Group 1

Words of the day Raucous/ro-kas/ adj

Pious/ˈpīəs/adj-devoutly religious Disagreeable harsh/ student
Ex. She is a pious follower of the faith, never missing Refers to loud laughter/ loud
her prayers Ex: The partying neighbors keep up their rancous
Tag: Makadiyos laughter at night
Hal. Makadiyos na tao si Sharun Tag: Maingay
Ceb: Diosnon Hal: Maingay ang tunog ng tren
Pan: Diosnon kayo nga tawo si Sharon Ceb: Saba
Pan: Saba kayo si Junarie sa esklwelahan
Smug/sməɡ/adj
having or showing an excessive pride in oneself or Group 4
one's achievements. Bourgeoisie/ ˌbo͝ orZHwäˈzē/ noun
"he was feeling smug after his win" The middle class, typically with reference to its
Tag: Mayabang perceived materialistic values or conventional
Hal: Naging mayabang si Ana dahil sa kanyang attitudes.
tagumpay Ex: The new bourgeoisie which was created by the
Ceb: Hambog industrial revolution, had money is spend and wanted
Pan: Ni Hambog si Ana tungod sa iyang mga to travel
kalampusan Tag. Hal: Ang bagong bourgeoisie na nilikha ng
rebolusyung industriyal ay may pera na gagastusin at
Group 2 gustong maglakbay!
Egregious /ih-gree-juhs/ adj
Extraordinary in some bad way or shockingly bad Denouement/ˌdāno͞ oˈmäN/ noun
Ex: Ana’s mother scolded her because of her The final part of a play, movie, or narrative in which
egregious behavior. the strands of the plot are drawn together and matters
Tagalog: Napakanlulumo are explained or resolved.
Hal: Pinagalitan si Ana ng Kanyang Ex: A twisting tale had received a fittingly dramatic
nakapanlulumang ugali denoument
Ceb: Makapaguol Tag: Ang isang paikot-ikot na kwento ay
Pan: Gikasab-an so Ana sa iyang inahan tungod sa nakatanggap ng isang angkop ng madrama na
iyang makapguol na batasan pangwakas
Cebuano: Ang usa ka baliko na sugilanon nakadawat
Animosity/a-nuh-maa-suh-tee/ noun ug usa ka haom nga madramatikong katapusan.
A strong feeling of dislike or hatred
Ex: The animosity dissipated when Chris forgave Group 5
John for what he did. Pandemonium/ pan•de•mo•ni•um/ noun
Tag: Suklam Wild uproar or undertrained dis-order: tumult or
Hal: Ang pagkasuklan nga ay nawala nang chaor
mapatawad ni Chris si John sa kanyang mga nagawa. Ex: There was pandemonium in court as the judge
Cebuano: Padumot gave his summing up.
Pan: Nawala ang pagdumot ni Chris pagpasaylo niya Tag hal: Mas magulo ang buhay kaysa ngayon.
kang john sa iyang nabuhat. Ceb Pan: Kagubot ang imong gidala diri sa among
panimalay.
Group three
Voluptuous/ va-lap (l) –sha-was/adj Ecstatic/ ec•stat•ic/adjective
Curvaceous and sexually attractive (typically used of Feeling or expressing overwhelming happiness or
a woman). joyful excitement.
Ex: They were voluptuous and not afraid to show off Ex: He was ecstatic when he heard that he was going
their curves. to be my boyfriend.
Tag: Kaakit-akit Tag Hal: Masaya siya nang nabalitaan niyang
Hal: Si Liza ay may kaakit-akit na katawa. magiging kasintahan ko na siya.
Ceb: Madanihan Ceb Hal: Nalipat siya sa dihang nakahibalo siya nga
Pan: Si Liza adunay madanihan nga lawas. siya mahimong akong uyab.
Group 6
Tumultuous/to͞ oˈməlCH(əw)əs,təˈməlCH(əw)əs/
adjective
Very loud or full of uproarious change or uncertainty.
Ex: The former president appeared to tomultous
applause and standing ovation.
Tag hal: Malakas! Ang pagdating pangulo ay
lumitaw sa malakas na pagpalakpakan.
Ceb Pan: Ang kanhing presidente nagpalita sa
mamakutog nga pagpalak-pakan ug wala ka
maadaihong pagtindog.
Pseudonym /ˈso͞ odənim/noun
A name that someone usually a writer uses instead of
his/her real name.
Ex: She writes under a pseudonym. Ching-ding a
pseudonym her real name is Chairyl Ceriaco
Tag hal: Paugalang hindi tunay
Hal: Nagsulat siya sa ilalim ng kanyang sagisag, ang
kanyang tunay na pangalan ay Chairyl Ceriaco
Ceb Pan: Nagsulat siya sa ubos sa usa ka dingga.
Ching-ching ay iyang angga, ang iyang tinuod ngalan
mao ay Chairyl Ceriaco.
Group7
Amiable/ˈāmēəb(ə)l/adjective
Very loud or full of change or change or uncertainty.
Having or displaying a friendly and pleasant manner.
Ex: Sarah is amiable person.
Tag hal: Mabait.
Si Sarah ay mabait na tao.
Ceb Pan: Si Sarah maayong pagkatao.
Bewildered/bəˈwildərd/adjective
Perplexed and confused; very puzzled.
Ex: Ann is bewildered about their class season.
Tag hal: Si Ana ay naguguluhan sa tinalakay nila sa
kanilang klase
Ceb Pan: Si Ana naglibig mahitungod sa ilang gitun-
an.
Group 8
Mademoiselle/mad-mbuun-zel/noun
Used as a title equivalent to miss for unmarried
woman.
Ex: You take care mademoiselle it’s not safe to go
out after dark.
Tag: Binibini
Hal: Ang bibini ay dapat ginagalang at minamahal.
Ceb: Batan-ong babaye
Pan: Ang usa ka batan- ong babaye naguol kay
tungod wala na siyay kwarta.
Farouche/fuh-roosh/adjective
-Sullenly unsociable or shy
Ex: She has been very farouche with llong time
Tag: Mahiyain
Hal: Mahiyaing vata ang anak ni Imelda.
Ceb: Ulawon
Pan: Ulawong bata ang anak ni Imelda.
The nature of language
1. Language as something learnt.
In as much as human beings are
programmed to acquire language easily, they learn a
language.
 Maybe you don't have an idea of how you
actually learned a language.
 However, when your parents started
communicating with you, as an infant, using
sounds and simple utterances, you started
learning and responding to the language they
are using to interact.
 This is how you learned your native
language.
 When you started attending school and your
teacher was speaking a particular language
as a medium of instruction, you managed to
acquire the language, too, little by little.
 When you watch a TV show where the
language used by the characters seemed
unfamiliar at first, however, you continue
watching repeatedly and gradually get
acquainted with the language they use, you
learn the language.
Language could be programmed and coded
in our genes as human beings, but mastering the
system of language programming is far beyond being
able to produce it. Every time we read is an
opportunity to learn the language codes. When we
watch our favorite show, when we read social media
posts we are learning the language. Language is
something that is learned through exposure and
practice. Although the language is genetically
programmed in our brain to make distinctions of the
different sounds, things, activities, and notions,
language acquisition is produced through active
learning and repetitive interactions (Perry, 2020).
Language learning, therefore, is behavioral, imitative,
and learned through effort. As soon as we get
acquainted with a particular language and become
interested in its system and structures, then we can
master its use. This means that human beings are
capable of learning as many languages as they can
when interested.
2. Language as related to the culture of
society
Look at the people around you, do
they communally think and behave like you
do?
 Different people from different social
orientations speak differently. You might be
wondering why you love having friends who
share a common language and interest with
you.
 When you share the same language, your
minds meet and you understand each other
using common code. Even hand gestures,
facial expressions; body language would be
meaningful and understandable when you
have a similar orientation with a certain
groups of people.
 At birth, we are socialized into our various
linguistic identities.
 Because of that social configuration, we
speak the same language as the people we
belong to.
 Since people of a particular community or
group have one language, most of the time,
they understand each other, they share the
same sentiments and they form a culture, a
society of similar interest.
 This is how language works. Language
influences culture: the values, the practices,
and the interests of people. Similarly, culture
influences language.
 This is the reason why the longer you watch
Kdrama and get very familiar with their
verbal and non-verbal cues you tend to get
Koreanized, or when you watch Hollywood
films, you become westernized, too. This is
the influence of language in shaping culture
and society.
 There is always a cyclical association among
language, society, and culture that is
produced due to the interaction. Language is
culturally defined.
 They are inseparable in a way that culture
affects language, and language affects the
mental state of society.
 When people communicate their values,
beliefs, and customs, they use language as a
tool.
 The interaction patterns that they create
constitute culture.
 Through the use of language, the common
values and identity of a certain crowd are
cultivated and formed since the same
 language that people use in speaking has a
significant role in shaping their collective
identity.
Thus, language creates a vital foundation in
the development of a society.
3. Language as species-specific, uniformed,
and unique to humans
"Language is human,"
-Edward Sapir
Here is a man who hạs different pets at
home. He has a couple of dogs, a few chickens, and
cats, He assigned all the pets a name. As time
progressed, he realized that only dogs respond to
their names.
 The cats will respond to the sound of //
while the Chickens respond only to the
sound of /k/.
 Because of this observation, he changed the
cats' names with /n/ and the chickens with
/k/, Every day he attempted to communicate
with all O his pets.
 Later on, he found out that only his dogs had
positive responses to his words.
 He realized that some animals only exist to
survive, that they only respond to a stimulus,
Which is food, and not to the language that
humans use to communicate.
 The ability to use and respond to language is
genetically inherited by humans.
 It is species-uniformed since only human
beings are capable of acquiring language, set
in the right environment.
 All animals communicate; however,
language is an important tool for human
communication, hence, it is tough to think of
a society without language.
 Although animals communicate in various
ways for some terrestrial purposes such as
the dancing of the bee, the singing of the
birds especially during mating scason, the
communication of the crabs and spiders
using signals (Mukherjee, 2015), the
different ways of dogs barking, yet none of
them utter a single word, unlike humans do,
This is ascribed to how human brains are
preset.
 According to Chomsky (1975), the human
brain is different from that of the animals.
 Humans leam and produce language
creatively. Language functions in the left
hemisphere of the brain, scated on the
 cerebral cortex, diferent from the rest of the
animals.
 This is what makes humans capable of
producing language. Language is human
species-specific since only human beings are
gifted with language.
 Language is an attribute of humans. Humans
converse with others using oral and auditory
symbols, which are important characteristics
and forms of human behavior.
4. Language as a system
 Leaning a language is similar to
learning mathematics.
 It needs analysis.
 This is in reference to the fact that
language is a system of systems.
 It is a system of sounds and symbols.
There are phonological and
grammatical systems in all languages.
 A careful analysis of these systems
would lead you to the proficient use of a
particular language.
 Linguistic units constitute language.
These units are interdependent On One
another.
 A language is a unit of combined
speech sounds that form into words,
phrases, to sentences and eventually
become ideas, and thoughts.
 There are two distinguishing systemic
categories of language: the sound
system, structures, and meaning; and
the system of symbols and non-verbal
signals. Noam Chomsky (1975)
believed that language is a controlled-
noise. The sounds form their own
system as numerous sounds function
systematically. In the same manner,
language is a set of organized and
boundless sentences, constructed out of
a definite set of elements. With a
language system of syntactic structures,
words are formed and meaning is
created. It is also evident that language
works through symbols. Language is a
system of spoken and written symbols
in which abstract figures concretely
represent. The words used in the
language are symbolic representations
of ideas, characterized through letters
and figures, which are carefully
arranged to form a meaning. The
combination of w.i.s.h for example,
stands for an abstract idea of a desire.
When the letters are rearranged which
may result in s.h.i.w or h.i.s.w, these
would not make sense.
The idea that the word wish" represents has
become a convention, something that is
difficult to change. Language is also a
system of non-verbal signs purely based on
arbitrary conventions. When speakers or
writers desire to communicate they convey
their message across in non-verbal signs
such as gestures, facial expressions, body
movements, and written communication.
The receiver of the message who shares the
common codes interprets and arrives at the
intended meaning.
5. Language as vocal
 Although today, people usually
communicate by texting or chatting, there is
no substitute for verbal communication,
especially when communicating with
familiar people.
 Language is oral. Speech is primary, writing
is secondary. Speech is the fundamental
expression of language. A language without
speech is unimaginable. Language is spoken
first before written. This will be traced back
to how language evolved from the sounds
produced by the primitive days when men
used to hoot or grunt, to communicate.
 The vocal sounds produced by the
articulatory device of the human body
primarily makes up language. Through
generations, language has been passed on
verbally and eventually in written form.
Writing preserves language. When you were
a child, you learned to speak it first before
you learned to write it. Most probably
during our lifetime, we speak more than
write. As a whole, the sum of the
considerable amount of speech produced is
way larger than that of the written works.
6. Language as a skill subject
lCs of Language
Learning a language is acquiring skills. The
macro skills - listening and viewing, speaking,
reading, and writing - are categorized into receptive
and expressive language skills. Receptive skill is the
ability to understand information represented in
words and sentences either through visual or
auditory, while expressive language skill is the
facility to put forth sensible ideas into visual and
acoustic symbols such as in writing and speaking,
with accurate grammatical representation. Receptive
and expressive skills are intertwined; receptive
language skill is an essential foundation in
developing expressive skills.
The skills are honed through extensive
reading, studying of the rules, listening for precision
in the articulation of sounds, and accuracy of
intended meaning, practice, and repetition. Language
mastery is acquired by learning the skills through
constant practice and exposure. In formal setting,
language is part of the curriculum, the ultimate goal
of which is usage in both verbal and non-verbal
communication. To maximize the language skills
acquisition, a language teacher has to devise
curricular tasks that will allow the students to be
exposed to the language and use it themselves. The
language skill acquired is a stepping stone to gaining
linguistic and communicative competence and
performance.
7. Language as a means for communication
 Communication is branded as a process of
conveying and exchanging messages from
Person to person using a medium, mostly
done for the society to function cohesively.
It is a basic human necessity. Language,
similarly, is the greatest form of intelligent
interaction for the gifted individuals of the
universe: humans. Communication and
language are mutually linked since the
beginning of time. Now that people are
living in an organized global community,
interaction has become progressively
possible.
8. LANGAUGE AS ARBITRARY
 We are born with no name, but once
christened, a name is assigned to us, which
makes up our identity. The same principle
is applied when it comes to language.
Language is arbitrary in the sense that
language meanings existed as they are.
There are no plausible explanation or
inherent relation as to how meanings are
assigned to each letter, symbol. Or word.
There is no scientific principle that underlie
the naming of symbols.
It is a matter of convention. The availability
of the words is guided by no purpose.
Socrates once discussed that a word assigned to an
object was not based on pure convention. It resulted
from integral correctness, which related the features
of the object to the sounds used to label it. However,
this idea was dismissed later by Lucretius with the
argument that anyone could be given any names and
continuously used them.
Wilhelm von Humboldt, a prominent writer
in the modern era, vied that there is an acceptable
basis in forming words that "language naturally
selects for particular objects speech sounds which
partly and independently in comparison with others
produce an impression on the ear similar to that
which the object makes the mind". Saussure, the
father of modern linguistics, on the other hand,
contended that the structural configuration of the
word has no relation to its meaning. (pratclif.com)
Language, therefore, is a structure of
conventional symbols. Each symbol embodies a
stretch of sounds with which a sense could be
associated. If language was not randomly created,
there could only be one language in the entire world;
fixed and unchanging.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE
 Language is characterized according to its
distinguishing qualities.
 These include conventionality and non-
instinctive, productivity and creativity,
duality, displacement, humanness, and
universality.
1. Conventional and Non-Instinctive
Just like any other conventional practices
naturally acquired, language is non-instinctive and
conventional. Language is brought about by
evolution and strengthened with convention. It is a
silent pact that each generation transmits to the next.
Like all human institutions, language flourishes and
perishes, it expands and transforms. It adapts with
the change of time.
Every language is a convention in the
community, a product of a cooperative mind. People
communicate spontaneously and patterns of
communication are not planned.
Language
Is non-instinctive since none is born with
the spontaneity to speak any language. It is learned
through interaction and socialization. Language is
not biologically automated but culturally determined.
A word does not make sense unless it is collectively
understood by the users. The language systems,
symbols, structures, and meanings are always
products of the peoples' thoughts produced in
harmony.
2. Productivity and Creativity
Notice how Shakespeare associates the object "rose"
to its distinguishing characteristic "sweet" scent as if
these two words are interchangeable yet the
description of the smell of the object is a specific
attribute of a rose. The images that he created do not
only limit to the two words "rose and sweet", but to
multifarious metaphors, which generate other words.
However, no one sets a finite line as to the particular
words that have to be associated with rose and sweet.
This means that every reader or listener is allowed to
link the words as to the limits of his imagination,
without specific rules set. Language is productive. It
is creative. It keeps on sprouting that with one word
emerges another.
As the needs of the people change, language evolves
as a means of adapting to the demands of the people
who use it. Old English has a distinct feature
compared to modern english, in the same way, that
the language of the Millennial is different from the
language of the alpha generation. The structural
features of human language can be fixed to create
new expressions, which are understood by both
speakers and listeners. Man uses concurrent
linguistics to produce complete novel ideas and
expressions. This makes language productive and
creative.
3. Duality
The sentence “The hunters shot the lion"
conforms to the general philosophical theory of signs
and symbols concerning its semantic and pragmatic
sense. It makes sense since the sounds are arranged
according to their fixed combinations and the words
are arranged according to the prescribed grammatical
structure. The second sentence lion hunters shot the"
does not conform to the established language
syntactical rules, thus, it doesn't make sense. Human
language comprises of two sub-systems: the sound
system and the meaning system.
Predetermined sound combinations create
units of meaning. Different combinations of sounds
produce syntactic categories, units, and constituents
that create more sophisticated and meaningful
utterances.
4. Duality
The duality of patterning is the double
articulation and semiotic. Language duality is what
gives language expressive power since meaningless
sounds are combined according to rules to form
meaningful words (Luden, 2016).
Significantly in speech production, the
individual sounds of p.e.n do not have intrinsic
meaning, but when combined as in "pen" it now has a
distinct meaning. The combination of sounds is
based on fxed rules that no word starts with zl, Ir, bz,
or ng in the English language, This makes language
dual.
5. Displacement
Unlike animal communication that is
context-bound, human language is context-free.
Human beings are capable of narrating events and
situations without actually living them at the
moment. For human language, a stimulus is not
directly induced, objects may not necessarily be
tangibly present at the place and time of speaking.
This is called displacement. Only humans are capable
of recounting events that occurred before or the
vision of what happens next. Example: I visited my
cousins place last week, or I am enrolling in
linguistics next semester: When a dog produces a
sound, it generally is his reaction to his present
condition. A dog cannot tell its masters that it saw a
thief previously, nor a cat can tell its master that it
went to the neighbors' house, events happened in the
past. The property of displacement explains why
humans are capable of recalling stories that happened
or even creating stories that may not be realistically
possible, such as fiction.
6. Humanness
Language is innate to human beings. No
species other than humans are gifted with language.
Humans are endowed with physical attributes for
them to acquire language. Language has complex
structures of sounds and meanings, which animals
could not comprehend. A cow's moo today is similar
to the móos centuries ago. Human language is
changeable and extendable. Although animals could
communicate with each other, it is limited to signs
and sounds. A bee could determine the distance and
sources of honey by instinct or a dog can bark when
he is excited or angry. Yet these messages are
limited.
Humans could clearly distinguish concrete
identifiable symbols through the use of language,
however, animal communication is often non-
discrete. Indeed, human language is way more
intricate than animal communication.
Although each language has a unique style
of functions in terms of sounds, vocabulary and
structures, language is equal in all the parts of the
universe. A linguistic universal is a systematic
occurrence of the linguistic patterns across national
languages.
All languages have nouns, although the
structural arrangement may vary in the same way that
all languages have vowels and consonants.
Linguists identified two universals: the absolute,
where all elements apply to every known language;
and the implicational, where only particular features
apply to different languages.
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
1. Interpersonal Informative
 "Let us talk."
 The interpersonal function of a language
fulfills the human needs to exchange
experiences since humans are social beings.
 It is interpersonal when the communicators
use grammatical preferences that enable
them to perform their interpersonal relation.
This is based on the assumption that a
human being does not only talk but is in
Constant conversation with others.
 Language is used to interact, establish, and
maintain a relationship, influence behavior,
express a point of view or elicit others' point
of view Let us look at the sentence let us
talk."
 This comes with an automatic reaction of
the listener to engage in a conversation with
the speaker, which could create
interpersonal relations. Similarly, the
statement "Come with me " is a language
that invites an action response to the speaker
which would allow them to engage with
each other "Come with me " -Humans are
capable of love. - Some languages are used
not only for interaction but also as a packet
of information.
2. Performative
 The sentence above has a truth value but could
neither be considered true nor false.
 The language function is informative if it does
not confirm or reject propositions.
 It is informative when language is used to
inform or to give further emphasis to the known
information.
 Declarative statements are used in informative
languages. Informative language is often seen
in analytical
reports, arguments, and directions, or most
everyday speeches.
 Language then functions as a means in
illustrating observable and confirmable reasons.
, I do. I accept. I apologize. I promise. These
sentences are interpersonal.
3. Informative
Humans are capable of love.
 Some languages are used not only for
interaction but also as a packet of information.
 The sentence above has a truth value but could
neither be considered true nor false.
 The language function is informative if it does
not confirm or reject propositions.
 It is informative when language is used to
inform or to give further emphasis to the known
information.
 Declarative statements are used in informative
languages.
 Informative language is often seen in analytical
reports, arguments, and directions, or most
everyday speeches. Language then functions as
a means in illustrating observable and
confirmable reasons. Performative I accept. I
apologize. I promise.
4. Expressive
-You are such a happy pill!
-This is great!
 Verbal communication is always used to
meet the needs to express oneself.
 When one uses language to express feelings,
the language function is expressive. The
 expressive language function reports
attitudes and emotions. The sentences You
are
 such a happy pill" and "This is great!" evoke
emotions of the speaker, which do not
 directly point a meaning. The expressive
language of a speaker is oftentimes a way
 of understarnding the speaker's personality
and emotions. The statement "I love this
 character so much" does not give any
particular meaning and detail about the
character
 but rather to the speaker's emotion and
interest towards the character.
 JAKOBSON'S FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
Roman Jakobson was influenced by Karl
Buhler's organon model. Adding poetic, phatic, and
metalingual functions of language to Buhler's
functions of language, Jakobson explained the six
functions of language, in relation to verbal
communication.
Verbal communication is done through the
sharing of information between and among using the
speech faculties. Any form of interaction that utilizes
spoken words is labeled as verbal communication.
To understand the six functions, Jakobson
presented his communication model. Any verbal
exchanges, according to Jakobson, is composed of
factors such as (1) the sender, (2) the receiver, (3) the
context (co-text), (4) the channel or the contact
between the sender and the receive, (5) the common
code, and (6) the message.
1. Referential functions
 The referential function is associated with
the context.
 This language function is concerned with
the content.
 Language describes a situation or an object.
 It is referred to as denotative, cognitive
function since it pronounces a mental state.
 It involves both deictic words and specific
descriptions to show things or facts.
 An example of a referential function is "The
sun rises from the east and sets in the west,"
2. Emotive functions
 The emotive function focuses on the sender,
similar to expressive language.
 This is best illustrated with interjections,
which are phrases spoken to express a burst
of emotions or surprise, excitement, or
frustration.
 The Emotive function is an expression of the
speaker's internal state. In this function, the
speaker communicates for himself /herself.
 Examples of emotive language are:
 "ouch", "yuck" and "wow".
 They are not singled-out but taken as a
whole.
3. Conative Function
 A conative function is directive and oriented
towards the receiver.
 This is used when the speaker expresses
purposively to persuade or influence the
receiver.
 A conative function is used for causing or
preventing an action.
 It is used for commands and requests.
 The linguistic expressions are evocative and
imperative sentences, which will direct the
receiver to act out and do something.
 These expressions "Come in and join the
class" and "Run" are examples of conative
function.
4. Phatic Function
 Communication is not only dependent on the
sender and the receiver alone.
 A channel or Jakobson calls it contact, is
also necessary. A channel is a psychological
and physical association between the sender
and the receiver.
 The phatic function of language is a socio-
linguistic function used for the sake of
interactions.
 This is set for the "channel or contact" that
establishes, suspends, or prolongs the
communication.
 This function is used to keep the
communication open and maintain contact
with the person one is talking with.
 This is also to check whether the channel is
still there. Examples of phatic language are
“Are you still listening?" or "Can you hear
mne?" It can also be observed in greetings
and casual conversations to open the
conversation such as "Hello "or "Hi."
Further, the expressions: "ok", bye" are also
considered phatic since they provide keys to
maintain or close the contact or channel of
communication.
5. Metalingual function
 Metalingual function, also called
"reflexive", is the use of language to
describe itself (self-referential) or use of the
code as Jakobson calls it.
 It is used when a language talks about its
features as in "sky has three letters".
  The language is used to talk about itself,
compared to "the sky is blue" which talks
about the characteristics of the
characteristics.
 The "code" used is concealed and will be
verbally and overtly used when formed as a
significant subject.
 The metalingual function usually develops
from an interruption In the communication
process.
 This happens when two or more people
speak different languages or use different
codes within one language such as dialects,
sociolects, and idiolects" or when a language
is used to discuss about a language.
6. Poetic Function
 The poetic function focuses on the message
and its aesthetic presentation; It is associated
with how the message reflects itself.
 This refers to the descriptive language used
to create a picture in the mind.
 It is an aesthetic manipulation of the
intrinsic linguistic elements, which focuses
primarily on the splendor of the language
itself.
 It presents the richness of language texture
and sound.
 The words are arranged and crafted
strikingly using sounds and linguistic
features.
 Although most of the time, a poetic function
is used in poetry, it can't be reduced only to
the poetic nuances.
 It emphasizes the concrete side sign of the
language, deepening the fundamental
opposition between what is intelligible and
what is perceptible, between the linguistic
sign as means of intelligible knowledge and
the objects of the reference of reality"
(Narcis, 2017).
According to Jakobson, the poetic function
allows readers or listeners more to
focus on the "signifiers" of linguistic signs, away
from the signified (Tsur, 2010).
HALLIDAY'S FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
Michael Halliday (1985) categorized two
functions of language, the Meta-function and
Micro-function.
Halliday, the proponent of systemic
functional linguistics, described language as
Metafunctional. According to Halliday, Meta-
function is a set of principles of language that are
essential in explaining how adult language works.
Meta-function includes textual, ideational, and
interpersonal functions.
1. Ideational Function
An ideational function involves the natural
world and human consciousness.
This is concerned with creating and maintaining a
notion of experience, which is both Experiential and
logical. Experiential function denotes the speaker's
choice of linguistic elements that will help him to
make meaning. This is mostly illustrated when you
interact with your surrounding and use the language
to construe an abstract prototype of your experiences.
The patterns of meaning are installed in your brain,
which are used to make sense of the complex world
around you. Halliday noted that through interactions,
humans make meaning from their experiences.
Logical function denotes logical-semantic
associations, where the relationship between one
clausal unit and another is established. Combining
clausal units such that in conditional sentences is a
logical process.
2. Interpersonal Function
An interpersonal function is about the world
of people working together. This
function seeks to create and uphold social
relationships. This includes sentences
and grammatical choices that allow a person to enact
interpersonal relations. This is
grounded on the assumption that a speaker always
communicates with another, which
shows that language does not only interpret
experiences but also as a vehicle with which to
interact.
Halliday argues that through the changing
micro-encounters of the day-to-day
interactions, people set a complex patten of dialogue
to a more permanent relationship,
where the language is used to institute social bonds.
The grammatical system that
relates to the interpersonal function includes mood,
modality, and polarity (Wikipedia.
org).
3. Textual Function
 Halliday believes that ideational and
interpersonal functions are intricately
structured. These two are combined freely and as
Halliday puts it, with a distinct mode
of meaning that is the textual function.
The textual function comprises all the grammatical
systems needed to create
relevance to context, through which "language
creates a semiotic world of its own." A
text is created that coheres the context of the situation
within itself.
Halliday (1978), further, looked at language
as constructed by interaction rather than acquired. He
believes that "what the child hears is functionally
related to the observable situations around him.
" He proposed 7 functions of language based
o on the premise that interaction in society is
necessary to master the language.
Halliday's Micro-functions of Language
He categorized the 7 functions of language.
The first 4 functions are what he referred to as
pragmatic, which is to fulfill his social, physical, and
emotional needs such as instrumental, regulatory,
interactional, and personal. For children, language is
used as a tool for controlling of others and expressing
oneself or, for creating interaction within the child's
social world. The remaining three functions are what
he calls "mathematic", which are used to help a
person come to terms with his/her physical
atmosphere, which include imaginative, heuristic,
and representational.
4. Instrumental function
Before the child learns the concrete
language, he/she uses sounds and signs to
communicate with the people around him/her. This
use of language Instruments is called the instrumental
function. Oftentimes the instrumental function is used
when a child expresses what he/she wants, such as
food or milk. Even crying serves as an instrument of
a child's need. It signals the adults around him/her
that he/she could be hungry or he/she needs a hug
and cuddle, or that he/she wants the attention of the
The instrumental function of language refers to the
use of language to communicate needs,, express
desires, choices, and preferences. Using language as
an instrument, the child could get things done.
Halliday illustrates instrumental function as a child's
instrument such as sounds to get what he/she wants,
even before learning a concrete verbal language.
The expression I want to. ...is often used.
5. Regulatory function
There are instances when the child demands
attention and wants to control or influence the people
around. This is done by the use of verbal language.
Such language is used for regulatory function. The
regulatory function refers to the use of language to
control and regulate behavior. It is concerned with
influencing people to do things for the child.
Most of the regulatory expressions include:
Go away…
Do as I tell you….
You need….
people around him/her…
Halliday, the proponent of systemic functional
linguistics, described language as Meta-functional.
According to Halliday, Meta-function is a set of
principles of language that are essential in explaining
how adult language works.
Meta-function includes textual, ideational,
and interpersonal functions.
6. Ideational Function
An ideational function involves the natural
world and human consciousness.
This is concerned with creating and maintaining a
notion of experience, which is both experiential and
logical. Experiential function denotes the speaker's
choice of linguistic elements that will help him to
make meaning. This is mostly illustrated when you
interact with your surrounding and use the language
to construe an abstract prototype of your experiences.
The patterns of meaning are installed in your brain,
which are used to make sense of the complex world
around you. Halliday noted that through interactions,
humans make meaning from their experiences.
Logical function denotes logical-semantic
associations, where the relationship between one
clausal unit and another is established. Combining
clausal units such that in conditional sentences is a
logical process.
7. Interpersonal Function
An interpersonal function is about the world
of people working together. This function seeks to
create and uphold social relationships. This includes
sentences and grammatical choices that allow a
person to enact interpersonal relations. This is
grounded on the assumption that a speaker always
communicates with another, which shows that
language does not only interpret experiences but also
as a vehicle with which to interact.
Halliday argues that through the changing micro-
encounters of the day-to-day interactions, people set
a complex pattern of dialogue to a more permanent
relationship, where the language is used to institute
social bonds. The grammatical system that relates to
the interpersonal function includes mood, modality,
and polarity (Wikipedia.org).
8. Textual Function
Halliday believes that ideational and interpersonal
functions are intricately structured. These two are
combined freely and as Halliday puts it, with a
distinct mode of meaning that is the textual function.
The textual function comprises all the grammatical
systems needed to create relevance to context,
through which "language creates a semiotic world of
its own." A text is created that coheres the context of
the situation within itself.
LINGUISTICS THEORIES AND MODELS
Behaviorism
The behaviorists, most notably BF Skinner, believe
that for language learning to occur, imitation, drills
and constant practice are very important. Behaviorists
demand that language teachers must be proficient
enough or possess native like fluency so that what
will be taught to the learners are only the perfect
ones. This is true especially in the teaching of
pronunciation.
Nativism/Innatism
Noam Chomsky, the main proponent of nativism,
criticized the imitation and stimulus-response
learning principles of behaviorism for its failure to
explain why, with limited knowledge of grammatical
rules, people are able to generate a limitless number
of sentences. With this notion, Chomsky
hypothesized that humans must be born with
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in their brain
which is the reason why children can acquire
language quickly.
Interactionism
Proponents of interactionism assert that language
acquisition has both biological and social
components - that is, it is the result of the application
of the principles propounded by the behaviorists and
nativists. The interactionists believe that there must
be a good interplay between the biological and
environmental factors for language acquisition to
occur.
Monitor Model
Another idea supporting the principle that acquiring a
language has both biological and social components
is Stephen Krashen's Monitor model, also known as
the Input hypothesis, which is composed of five
hypotheses or components expounding the process of
language acquisition.
5 HYPOTHESIS OR COMPONENTS OF
MONITOR MODEL
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
In this hypothesis, Krashen argued that acquiring a
language is different from learning it.
ACQUISITION
Acquisition is a method of learning to use language
that occurs unconsciously or automatically due to
interaction with other people. This system is called
subconscious learning from where people doesn’t
have any idea the learning they got. Because of
socializing to other people there is a possibility that
she or he can acquire or copy the language base on
his or her understanding and how to pronounce the
their language. So this system focuses on the act of
speaking rather than the correctness of the language.
In other words, it values communication more than
the correct use of language.
LEARNING
Learning, on the other hand, is the result of proper
language learning which is the common use of words,
grammar and so on. It is the conscious process
system and the result of a formal teaching like we all
did in school. It focuses on the correct use of
language. This is also what we call "conscious
learning". conscious learning which means that it is
when you learn or and you realize that you have
learned a language.
Natural Order Hypothesis
Krashen claimed that there is a natural or predictable
order by which all learners acquire language. This
order, however, has nothing to do with the simplicity
or complexity of grammatical features and the way
these features are taught. This order is similar to the
way children acquire their first language or adults
leam a foreign language.
The Monitor Hypothesis
this is very much possible in correcting our written
work, this still holds true in our regular talk or
conversation with people though it is more difficult.
The time element, in addition to the proficiency level
of our learned competence, plays a crucial role in
'monitoring our utterances. Krashen also warned that
the 'monitor' can sometimes act as a barrier as it
forces the language learner to slow down and focus
more on accuracy over fluency, affecting confidence
and contributing or resulting to learner's anxiety.
The Input Hypothesis
Krashen explains that language skills cannot be
taught directly, because they should be acquired
through an emergent process, naturally occurring on
their own. The best way and perhaps the only way to
acquire a language according to Krashen, is simply to
receive abundant meaningful inputs from a context-
rich environment. This means that for students to
continue to progress with their language
development, they have to be exposed to
comprehensible 'i+1° inputs or those that should be a
little beyond their current language ability.
Affective-filter Hypothesis
Acts like a screen or an opening that either facilitates
or blocks meaningful inputs from reaching the
language acquisition part of the brain. According to
Krashen, affective variables including anxiety, self-
confidence, motivation, and stress play crucial roles
in taking in the 'inputs'. When the filter is high, which
means self-confidence is low, the lower is the chance
for the inputs to be taken in. Teachers should
therefore design a language teaching-learning process
that would lower down the affective filter of the
learners - that is, increasing their motivation and
confidence, so that better acquisition of meaningful
language inputs can occur.
Communicative Competence Model
The linguist Dell Hymes first coined the term
communicative competence in 1972. It was
developed further and expounded by Canale and
Swain into a language model composed of four
components: grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse
and strategic competence. When children acquire a
language, they do not only acquire grammatical
knowledge of sentences, but also use that knowledge
appropriately - that is, children also develop the
competence or awareness such as when and not to
speak, what to talk about with whom, where, when
and in what manner. Hence, this all revolves around
the four areas of linguistic competence.
4 COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE MODEL
Grammatical Competence
Also known as linguistic competence, includes the
ability to create grammatically correct utterances,
incorporating the linguistic knowledge of
morphology, phonology, syntax and semantics. is
concerned with the appropriateness of the utterance,
This inoffensive moms ability to apply linguistic
knowledge in different communicate functions in
various sociolinguistic contexts - that is, their ability
to determine When speak, when not, and as to what
to talk about with whom, when, where and in what
manner.
Discourse Competence
Is concerned with the learners» mastery of producing
coherent and cohesive language outputs in the modes
of listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Strategic Competence
Refers to the learner's ability to solve problems
during communication. This includes their
compensatory strategies in case of communication
difficulties. In other words, learners must have the
ability to "fix" or "solve" communication problems,
such as miscommunication, that frequently arise
during an interaction.
DISTINCTIONS OF LINGUISTIUCS
APPROACHES
The descriptive approach is a linguistic distinction
that describes and analyzes language according to
how people verbally use it. It emphasizes on
recounting language as it is used and conventionally
understood, not by how it has to be constructed.
Modern linguists view descriptive language as the
product of natural speech and observe principles that
look at the language exactly as how it is spoken.
The prescriptive approach, on the other hand, lays
down the correct way of the structural arrangement of
the words in the sentence. It is an approach based on
what is considered to be structurally correct and
accurate as determined by the group of academics.
In short, it describes how language is prescribed to be
used. This approach shows a complete disregard of
how the language community speaks. Certain forms
of language are more "accurate" than others based on
the social prestige of the users.
Synchronic versus Diachronic
Language may be explored at a particular point in
time or for a very distant time. This is the distinction
between synchronic and diachronic linguistics.
Synchronic and diachronic are words with Latin
origins, where synchronic means synchronous and
diachronic means through time. Thus, when language
is studied at a particular time or a certain time in
history, it is considered synchronic, while, diachronic
focuses on language development through time.
Language versus Parole
Langue is the intangible linguistic scheme used by all
the members of a speech community. It refers to the
set of rules and patterns which people need to follow.
Parole, however, is the concretization of language
through actual use.
Language Competence versus Language
Performance
The discrepancy of language competence and
performance is related to langue and parole.
According to Chomsky, competence is the speaker's
knowledge of the grammatical rules of language
while performance is the actual use of language and
application of the grammatical rules. Language
competence makes the speakers compose a chain of
sentences in different structural patterns and allows
them to recognize errors when they are committed as
well as vague constructions and fragments.
Etic versus Emic
Etic is the approach to language study that denotes
the description of a particular language or language
culture that is generally objective in perspective and
non-structural. Emic, on the other hand, involves
speech acts and situations that are confirmed as real,
as perceived by the speech community, instead of the
observations of the investigators and study
backgrounds. It is an approach that investigates how
people think, see, and categorize the meaning based
on their practices, their rules and behaviors, and how
they imagine things.
Syntagmatic versus Paradigmatic
Syntagmatic - relation describes the dimensions of
language in a horizontal mode such as sequential
orders of phones in the word pen /p/, /e/, /n/, or the
linear order of morpheme, the word impossibility as
im-possible-ity. It also looks at the sequence of words
that people are using such as the sentence: “I am
here”, which is a subject-verb-adverb combination.
Paradigmatic - relation describes the relation of the
linguistic elements of the language outside the
utterance. An example is the sentence "I am here"
that is viewed as not a set of words or grammatical
unit but a meaningful utterance specifying the
speakers as “I” who is at a certain location “here”.
Therefore, syntagmatic involves phonetics,
morphology, and syntax, while paradigmatic involves
semantics and pragmatics.
Speech versus Writing
language is primarily oral, which involves speech or
communicating meaning verbally. Therefore, if
speech is primary, writing is secondary Writing is the
record of the language represented in letters. Speech
involves the articulation of language using the speech
organs and the reception of the message. It is sound-
based and that meaning is perceived based on how
units of sounds are combined. Writing follows a
written code, which gives the language a different
characteristic and scope that speech does not have. In
writing, the message is carried through a certain
space or channel, which is preserved and used
through time.
Phonology
Phonology is the study of speech sounds. It looks into
the patterns of sounds in a particular utterance and
across languages. It scrutinizes the differences
between languages by exploring what sounds could
go together to make patterns and form into words. It
identifies some categorical organizations of speech
sounds in the minds and how they are used to convey
messages. It studies how a human brain is
programmed like the computer, in terms of speech
recognition and language processing.
Phonetics
Phonetic deals with the definite production and
acoustics of the sounds of language. It looks into the
speech production and interaction of the different
organs of speech such as the teeth, the tongue, and
the lips to articulate a certain sound. It is the study of
in the physical qualities of speech.
Phonology versus Phonetics
Phonetics and phonology are interrelated but each has
distinct identifiable features. Phonology looks at the
object as a mental representation of the sound, while
phonetics studies sounds as a representation of a
concrete object.
Phonology is concerned with the abstract elements,
whereas phonetics deals with the concrete and
material properties of sounds. In studying phonetics,
you would be able to understand infinite qualities as
the slight differences in the b] sound, spoken at a
different time. However, when you look at it in terms
of phonology, /b/ will always be represented with the
same sound in the language.
Phonemics
Phonemics looks into the structure of language in
terms of phonemes or its distinct units of sounds. A
phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a specific
language that differentiates one word from another,
as examples, the sounds of /p/, /d/, /b/, /t/ If in words
pat, dab, pad, bad, and tab.
Phonetics versus Phonemics - the key differences
Phonetics and phonemics also differ in ways. In
terms of transcriptions, phonetics offers more
specifics on how sounds are produced, while
phonemics shows how people interpret such sounds.
In terms of representation, brackets are used to
enclose phones or sounds while slashes are used to
enclose phonemes. Phones are defined universally,
they are not specific to any particular language,
whereas phonemes are relative to languages.
Therefore, Filipino phoneme /d/ and English
phoneme /d/ are both meaningful yet the phone [d] if
represented in both English and Filipino languages
are not the same set of sounds.
Allophones
An allophone is predictable phonetic variations or
any speech sounds that stand as a single phoneme,
such as the aspirated /k/ in "kit" and the
unaspirated /k/ in "skit", which are allophones of the
phoneme /k/, or the aspirated /t/ in "top" and
unaspirated /t/ in "stop" and the flap sound of the /t/
in «batter» are allophones of phoneme /t/.
Others distinguish the allophones based on the
difference in the spelling.
Phonemes versus Allophones - the key differences
Both allophones and phonemes are components of
speech sounds, however, phonemes are described as
the recognizable distinct unit of sound while
allophones are the variants of sounds. Phonemes are
related to speech meaning while allophones are
related to speech enunciation. Phonemes could be a
spoken language while allophones are uttered.
Allophones could be associated with spelling but
phonemes do not always sync with spelling.
Phonemes
Phonemes are the implicitly specific sound units in a
language. For instance, the words pet' and bet' vary in
their first phoneme the /p/ and /b/. Similarly, the
words "Pat" and "pet' vary in the middle phoneme,
which is a vowel. When the phonemes differ in two
words, they are referred to as minimal-pairs.
Articulation
Articulation is the production of sounds using the
vocal tract, such as the articulation of the sounds of
vowels and consonants.
Articulation versus pronunciation-the key
differences
Articulation is the act of producing the sounds using
the organs of speech such as the jaws, the tongue, the
lips, etc., while pronunciation is the manner of
speaking the words correctly. It is a way of producing
sounds including stress, intonation, and articulation.
The sound production is based on the acceptability
and the standard. Pronunciation is the manner of
sounding the words during the utterance. If
articulation is producing the sounds using the organs
of speech, enunciation is the clarity of how the
sounds are made.
Phonation
Humans always make sounds. Every time you do
something, you make and produce sounds. Even
when you hit your head, you would most probably
say "ouch". The physical properties of each sound
production are referred to as the phonation. It is
called the reason for the sound. Phonation occurs
when the air is carried into the lungs. Then the air
passes through the glottis and the larynx. This causes
the vibration of the vocal folds where the sounds are
produced.
Nasalization
When the mouth utters some words, occasionally the
velum is lowered, some air passes through the nose.
This is called the nasalization. It occurs when the
sound is expelled partly through the nose and the
mouth, such as the sound of /n/.
PHONETICS CLASSIFICATIONS
Experimental Phonetics
Experimental phonetics refers to the branch of
general phonetics, which involves the study of sound,
and other speeches of human. It investigates the
physical occurrence of speech including how sounds
are produced and perceived. It looks into the nature
of the audible signal that is transmitted from the
speaker to the listener. Experimental phonetics covers
basic areas such as articulatory phonetics, acoustic
phonetics, and auditory phonetics.
Articulatory Phonetics
Articulatory phonetics is concerned with the
production of sound. It is explains the motion of
speech structures such as the lips, the tongue, the
velum, the jaw, etc. The place and manner of
articulation are classified under the articulatory
phonetics.
Generally, articulatory phonetics deals with the
transformation of the airflow through the vocal tract
into acoustic energy. The primary articulators include
the upper gum ridge, the upper lip, the lower tip, the
upper teeth, the tongue, the hard palate, the soft
palate, the velum, the uvula, the pharyngeal wall, and
the glottis.
Articulatory Process
The articulatory process shapes the words in every
utterance. A speech is a result of how the speaker
enunciates the words. Most of the time, proper
articulation makes speeches clearer and more
understandable.
The articulatory system comprises the mouth, lungs,
tongue, teeth, lips, nose, larynx and vocal folds.
These make humans capable of articulation, unlike
other species.
Different processes of articulation
1. Assimilation is the process of influencing the
preceding or following sounds, which causes changes
in sound production. Assimilation is classified into
regressive, progressive, and reciprocal. Assimilation
is regressive when the preceding sound is
assimilated, for example, the word "bank" where /n/
and /k/ are assimilated. The sound of /n/ undergoes
change, which is caused by the trigger sound /k/.
2. Deletion
is the process of dropping or eliding specific sounds.
Sounds are usually deleted at the end of the cluster
such as in the word "soft fabrics". This happens when
the alveolar plosive // is deleted. It also occurs in the
word "try again" where the initial weak vowel /a/ in
"again" is dropped
Dissimilation
- is the process of dropping or eliding specific
sounds. Sounds are usually deleted at the end of the
cluster such as in the word "soft fabrics". This
happens when the alveolar plosive // is deleted. It
also occurs in the word "try again" where the initial
weak vowel /a/ in "again" is dropped.
Aphaeresis
- is the deletion of the vowel sound at the
beginning of the word, such as in the word "go away"
where /a/ sound is deleted.
Syncope
- is the internal deletion of the vowel sound. An
example is the vowel /o/ in the word "not" or the
vowel /i/ in "suit", and /u/ in "bought."
Apocope
- is the deletion of the final vowel sound, such as
/e/ in" Lacoste" or “oppose”.
3. Weakening or Lenition
is the eliding of the weak phoneme or the weakening
of the weak consonant. An example of lenition is the
eliding of the weak phonemes in the words "could"
and "him“.
4. Metathesis -
is the process of stretching the sounds of some
phonemes where some sounds become long as a
result of sound loss. Examples of lengthening are
"meat"
Acoustic Phonetics
Acoustic phonetics is a phonetic division that is
concerned with the control, transmission and
reception of sounds. It aims to analyze the wave
signals of sounds that occur through the fluctuating
frequencies, amplitudes, and length within a speech.
Acoustic phonetics is considered a very technical
discipline within the study of oral communication,
which answers a particular question "what is sound?'
Wavelength -
is the distance between the crests of a sound wave. It
is the distance sounds travel during the period from
peak to peak. It is inversely proportional to
frequency. Loud sounds produce high waves. This
means that the lower the frequency, the higher the
wavelength.
The period -
of a wave refers to the time to complete one cycle of
sound.
Amplitude -
is the height of the wave. Loud sounds produce large
amplitude, while softer sounds produce smaller
amplitude. The intensity of sound is measured by a
scientific unit - decibel. When the sound is very soft,
the decibel could be 1 or 0. On the contrary, when the
sound is loud the decibel goes up by six. When
humans speak, the normal sound is 60 decibels.
Frequency -
is the number of wave cycles that pass through a set
of points in a second, which is measured by Hertz
(Hz). It is related to pitch, where lower frequency
vibrations mean lower pitch, and higher frequency
means high pitch.
Auditory Phonetics
Auditory phonetics is a division of phonetics that
involves the perception of Sounds and how the sours
are heard and interpreted. If articulatory phonetics is
concerned with the articulator of the speaker,
auditory phonetics is concerned with the listener as
the receiver of the message. Auditory phonetics deals
with interconnected elements: the sound perception
and the decoding of the message.
Descriptive Phonetics
Descriptive phonetics deals with a range of topics
including vowels, consonants, transcriptions,
suprasegmental features and dialect variations.
Consonants
Consonants are speech sounds that are articulated
with partial or complete closure of the vocal tract.
SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES
Suprasegmental features are prosodic features which
include stress, tone, pitch, juncture, and intonation.
Suprasegmental features are not only limited to
sounds but also to syllables, words, phrases, and
sentences.
Vowels
Vowels - are syllabic speech sounds produced with
an open vocal tract, affecting their quality and
duration. They vary in length, quality, and loudness,
and are characterized by physical dimensions like
tongue height, tenseness, and lip rounding.
Vowels are usually voiced and related to prosodic
deviations like stress, tone, and intonation. They are
represented by the letters a, e, i, o, and u.
Consonants are speech sounds that are articulated
with partial or complete closure of the vocal tract.
Examples of Consonants are:
(p) – Produced with the lips
(t) – Produced with the front of the tongue
(k) – Produced with the back of the tongue
(h) – Produced in the throat
(f) and (s), – Produced forcing air through a narrow
channel
(m) and (n), the air goes through the nose.
VOWELS versus CONSONANTS
Vowels differ from consonants as described:
Vowels are produced without any friction or
obstruction in the hollow tube/air stream. While
consonants are made by totally or partially restricting
the airflow that gets out of the mouth.
A vowel is a free-flowing sound. The air escapes
freely through the mouth while in consonants the air
has to work harder to push its way out.
When producing vowel sounds, the mouth and the
throat are open and do not close at any point. The
tongue and the lips and the teeth in producing
consonants, the sound is impeded by the teeth, togue
and the lips, etc. since the vocal trac is not entirely
open.
4. All vowel sounds are voiced while some consonant
sound are not voiced.
5. The vowel sounds are described in terms of tongue
height, tongue advancement, and roundedness of the
mouth. The consonants sounds are described in terms
of voicing, place and manner of articulation.
6. Some vowels can be an entire word "a", "I",
however, no consonants can be a word by itself.
7. Every word has a vowel, while not every word has
a consonant.
8. Vowels can be sung and yelled, yet consonants are
difficult to sing, and cannot be yelled singly.
VOWEL QUALITY
Vowel quality is a phonetic terminology that refers to
the distinction that makes a vowel sound different. It
is determined by the position of the speech
articulators, such as the difference between "beat and
bit", "bulk and ball" etc.
Classifications of Vowels
There are five vowels in the English alphabet. These
are categorized according to their vowel qualities,
articulation of the tongue, the stability of articulation,
lengthening and thickness, and voicing.
Cardinal Vowels
The cardinal vowel system is a set of reference vowel
qualities that distinguish different vowel sounds. This
is to identify the highest point of tongue, by which a
vowel can be articulated or how much the tongue is
advanced or retracted when pronouncing a vowel.
PRIMARY CARDINAL VOWEL
The primary cardinal vowels are produced at
each extremity such as the vowels (i), (a), (a) and (u),
where (i) and (a) are produced at the front while (a)
and (u) are produced at the back. These are
represented by numbers 1-8. Compare the sounds of
“sit and ago” from the sounds of “car and too.”
Four intermediate vowels are added, which
sounds are equidistant between (e) and (ε) at the front
wile (o) and (ↄ) at the back. Compare the sounds of
“pet and pat” from
“go and good.”
SECONDARY CARDINAL VOWEL
The secondary cardinal vowels complement the
primary vowels. Secondary vowels are
produced by the reversing the lip-posture of how the
primary vowels are articulated.
Articulation of the tongue
The vowel articulation corresponds to the form of the
mouth and the position of the tongue when vowel
sounds are produced. Vowels are articulated based on
tongue height and tongue advancement.
Tongue height
Vowels can be high, low, mid, mid-high and mid-
low. These classifications are based on the height of
the tongue where vowels are articulated. Notice the
position of your tongue when you say the words:
"bead, peak, and mean". The position of your tongue
is closed to the roof of the mouth when you utter
these words. These are called high vowels. High
vowels are produced when the tongue is raised high
almost near the upper teeth.
Tongue Advancement
When the vowels are produced, the tongue may be
retracted or advanced into three positions: (a) the
back of the mouth, (the center), and (c) the front. This
is called tongue advancement or back-ness.
Stability of Articulation
Monophthongs
is a single vowel sound in which the positioning of
the articulators at both beginning and end is fairly
fixed and does not glide up or down. Monophthongs
can be a lexeme or a syllable. Syllables are units of
pronunciation with one rhythmic character of the
word. The word "pit" is a monosyllabic word that
contains a single auditory quality, therefore, a
monophthong.
The vowel in this word is produced with one sound
/i/ using one mouth position and one tone.
Diphthongs
If a monophthong has a single vowel sound, a
diphthong has a two-vowel sound. Diphthongs are
formed when two single vowels are combined in a
syllable. Usually, it is a combination of a vowel plus
a glide. A glide is considered as semi-vowel since it
phonetically resembles a vowel sound. Rather than
being a nucleus of a syllable, a glide functions as a
syllable boundary.
Triphthongs
In phonetics, a triphthong has three vowel sounds that
glide together. A triphthong is monosyllabic, a
combination of a diphthong and a monophthong that
quickly and smoothly moves
Lip Rounding, Lengthening, and Tenseness
Roundedness
Vowels are classified in terms of roundedness. Vowel
roundedness in phonetics refers to the rounding of the
lips during the articulation of the vowel. It is a vowel
labialization, where the lips are involved in
producing the vowel sounds. When pronouncing a
rounded vowel, a circular or sphere opening of the
lips is formed. When vowels are unrounded the lips
are relaxed. Back vowels are generally round as in
[u] [u], [o], [ↄ].
Vowel Lengthening
The lengthening of vowels produces long vowel
sounds. Long vowel sounds are sounds of the five
vowel letters ('a', 'e,' 'i,' 'o,' and 'u'), the pronunciation
of which is the as the same as how the letters are
pronounced: [er], [i], [ar], [ou], [yu]. Examples are
the words "rude, tube, rate, scene". In contrast, when
they are not pronounced like the letter itself, the
vowels are short such as "tub, cub."
TENSE and LAX VOWELS
Notice how your mouth stretches when you say "too"
and relaxes when you say "to" "Too" is a long vowel,
while "to" is a short vowel.
Most of the time, although not always, long vowels
are tense, while short vowels are lax. Tense vowels
are articulated with more tension of the muscles, the
tongue position is somewhat higher and the durations
are longer compared to the lax vowels. Tense and lax
vowels refer to the degree of tension of the tongue
and muscles of the vocal tract.
Rhotic vowels
In phonetics, rhoticity is the term that describes the
sound of the /r/, based on sound quality. Rhotic
vowels (also called r-colored, retroflex, and vocalic r
or rhotacized vowel) are altered vowels resulting in
the lowering of the frequency of the third formant.
Rhotic vowels are produced when the tip of the
tongue is curled upward.
CONSONANTS
Consonants are non-vowel letters in the alphabet,
used in speech sounds with partial vocal tract
restrictions when air is pushed from the glottis to the
mouth, ensuring airflow passes the constriction.
I. Features of consonant sounds
The production of the air affects the sounds; thus,
these terminologies need to be understood when
studying consonants sounds.
Stops vs continuants
Stops block airstream flow, like /m/, /n/, /b/, and /p/,
while continuants impede airstream flow but are not
blocked.
SONORANTS VS OBSTRUENTS
Sonorants are a natural class of continuants which are
articulated without the obstruction of the airstream.
These include approximants, glides, liquids, nasals,
and even vowels. In contrast to sonorants, obstruents
are produced by obstructing airflows, such as in the
articulation of [k], /dʒ/
Sibilants vs aspirated
Sibilants are the hissing sounds, a natural class of
fricatives, such as [s] sought, [z] zero. [∫] shine, [3]
leisure while aspirated sounds, on the other hand, are
modified sounds produced with forceful expulsion of
air. These include the sounds of [h] in "hat" or the [p]
in "pat", [t] in "tap", the [k] in "kill".
Flaps and Clicks
Flaps are modifiable consonant sounds created by a
single quick movement of the tongue against the roof
of the mouth, such as the "t" sound in "better" and
"letter" in words, which is not fully enunciated and
almost perceived as /d/. Clicks are mouth sounds
produced by a suction mechanism, not found in the
English language, although implosive are closely
related to clicks.
Pulmonic vs Non Pulmonic sounds
Most of the sounds are made by the pressure of the
air from the lungs. This are the termed as Pulmonic
sounds just like when you produce the /h/ sound.
When the air is slightly or completely blocked, the
sounds produced are non pulmonic
EJECTIVES and IMPLOSIVES
Some consonants are voiceless. EJECTIVES are
voiceless consonants, which are pronounced with a
glottalic egressive airstream, or the glottis is
simultaneously closed. Egressive sounds are
produced when the air is pushed out. IMPLOSIVES
consonants are stop consonants with a combination of
glottalic ingressive that are almost similar to
ejectives.
EJECTIVES
When articulating [k] the glottis is raised as the air
pressure of the mouth is raised. Compare the
production of [k] and [p]. Notice the burst of air
when [k] is released.
ii. The Articulatory features of consonants
Consonants are classified in terms of articulatory
features such as voicing the place of articulation and
the manner of articulation.
Place of articulation
The place of articulation refers to that area in one of
the resonating cavities (larynx, mouth) where the
articulators are opposing some kind of stricture or
obstacle to the passing of air. The manner of
articulation refers to the way the articulators are set
so that the resonance effect is possible.
BILABIAL
The place of articulation of bilabial sounds is two
lips. For example, sounds such as /p/ in pie, and /b/ in
bus are bilabial as the lips come together in the
production of these sounds.
LABIODENTAL
The lower lip is the active articulator and the upper
teeth are the passive articulator. English labio-dental
sounds include [f] and [v].
INTERDENTAL
Interdental (between the teeth) tongue, upper, and
lower teeth. An interdental sound is produced by
putting the tip of the tongue between the upper and
the lower teeth. Two sounds in English are
Interndental sounds: [θ] voiceless (thin)
ALVEOLAR
The alveolar ridge is where your teeth meet your
gums. You create Alveolar consonants when you
raise your tongue to the alveolar ridge to block or
constrict airflow. The English alveolar consonants are
as follows: /n/ as in “no” and “man“
PALATO ALVEOLAR
A palato-alveolar sound is a type of speech sound
that is made in the place between the top teeth and
the highest part of the mouth
PALATAL
A palatal sound is a type of speech sound that is
made by raising the blade, or front, of the tongue
toward or against the hard palate just behind the
alveolar ridge (the gums)
VELARS
A velar sound is a type of speech sound that is made
by the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against
the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth
(also known as the “velum”)
MANNER OF ARTICULATION
The manner of articulation pertains to the manner the
airstream is obstructed as the air flows directly from
the lungs and is released by the mouth.
PLOSIVES OR STOP
Plosive or stop refers to stopping of the air
completely to produce a sound. When the air is
completely blocked to accumulate pressure and
released in a burst.
Fricatives
Fricatives refer to the leaking of the air from a
narrow passage of the mouth. It is done through
partial blocking of air in the vocal tract.
Affricates
An affricate is a type of consonant that begins as a
stop (a complete blockage of airflow) and releases as
a fricative (a partial blockage of airflow), generally
with the same place of articulation
Appoximants
An approximant is a type of speech sound that is
formed by the passage of air between two articulators
(such as the lips or tongue) which are close but not
touching and that is usually classified as a consonant.
Liquid/lateral
Consonants that are considered lateral or liquid are
made when the tongue constricts the mouth and
obstructs the airflow, but does not cause friction.
When vowels and consonants are put together, they
form a syllable. Syllables become words, phrases,
clauses, and eventually an utterance. When we make
utterances, we also include sounds that make up
rhythm and tone. These are called suprasegmentals.
STRESS
is putting relative emphasis to a certain syllable of a
word or to a certain word in a phrase or sentences. In
words, the stress falls on the vowel sounds, which is
affected by the articulation of vowel sounds such as
length and pitch. Some dictionaries use stress
symbols such as (') that indicate primary stress, and
(^) or (,) as secondary stress.
Rules in stressing syllabic stress
1. Monosyllabic stress
The rules in syllabic stressing vary in the number of
syllables a word has. Monosyllabic stress is applied
in words that are said in isolation.
2. Bi-syllabic stress pitch in indicating emotions, mental state
For words that contain two syllables, bi-syllabic and attitudes of the speaker. It is also used in
stress is applied. The words "prism, fActual, and ranging functions of an utterance such as
sEldom receive the primary stress on the first focusing attention on the significant
syllable, while the words "reserve explore, and elements of the message, helping in
estEEM receive the primary stress on the second directing verbal interactions, signaling
syllable. statements, and differentiating questions. It
may signal a phrase boundary, differentiate
2. Multisyllabic stress declarative statements from questions or
In words with more than two syllables, multisyllabic denote incompleteness and uncertainty.
stress is used. The stressing is usually suffix-based.
Such words end in "er" and "ly", where stress is Juncture
placed on the first syllable.  In order to be fully comprehensible by the
listeners, in speaking or reading, we use
Rules in Lexical Stress juncture. Juncture is the pausing and
grouping of words by thought unit. It is used
1. Some words change in stressed syllable when they to establish a slight delay in a continuous
function differently. These flow of speech so that we would be able to
include: provide a smooth transition from one idea to
PREsent (noun-gift); another. It is also used as a time to breathe
(adjective-now) preSENT so that we could enunciate the words better.
Object (noun-thing)
object (verb-say something) (verb-disagree)
Juncture is a meaningful stop and pause in the
2. Some derived words undergo a shift in stress and a utterance. The pauses are categorized as sustained (/),
change in function and rising (//), and falling (#).
meaning when suffixes are added.
Examples: 1. Sustained juncture is represented by a "/". It is used
INtroduce in a momentary pause of speech or pausing at a
introDUCtion thought unit.
3.Some derived words retain their primary stress Examples:
even when suffixes are added to the Whether you like it or not, you have to study.
root words: These include: The girl said,/she is hungry.
re TIRE The teacher says, the class is noisy.
exPAND
re TIREment 2. Rising Juncture is represented by the symbol (//). It
exPANded is used in Yes/No questions, word series, nouns, and
address, and the first two alternatives. Examples:
Are you interested?//

4. In some proper nouns, the second word usually

takes the stress. I like mangoes, //peaches,// apples,// and
Examples: watermelons.
North DAKOTA Ava,//sleep early.
Mr. SMITH
5. In reflexive pronouns, the stress is usually on the 3. Falling Juncture is represented by the symbol (#).
second syllable. It is used at the end of each sentence where a
Examples: mySELF complete stop is necessary, except in questions
themSELVES answerable by yes or no.
ourSELVES
Pitch
INTONATION  Pitch is the rise and fall of the voice. It is
 One of the very important prosodic features used to give intelligent meaning to some
related to stress and pitch is intonation. words in the sentence
Intonation is putting together stress and
 MORPHOLOGY  A morph is the phonetic realization of a
morpheme or the way a morpheme is
MORPHOLOGY formed.
 MORPHEME  A morph is concrete while a morpheme is
 MORPH abstract.
 ALLOMORPH  A morph is also seen as a sequence of
phonemes.
ROOT, STEM, AND BASE  The smallest unit that carries meaning both
LEXEMES in writing and sound.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF MORPHEMES
 FREE MORPHEMES ALLOMORPH
 BOUND MORPHEMES  A allomorph is a moth that has a unique set
INFLECTIONAL VERSUS DERIVATIONAL of lexical features.
 INFLECTIONAL MORPHEME  Allomorphs are the distinct variant of the
 DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES same morpheme. They differ in shape and
LEXICAL VERSUS GRAMMATICAL pronunciation according to their condition
MORPHEMES and functions.
 LEXICAL MORPHEMES  They are the class of morphs that are
 FUNCTIONAL MORPHEMES semantically identical like the morpheme
[s], which is phonologically conditioned
such as
MORPHOLOGY
 relationship to other words
They are the class of morphs that are
 the study of word
semantically identical like the morpheme
 the structure of words
[s], which is phonologically conditioned
such as
MORPHEME
[-s]with morphs ending in /p, t, k, etc. / is
produce with voiceless sound
 Is the smallest unit of language meaning /p/ - raps
 It is not further dividable or separable into /t/ - cats
smaller forms. It could either be added into /k/ - thanks
another morpheme to form a specific [z] with morphs ending in/d, g, m, v, etc. /is
meaning, such as affixes, it could mean produced with voiced morphs
something by itself. When a morpheme /d/ - dogs (dogsz)
carries its meaning it is called a root. /m/ - rims (rimz)
 If we try to separate the parts of a /g/ - hugs (hugz)
morpheme, it loses its identity and it /l/ - loves (lovez)
becomes meaningless.
[- iz ] with morphs ending in / z, s, x, etc. /
with sibilants, affricates, fricatives
/s/ buses (busiz)
/x/ boxes (boxiz)

Morpheme versus word

 A word is created through a single “root” ROOT, STEM AND BASE
morpheme or combination of morphemes.
Although some morphemes are part of every
ROOT
single word. A word is a unit of a
 Is morph that is not further breakable or
constituent that necessary to create phrases
analyzable, such as the root “possible” for
ungrammatical.
the word “impossible” it is a component of a
word-form that is intact in all affixes are
MORPH
removed.
 If phonology has “phone”, morphology has
 Roots are always present in every
“morph”.
meaningful linguistic unit.
  In the form “unstoppable”, the root is “stop”
were the affixes “un and able” are attached.
 Significantly, there are two roots in the word
“armchair” the “arm’ and the “chair”
In the form “unstoppable”, the root is “stop”
were the affixes “un and able” are attached.
STEM
 Is concerned with inflectional
morphology. Most of words are stem,
where affixes can be attached. In the
form “unstoppable”, the stem is
“stoppable”, which could be broken a
smaller stem “stop” which is common
to all of its inflected variants, as shown.
BASE
 Is any form to which affixes can be
attached. It is the core unit of each word
that has no extra parts. This signifies
that any stem or any root can be called a
base, however, not all bases are stem or
root. The distinguishable characteristic
with base is what when it is added to
affixes, it may change.
An example is the base "cycle“ .which is a
word with concrete meaning but could also
transform into motorcycle, cyclist, bicycle,
which carry a different meaning.
LEXEMES
 Lexemes are units of lexical meaning
which are related with inflections. The
example is the lexemes "write" with
different words-form such as "writes,
was written, writing.
CLASSIFICATIONS OR MORPHEMES
Morphemes are classified as free or bound,
inflectional or derivational, and lexical or
grammatical.
Free versus Bound Morphemes
Capital+ism = Capitalism
Elect+ion = Election
In+numerate+able = innumerable
Morphemes are categorized into free bound. Free
morphemes are those that can stand on their own.
They make an entire word such as the morphemes
"capital", " elect "and "numerate ".On the contrary,
bond morphemes cannot stand on their own, and need
to be attached to a free morphemes such as"
ism,ion and able".
For example:
Blockboard = black(free), board
(free)
Transformative =
trans(bound),formative (free)
Abduction = abduct(free),
tion(bound)
Let's practice:
Describe each word and identify the free or
bound morphemes:
1. Categorically -
2. Analytical -
3.books -
4.unbearablec -
5.successful -
Inflectional versus Derivational
An inflectional morpheme is a kind of
bound morpheme inserted within the root or stem to
create new words but do not necessarily change its
meaning. They adapt the existing words to operate
successfully in sentence. Inflectional morphemes are
concerned with the grammatical function, such as the
difference in the plurality of a word, possession, tens,
etc.
Example:
Girl -girl (s) -plurality
Idea-idea (s) -plurality
Talk-Talked (ed)-plurality
Write -written (en) -past participle
Give -giving (ng) - present participle/progressive
Wasi-wiser (er) -comparative
Jenny-Jenny's('s) -possessive
Happy-Happiest (st) -superlative
Derivational morphemes
are affixes attached to a free morpheme,
which change thier functioning meaning. They adapt
the existing words to operate successfully in
sentences. Inflectional morphemes are concerned
with the grammatical functions, such as the
difference in the plurality of a
word,possessions,tense, etc.
Examples: morphemes are prefix and suffix.
Girl : girl(y)
Wise: unwise Prefix
Happy: happiness (ness) happily(ly) are affixes that precede the roots or are placed before
Kind : unkind(un) kindly (ly) a stem. When they are attached to a word, they could
Play : playful (ful) playfulness (ness) create a new word. The could mean negative or
indicate relation of time, place, and manner.
Lexical versus Grammatical Morphemes
Prefix include:
Lexical and functional morphemes are Anti – against or opposed
identified bad words that contain meaning of the Ex. Anti- racist , anti – war
message are often referred to as the content words. Auto – self
When these words in deleted in the sentence, the Ex. Autobiography, automobile
sentence would not make sense. These include noun Co – together
verbs, and modifiers. Example iof lexical morphemes Ex. Collaborative , cooperate
are talk, make, eat, strange, pick, beautiful, etc. De – opposite, negative, removal, separation
Ex. Decompose, deject, demote
While lexical morphemes provide the root, Down – reduce , lower
functional morphemes are words in the sentence that Ex. Downgrade, downhearted
modify the meaning. When functional morphemes En – cause to be
are deleted in the sentence, the meaning could still be Ex. Enforce, enable
understood. Functions morphemes are commonly Ex – former, previous, remove
referred to as grammatical morphemes or function Ex. Expose, extra, ex-marine
words, which include preposition, pronouns, Extra – outside, beyond
conjunction, and interjections Examples are beyond, Ex. Extraterrestrial, extraordinary
under, into, at, he, she, but, however, etc. Hyper – extreme
Ex. Hyperactive, hypertension
MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS Im – opposite
 In linguistics a morphological process Ex. Impossible, improbable
involves changing of stem to adjust In – negative , not
their meaning and fit the syntactic Ex. Inapt, inbred
context. These include affixation,
modification and reduplication. Suffixes
AFFIXATION are morphemes added at the end of root
 PREFIXES words or stem to form a derivative word. These are
 SUFFIXES usually case endings to signify cases of nouns,
 INFIXES adjectives, and verb. An inflection suffix is
 CIRCUMFIXES sometimes called “desinence.”
MODIFICATION
 CONSONANT MODIFICATION Infixes
are free morphemes that are inserted within
 VOWEL MODIFICATION
the root or the stem to create a new word.
REDUPLICATION
Examples:
 REPETITION
Spoonful -> spoonsful
 RHYMING
Passerby -> passersby
 ABLAUT
Mother-in-law -> mothers-in-law
Runner-up -> runners-up

Affixation
An affix is a kind of a bound morphemes that is
fused to a word stem to form a new word. It could
Infixes are also found in English slang such as:
either be inflectional or derivational. They are
Saxopho -> saxo-ma-phone
categorized according to the part of the word where it
Absolutely -> abso-schmucking-lutely
is inserted or attached. The word teachable is
Fantastic -> fun-bloody-tastic
something that has a positive connotation by adding
“able.” These could also mean the opposite by adding
In Tagalog language, infixes include:
“um” thus, it become “ unteachable “. These added
-um-added to the word “ bili” (buy) to make it
“bumili” or bought Bind- bound
Foot- feet
In Indonesian: Ring-rang
-cerlang ‘luminous’, cemerlang ‘brilliant’ Steal- stole
Find- found
Circumsfixes Tooth-teeth
are affixes attached in two parts to the stem Reduplication – reduplication is a special word
or root. When prefix are attached at the beginning formation where all or a part of the base is
and suffixes are attached at the end of the words,
circumfix consists of two - part a prefix and a suffix Repeated as a prefix or suffix. Reduplication could be
are not considered as separate. done in three ways :

For example: (a)Repetition: This is done by repeating the word.

Enlighten - en, en
Embolden - em, en Example:
Inadvisably - in, ably So- so
Indifferently - in, ly Bye-bye
Illegality - il, ty Goody-goody
Immobility - im, ty Bling -bling
Immaturity - im, ty Knock- knock
Modification Night- night
A modification process involves alteration within
a root or stem to adjust to a grammatical requirement (b)rhyming: this is done by rhyming the two halves
of the word in a sentence. This is also similar to a of the new word.
simulfix where there is a modification or change of
vowels or consonants, which changes the sense of a Example:
word. Nitty- gritty
Hanky- panky
Consonant modification Abra- cadabra
involves changing of the consonant to Teeny- weeny
change its categorical meaning. Jeepers -creepers
Example: Mumbo- jumbo
Advice – advise Walkie- talkie
Grief- grieves
Device – devise (c) ablaut: This is done by shifting the vowel which
Offend – offense changes the word. These reduplication show
Ascend- ascent
Belief- belie A “to and fro” motion or a shifting state from one
Proof- prove form to another:
Defend -defense
Bend – bent Example:
Descend – descent Pitter- patter
Hip- hop
Ding- dong
Sing-song
Flip- flop

Vowel modification WORD FORMATION PROCESS

involves changing of the vowel to change WORD FORMATION PROCESSES DERIVATION
its categorical meaning.
Example: BLACK FORMATION
Begin- began CLIPPING
Speak- spoke COINAGE
BLENDING affixes and shortening some words.
COMPOUNDING
CONVERSION Examples of back formation include:
ACRONYMS Original Word Back formation
EPONYMS babysitter — babysit
BORRWING donation — donate
CALQUING gambler — gamble
NONCE WORD hazy — haze
moonlighter — moonlight
WORD FORMATION PROCESS CLIPPING
Word formation process is one of the branches of Clipping is a process of word formation in
lexicology, which explores the construction of words. which an existing word is reduced or shortened
It refers to the means of creating new words which usually to a single syllable without changing the
observe certain structural formulas and semantic meaning of the word. This was originally done to
configurations. save time and space. Clipping is distinguished from
back-formation in a way that the meaning of the
DERIVATION original word is kept.
Word derivation is the process of forming
words by adding derivational affixes to the base or Examples:
root word to form a new word. alligator - gator
Examples : examination - exam
Adding suffixes such as: gasoline - gas
–hood (status) gymnasium - gym
Ex: brotherhood, motherhood etc.
–ship (state or condition) COINAGE
Ex: friendship, ownership etc. Coinage is a word formation process where a
–ness (quality, state or condition) -ity certain word is created through brand names of the
(state or condition) items that people usually use until it becomes a
Ex: wildness, carelessness, generic name.
curiosity, toxicity
–ment (result or product of doing the Examples:
action) Aspirin Escalator Heroin
Ex: government, achievement Band-aid
–al (act of something) Factoid Frisbee Google
Ex: refusal, perusal etc. Kerosene
–er (agentive) Kleenex Laundromat Linoleum
Ex: teacher, walker etc. Muggle
Nylon Psychedelic Quark
Derivation produces new words having similar Xerox
grammatical form, such as noun to noun, or of Zipper
different grammatical forms, such as verb to noun.
verb to noun : preserve — preservation BLENDING
verb to adjective : bore — boring Blending is a blend of two or more words to
noun to verb : code — codify generate a new one. In blending, parts or two or more
noun to adjective : nature — natural words are combined to build a new meaning of which
adjective to noun : ugly — ugliness is often a combination of the priginal words.
adjective to verb : sweet. — sweeten There are of course other techniques in creating word
adjective to adverb : quick — quickly blends. These include taking both the beginnings of a
word such as “cyborg” from cybernetic and
organism.

BACK FORMATION
Back Formation is the opposite of word Another is taking the whole word and combining it
derivation. New lexemes are created by removing with a part of another just like the blended word
“guesstimate” from the word guess and estimate. Conversion from noun to verb includes:
Examples: bottle - to bottle
slithy (lithe + slimy) closet - to closet
galumph (gallop + triumph) email -to email
hazmat (hazardous +material) eye - to eye
advertainment (advertisement + fiddle - to fiddle
entertainment) fool - to fool
Google - google
COMPOUNDING host - to host
Compounding is a word-formation using a access - to access
combination of two or more lexemes. Compound knife - to knife
wordss may be written as two words joined by a microwave - to microwave
hyphen or one word. Usually, the meaning of the new can - to can
word is taken from the combined meaning of the two ship - to ship
parts. spear - to spear
Examples: email - to email
notebook (note + book) torch - to torch
noun + noun Verb-to-verb
workroom (work + room) verb
+ noun Other Conversions
breastfeed (breast + feed) noun Conversion also occurs to and from other
+ verb grammatical forms, although the frequency is very
bittersweet (bitter + sweet) less.
adjective + adjective
stir-fry (stir + fry) Examples:
verb + verb
However, there are also instances that a new green to green (adjective to verb)
formed word has a specific meaning that is different Ex: We need to green our environment.
from the base-words.
Examples: up and down (preposition to noun)
blueberry (blue + berry) Ex: Everybody experiences the ups and downs of life.
adjective + noun
highlight (high + light) if, and but (conjunction to noun)
adjective + verb Ex: Just do it, no ifs and buts.
breakup (break + up) verb
+ preposition ho ho ho (interjection to noun)
outrun (out + run) Ex: Who doesn't love the ho ho hos of Christmas
preposition + preposition time.

Conversion Acronyms
In some languages, it is possible to form new lexeme Forming words through acronyms is a phenomenon
merely by shifting the word category without adding during the 20th century which is a practice that
any affixes. This is called conversion. continues up to the present. Acronyms are words
Examples: formed from the initials of certain names.
My friend bottled (v) the soda and canned (v) the \
sardines. Examples:
Billy filled the soda in a bottle (n)and the sardines in
a can (n).
He microwaved (v) his dinner by heating his food in
the microwave (n).
My mother eyed (v) my swollen eye (n).
COVID19 (Corona Virus
Disease 2019) Borrowing
UNIVAC (UNIVersal Borrowing, also called loan words, is common in the
Automatic Computer) English language. The borrowed words are from
NASA (National other languages.
Aeronotics and Space Administration) Examples:
VIP (very important
person) balcony, opera, violin, spaghetti, macaroni (Italian)
AIDS (Acquired immune ketchup, dimsum, laisee (Chinese)
deficiency syndrome) iceberg, kindergarten, hamburger, pretzel (German)
sushi, karaoke, tycoon, karate, soy, tsunami
Acronyms (Japanese)
Forming words through acronyms is a phenomenon croissant, macaroni, resume, mayonnaise, coup d'etat
during the 20th century which is a practice that (French)
continues up to the present. Acronyms are words yogurt, shampoo, hulaballoo, bandana, avatar
formed from the initials of certain names. (indian)
Examples: leak, stove, cruise, boss, coleslaw (Dutch)
sofa, coffee, candy, mattress, magazine, cotton
(Arabic)
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
estafa, sari-sari, high-blood, carnap, halo-halo,
Scuba (self-contained underwater breathing
gimmick (filipino)
apparatus)
mani-pedi, comfort room, dirty kitchen, buko juice
Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
(Filipino)
of Radiation)
Radar (radio detection and ranging)
Calquing
ATM (Automated Teller Machine)
Calquing is also called loan translation. It is closed to
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
borrowing, however, the borrowed word is translated
PIN (Personal Identification Number)
from the original to another language that fits the
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
characteristics of the new word. Sometimes the
JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
changes fall on the sound of articulation of the words.
CD-ROM (Compact Disc read-only memory)
Words are usually calqued from other languages
FAQ (Frequently asked questions)
aside from English.

Eponyms
Examples:
Eponyms are words created from the names of real or
blue-blood - (sangre azul) Spanish
fictitious characters. These are from proper nouns
free verse - (vers libre) French
which involve some degree of change in the meaning
pineapple - (pijnappel) Dutch
of the word.
scapegoat - (ez ozel) Hebrew
wisdom tooth - (dēns sapientiae) Latin
Examples:
beer garden - (Biergarten) German
atlas - Atlas
loanword - (Lehnwort) German
boycott - Charles C. Boycot
commonplace - (locus commūni) latin
cardigan - James Thomas Brudnell, 7th Earl of
flea market - (marché aux puces) French
Cardigan
long time no see - (hâo jiû bu jiàn) Chinese
cereal - Ceres
jacuzzi - Candido Jacuzzi
narcissistic - Narcissus
nicotine - Jean Nicot
pasteurization - Louis Pasteur
poinsettia - Noel Roberts Poinsett
sadistic - Marquis de Sade
salmonella - Daniel Elmer Salmon
sandwich - John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich
volcano - Vulcan