college / Institute you