DISCRETE EXTREMAL PRINCIPLE

Contents

1. What is discrete extremal principle?................................................2

2. Applications in solving problems…………………………………3

2.1 Combinatoric and number theory problems…………………………...…3

2.2 Finding discrete extreme…………...…………………………………….….9

2.3 A trick in solving inequalities………………………………………………11

2.4 Vieta’s jumping method…………………………………………………….14

3. Bibliography………………………………………………………….17

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1. What is discrete extremal principle?
Discrete extremal principle states that:

- Every finite nonempty set A of real numbers has a minimal element minA and a

maximal element maxA.

- We can always arrange elements in a finite nonempty set A of real numbers by

increasing or decreasing order.

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2. Applications in solving problems.
2.1 Combinatoric and number theory problems.

Example 2.1.1: (Sylvester) There are n point on the plane satisfying: if a line

across 2 of these point then it also across a third point. Prove that these n point

are collinear.

Solution:

Assume that these n point are not collinear, then there exist point M,N,P such

that M does not lies on line NP. Consider the set S of all pairs of point and line

like that, since there are n points, the cardinality of S is finite. By discrete

extremal principle, there exist points A,B,C such that d  A; BC  are smallest.

Let D be the third point on BC, H is the projection of A on BC, E is the projection

of C on AD. Since   90  ACH is acute angle, it follow that ACD is obtuse

angle then AD  CD . In the other hand, AHD CED then

CE  AH  d  C, AD   d  A, BC  .

This is contradiction. Hence all these n points are collinear.

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Example 2.1.2: There are 2021 points on the plane such that: for arbitrary A,B,C

among these points then SABC  1 . Prove that we can put all these points in a

triangle which area is not greater than 4.

Solution:

Consider the set S of all triangle construct of these 2021 points, then the

cardinality of S is finite. By discrete extremal principle, there exist a triangle T

with the largest area, assume that X,Y,Z are vertices of T. We construct the

triangle ABC such that Z,X,Y is the midpoint of AB,BC,CA respectively.

We have: SABC  4SXYZ  4 . If there exist point M does not lie on triangle ABC,

without loss of generality, assume that M lies on the opposite side of A with

respect to BC, then SMYZ  SXYZ , contradiction.

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 1 1 1 1
Example 2.1.3: Let n be an positive integer, n  2 , S     ...  . Prove that
2 3 4 n
S is not an integer.

Solution:

Consider the set S  2t | t  ;2t  n , then the caridinality of S is finite. By discrete

extremal principle, there exist a number k which is the largest positive integer such

that 2k   2; n . We have:

1 1 1 1 1 a  a3  ...  an
S    ...  k  ...   2
2 3 4 2 n 2,3,4,..., n
It is easy to see that all the element ai is divided by 2 except a2k , so

a2  a3  ...  an is not divided by 2 while 2 |  2,3,4,...,n . Hence S is not an integer.

Example 2.1.4: A set S is calling neigbouring if it has the following properties:

a. S has exactly four elements

b. For every element x of S, at least one of the numbers x  1 or x  1 S .

Find the number of all neighbouring subsets of the set 1,2,...,n .

Solution:

Let S  a, b, c, d  , where a, b, c, d 1,2,..., n . By discrete extremal principle, we

can assume that a  b  c  d then b  a  1; c  b  1; d  c  1  d  a  3 .

a  S and a  1 S  a  1 S  b  a  1

d  S and d  1 S  d  1 S  c  d  1

Hence S  a, a  1, d  1, d ; d  a  3 .

Obviously, n  4 .

For a  1 result d 4,5,6,..., n hence n  3 possible values of d.

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For a  2 result d 5,6,..., n hence n  4 possible values of d.

……

For a  n  3 result d  n hence 1 possible values of d.

Results the number of possible sets S:

N S   n  3   n  4   ...  1 
 n  3 n  2 
2

Example 2.1.5: Find all subset A of * such that:

i. A has at least 2 element.

3mn
ii. If m, n  A then  A.
mn

Solution:

First, we will prove A is a finite set. If A has infinite cardinality, take three
3ai a j 3a j ak 3ai a j
elements ai , a j , ak  A , then  A;  A . We call the
ai  a j a j  ak ai  a j

“combination” of ai and a j .

3ai a j 3a j ak ai ak
If  then   ai a j  ai ak  ak ai  ak a j
ai  a j a j  ak ai  a j a j  ak

 ai a j  ak a j  ai  ak , which is wrong since ai  ak .

It follow that, the combination of ai with different elements are differents. Since

the cardinality of A is infinite, there are infinite combination of ai and other

elements.

3ai .m 3ai .m
In the other hand:   3ai , that means the value set of combinations
ai  m m

of ai is bounded above and below, contradiction. Hence A is a finite set.

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By discrete extremal principle, we can assume that a1  a2  a3  ...  ak be

elements of A.

3ak 1ak 3ak 1ak 3a a 3

Since  A and  k 1 k  ak 1  ak 1
ak 1  ak ak 1  ak 2ak 2

3ak 1ak 3ak 1

  ak   1  3ak 1  ak 1  ak  2ak 1  ak .
ak 1  ak ak 1  ak

3ak 2 ak 1 3ak 2 ak 1 3ak 2 ak 1 3

Since  A and   ak 2  ak 2 . In the other hand,
ak 2  ak 1 ak 2  ak 1 2ak 1 2

3ak 2 ak 1 3ak 2ak 1 3 3ak 2 ak 1

  ak 1  ak Hence  ak 1
ak 2  ak 1 2ak 2 2 ak 2  ak 1

3ak 2
  1  3ak 2  ak 2  ak 1  2ak 2  ak 1 .
ak 2  ak 1

Similarly, we get ak 2  2ak 3 , ak 3  2ak 4 ...., a2  2a1 .

3a1a3 3a .4a 12
Moreover, if k  3 , then  A  1 1  A  a1  A , however
a1  a3 a1  4a1 5

12 12
a3  4a1  a1  a1  a2 , this is contradiction ( 2a1  a2 ). Hence k  2 and
5 5
A  a;2a for some positive integer a.

Example 2.1.6: 2021 points are given in a plane such that from any five points we

can choose two points with distance less than 1 unit. Prove that 506 of the given

points lie on a unit disc.

Solution:

Denote P   A1, A2 ,..., A2021 the set of 2021 given points. Renumbering the points,

let S   A1, A2 ,..., Ak   P a set with the maximal cardinal, with the property Q:

Ai Aj  1, 1  i  j  k

Using the initial condition, results k  4 .

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Case 1: 2  k  4

p  , k  1  p  2021, results:

The set S   Ap  does not have the property Q, hence in the set S exists a point

Ai ,1  i  k such that Ai Ap  1 .

Denote P1   Am  P | A1 Am  1 (consider A1  P1 ) and similarly P2 ,..., Pk .

Result:

P1  P2  ...  Pk  P

 2021  2021
max  Pi      506
1i  k
 k   4 

Without loss of generality, we can consider P1  506

Hence, the disc with the center in A1 and radius 1 contain at least 506 points.

Case 2: k  0  Ai Aj  1, 1  i  j  2021

Result: all the 2021 points of P are situated in the disc with the center A1 and

radius 1.

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2.2 Finding discrete extremes
Example 2.2.1: Let m and d be integes with m  d  2 . Assume that x1, x2 ,..., xd are

positive integers such that x1  x2  ...  xd  m . Find the minimum of the

expression

S  x12  x22  ...  xd 2

Solution: Denote G as a set of all values of S. We see that G  o and G has infinite

cardinality. By discrete extremal principle, there exist the least element of G, say

N. Suppose that  a1, a2 ,..., ad  are positive integers such that a1  a2  ...  ad  m

and a12  a2 2  ...  ad 2  N . We will prove that ai  a j  0 or 1 for all 1  i  j  d .

Assume that a1  a2  a  1 then choose b  a1  1, c  a2  1 . We have b, c  *

,

a1  a2  b  c and b2  c 2  a12  a22 . Thus, we find the positive integer sequence

b, c, a3 ,..., ad such that b  c  a3  ...  ad  m and b2  c2  a32  ...  ad 2  N . This is

contradiction.

Without loss of generality, we may assume a1  a2  ...  ad and let m  dq  r ,

0  r  d . Thus, deduce a1  ...  ad r  q and ad r 1  ...  ad  q  1. So , the

minimum of S is:

N   d  r  q 2  r  q  1
2

Example 2.2.2: Let m  3 and d be positive integers. Assume that Assume that

x1, x2 ,..., xd are positive integers such that x1x2 ..xd  m . Find the maximum of the

expression:

S  x13  x23  ...  xd 3

Solution: Denote A as a set of all values of S. We see that A  o and A has finite

cardinality. By discrete extremal principle, there exist the greatest element of A,

say M. Suppose that  a1, a2 ,..., ad  are positive integers such that a1a2 ...ad  m and

a13  a23  ...  ad 3  M .

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Without loss of generality, we may assume a1  a2  ...  ad , then a1  m and

a2  ...  ad  1 . If a1  m then a2  1 . Choose a  a1a2 and b  1 then aba3...ad  m .

We have:

a3  b3  a33  ...  ad3   a1a2   1  a33  ...  ad3  a13  ...  ad3  M
3

This is contradiction. So a1  m; a2  ...  ad  1 and therefore M  m3  d  1 .

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2.3 A trick in solving inequalities.
In some situations we can assume that a  max a, b, c or a  min a, b, c .This

simple trick could be really helpful.

Example 2.3.1: (Hanoi – Amsterdam entrance competition, round 2 – 2020)

Let a,b,c be nonnegative integers satisfying: a  b  c  abc  4

Find the maximum value of P  ab  bc  ca .

Solution:

Without loss of generality, we assume that a  max a, b, c , then a  1 (if a  1 then

b  1, c  1  a  b  c  abc  4 ).

We have:

P  ab  bc  ca  a  b  c   bc  a  a  b  c   a 2  bc  a  4  abc   a 2  bc
 4a  a 2bc  a 2  bc  4   a  2   bc 1  a 2   1
2

Hence max P  4 , the equality holds, for example when a  2, b  2, c  0 .

0  a, b, c  2
Example 2.3.2: Let  . Find the maximum value of T  a 2  b2  c2 .
a  b  c  3

Solution:

Since 0  a, b, c , we have: T  a 2  b2  c 2  a 2  2ab  b2  c 2   a  b   c 2

2

  3  c   c 2  2c 2  6c  9 .
2

“Since 0  c  2  c  c  2   0  c 2  2c  0  T  2  c 2  2c   2c  9  2c  9  9?

The equality doesn’t hold since ab  0; c  0 mean 2 of 3 numbers a,b,c must be 0.

So we need to find a new bound for c.”

Without loss of generality, assume that c  max a, b, c then

3c  a  b  c  3  c  1, it follows that 1  c  2   c  1 c  2   0  c 2  3c  2  0 .

From T  2c 2  6c  9  T  2  c 2  3c  2   5  5 .

Hence max T  5 , the equality holds, for example when a  0; b  1; c  2 .

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Example 2.3.3: (Moscow MO 1984) For n  4 , a1, a2 ,..., an are nonnegative integers

satisfying a1  a2  ...  an  1 . Prove that:

1
a1a2  a2 a3  a3a4  ...  an1an  an a1 
4
For n even  n  2m  , the problem is quite easy. Let a1  a3  ...  a2 m1  a , then:

a1a2  a2 a3  a3a4  ...  an1an  an a1   a1  a3  ...  a2 m1  a2  a4  ...  a2 m 

a 1 a
2
1
 a 1  a   
4 4
Now we consider the case which n is odd, assume that ak is the smallest among

these numbers. Without loss of generality, we assume that 1  k  n  1 . Let bi  ai

for i  1,..., k  1, bk  ak  ak 1 and bi  ai 1 for i  k  1,..., n  1 then:

1
a1a2  ...  ak 2ak 1   ak 1  ak 2  bk  ak 2ak 4  ...  an1an  an a1 
4
In the other hand:
ak 1ak  ak ak 1  ak 1ak 2  ak 1ak  ak 1ak 1  ak 1ak 2   ak 1  ak 2 bk

1
Here is the result. The equality holds when 2 in these numbers equal to , the
2
rest are 0.

Example 2.3.4: Let a1, a2 ,..., a100   satisfying a12  a22  ...  a100
2
 10000 and

a1  a2  ...  a100  300 . Prove that there exist 3 numbers among these numbers

which sum larger than 100.

Solution:

Without loss of generality, assume that a1  a2  ...  a100 . The case a1  0 is trivial.

We consider the case a1  100 , then 100  a1  0 , 100  a2  0 , a1  a2  0; a1  a3  0 .

It follow that:

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 100  a1  a2  a3   100  a1  a2  a3   100  a1   a1  a3   100  a2   a2  a3 
 a12  a22  a3  300  a1  a2 
 a12  a22  a3  a3  a4  ...  a100 
 a12  a22  a32  ...  a100
2
 10000

Hence a1  a2  a3  100 .

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2.4 Vieta’s jumping method.
We are now starting with an example that is not related to Vieta jumping method. It’s

role is to brighten the way Vieta jumping method really works.

Example 2.4.1: Given a, b are relatively prime positive integer, then the equation
ax  by  1 has a solution in integers.

Solution:
Assume that a, b  *;  a, b   1 such that the equation ax  by  1 has no integer
solution. Let S be the set of pairs  a, b  satisfy this condition. Since a, b * ,by
discrete extremal principle there is a pair  a0 , b0   S for which a0  b0 is
minimum.
Since  a0 , b0   1 and  a0 , b0   1,1 ( 1.0  1.1  1  1,1  S ) these two number
must be different. Without loss of generality, we assume that a0  b0 .
Since  a0 , b0   1   a0  b0 , b0   1, a0  b0 then a0  b0  * .
Consider the equation  a0  b0  x  b0 y  1  a0 x  b0  y  x   1 , this equation has no
integer solutions thanks to the definition of S, that means   a0  b0  ; b0   S ,
contradiction  a0  b0  b0  a0  a0  b0 

Hence, the equation ax  by  1 has a solution in integers.

Vieta jumping method:

Example 2.4.2: (Crux mathematicorum) Given a, b, c  0 satisfying:

0  a 2 b2  abc  c
Prove that a 2  b2  abc is a perfect square.
Solution:
Assume that a, b, c  * satisfying 0  a 2 b2  abc  c and a 2 b2  abc is not a
perfect square. Let S be the set of triplets satisfying these conditions.
Consider the set:
S  c '; K    a, b, c ' |  a, b, c '  S ; a 2 b2  abc '  K  , for K  c ' is a non-perfect square
constant. By the discrete extremal principle, the exist a triplet  a0 ; b0 ; c '  S  c '; K 
such that a0  b0 is minimum. Without loss of generality, assume that a0  b0 .
Consider the equation x 2 b02  xb0c '  K  x 2 b02  xb0c ' K  0 .
We can see that x1  a0 is an solution, let x2 be the other. By Vieta theorem:

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 b0 2  K
x1.x2  b0  K  a0 x2  b0  K  x2 
2 2

a0
If x2  0 then x2 2 b02  x2b0c '  x2 2 b0 2  b0c '  K , contradiction. In the other hand,
x2  0 since b0 2  K , so x2  0 . Hence  x2 , b0 , c '  S c '; K  .
b0 2  K a0 2
In the other hand, x2    a0 so x2  b0  a0  b0 , contradiction.
a0 a0
Hence a 2  b2  abc is a perfect square.
Example 2.4.3: (IMO 1988 P6) Let a,b be positive integer such that ab  1| a 2  b2 .
a 2  b2
Prove that is a perfect square.
ab  1
Solution:
a 2  b2
Let k  . Fix k and consider all pairs  a, b  of nonegative integers satisfying
ab  1
the equation:
a 2  b2
k
ab  1
 a 2  b2 
Consider S   a, b    |  k  . We claim that among all such pairs in S,
 ab  1 
there exist a pair  a, b  such that b  0; k  a 2 . In order to prove this claim,
suppose that k is not a perfect square and suppose that  A, B   S is the pair
which minimize the sums a  b over all such pair (if there exist more than one
such pair in S, choose an arbitrary one). Without loss of generality, assume that
A  B  0 . Consider the equation:
x2  B2
k
xB  1
Which is equivalent to: x 2  kB.x B 2  k  0 as a quadratic equation in x. We
know that x1  A is one root of this equation. By Vieta’s formula, the other root of
B2  k
this equation is x2  kB  A  .
A
The first equation implies that x2 is an integer, the second that x2  0 , otherwise,
k  B 2 would be a perfect square, contradicting our assumption. Also, x2 can’t be
negative, for otherwise x22  kBx2  B2  k  x22  B2  k  k  0 , a contradiction.
Hence x2  0 and thus  x2 , B   S .

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 B2  k
Because A  B , we have x2   A , so x2  B  A  B , contradicting the
A
minimality of A  B .
Praticing problems:
Problem 1: Let x,y be positive integers such that xy | x 2  y 2  1 . Prove that:
x2  y 2  1
3
xy
Problem 2: (IMO 2007 P5) Let a,b be positive integers. Show that if
4ab  1|  4a 2  1 then a  b .
2

Problem 3: (USA TST 2002) Find all positive integers m,n such that:
mn  1| m2  n2
Problem 4: (USA TST 2009) Find all positive integers m,n such that:
mn  1|  n2  n  1
2

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3. Bibliography
[1] Dr. Luu Ba Thang – Elementary algebra lecture note

[2] Titu Andreescu, Gabriel Dospinescu, Oleg Mushkarov - Number theory,

concepts and problems.

[3] Kenneth H.Rosen – Discrete mathematics and its applications.

[4] L.Lovasz, J.Pelikan – Discrete mathematics: elementary and beyond.

[5] Pham Minh Phuong – Combinatoric problems.

[6] Tran Nam Dung – Discrete extremal principle

[7] http://www.mathlinks.ro

[8] http://www.maths.stackexchange.com

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