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Obst und Gemüse (Fruits and vegetables)

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12 OBSIDIAN. B OBST UND GEMUSE. A. I 13
ous ~ e r l o d ,we know of the existence of C. Renfrew 1964: The character~zat~on of o b s ~ d In the food culture of anclent Mesopota-
tion maps that show the situation from the lan and ~ t sappllcat~onto the Med~terraneanre
middle Epi-Palaeolithic ~ e r i o dto the end communities living close to the Cappado- glon, Proceedmgs Preh~stor~c Soc~ety30,111-33 mia, grains played the dominant role, par-
of the Neolithic and beyond. In fact, as al- cian sources. The rest of the PPNB period - A:O. Pollmann 1999: Obs~d~an-B~bllographleticularly barley (Hordeurn spp.) and emmer
ready ind~cated, occasional finds of 0. follows essentially the same pattern as the Artefakt und Provenlenz. Der Anschn~tt.Belh wheat (Trzticum dzcoccum). Species identi-
beginning of the ~ e r i o d ,and we can con- 10. - C. Renfrew& E. DixodJ. R. Cann 1966 ficat~onof other wheats and grains men-
have been noted on a few sltes as early as O b s ~ d ~ aand
n early cultural contact In the Nea~
the Upper Palaeol~th~c period. The plcture veniently take the whole of this long period East, Proc. Preh~st.Soc. 32, 30-72; e ~ d .1968 tioned in cuneiform texts remalns problem-
is no different in the m~ddleEpi-Palaeo- as one. Cauvin and Chataigner (1998, 335) Further analyses of Near Eastern obsid~ans,Proc atic. The proportional role of cultivated
lithic: only two sites in the north Zagros, describe how the usage of 0.varies from Prehm. Soc. 34, 319-31. - C. RenfrewIJ. E grains must have varied c o n s ~ d e r a b lover
~
one part of the region t o another. The Dlxon 1976: O b s ~ d ~ aInn western AsLa: a revlew tlme and especially geographically. It seems
and two in the north of the Levantine corri- m: (ed.) G. de G. S l e v e k ~ n g H.
. L. Longworth
dor have produced 0 . In the final Epl- whole process of production is represented K. E. Wilson, Problems in economlc and socla probable that opportune gathering of plant
Palaeolithic, occurrences of 0 . become a on sites in central Anatolia and (relatively) archaeology, 137-50. foods played a more important role in the
little more frequent. Two sites In the-north near to the east Anatolian source areas of 3'd mill, and earlier than In later times, and,
Zagros (Sanidar and nearby Zawi Cemi), Bingo1 and Nemrut Dag; these sltes, for ex- likewise, that grains increased in impor-
and five sites in the Levantine corridor ample Aykh Hoyiik, Cayonii and Cafer tance as one moved from the highlands into
(among them Tall Mureybet, Abu Hureyra Hoyuk, have ~ r o d u c e dblocks of 0 . direct the alluv~umand from countryside to city.
from the sources, cores and debitage, as Obst und Gemiise (Fruits and Vegeta-
and Eynan) have small amounts of 0. Hal- The way in w h ~ c hgrains were consumed
well as blades and retouched tools. In north bles). A. I. Mesopotamien.
lan Cem~,near Batman m southeast Ana- varied over time as well as within societies.
tolia, which was first occupied late in the Mesopotamia and the north Zagros, some $. General. - $ z. Methodology. - $ 3. Frum. Bread was probably primarily an urban
final Epi-Palaeolith~c,is exceptional. It is cores and pre-forms, as well as some chip- S 3.1. General. $ 3.2. Apple. $ 3.3 Apr~cot.g 3.4. and upper class phenomenon down
Cherry. $3.5. Date. $3.6. h g . $3.7. Grape.
situated relatively close to the Blngol 0. ping debris are found, along with the tools $ 3.8- Hackberry. $ 3.9. Medlar. 3.10. Mul- through the I" mill. B. C. (d~scoveryof ov-
source, and has produced large amounts of that were in actual use. Whereas almost all berry. $ 3.11. Ohve. $ 3.12. Peach. g 3-13. Pear. ens in towns fits this theory, because that
O., accounting for more than half (57%) the range of tools and weapons m ~ g h tbe $3.14. Plums. $3.15. Pomegranate. $3.16. was, after all, where the elite was concen-
made in 0. at Aykli Hoyuk or Catalhoyiik, Qumce. 4 3.17. Other. - $ 4. Vegetables. $ 4.1.
of its consumption of chipped stone. Greens. 4.2. Cucurblraceae. 9 4.3. Roots, trated). A great deal of grain, perhaps the
At the beginning of the Neolith~c,the at Nemr~k,In north Mesopotamia, the ex- bulbs, etc. 4.4. Beans, pras and other legumes. majority, was consumed in forms other
proportion of sites with 0 . increases, but it cavators noted that 0 . was used for some than bread, as in porridges and soups, and
tools and not for others; the projectile T h ~ art~cle
s attempts to place "frum and vege-
remalns an Infrequent occurrence on ar- tables" w~thlnthe food culture of anclent Meso- In the form of malted or sprouted grain.
chaeological sites. Many sites are known points, for example, were all made from potamla and to l ~ s tIn sense-related groups the rhis 1s a function of economics, because
where no 0 . is documented. In general, flint or chert. In the area of the Euphrates anclent plant names that can, wlth some prob- reparation of bread prior to the invention
amounts of 0 . In the exchange network of in north Syria and the Damascus basln, abdity, be ~dent~fied wlth modern genera or spe-
cies. The terms "frult" and "vegetable" as used
>f the rotary mill (ca. 200 B. C. in Italy)
settlements at some distance from the quantities of 0. are much less than further In Engllsh and In most languages have no system- was extremely costly in terms of labor
source areas were very small indeed. Cau- north, and only a little deb~tagehas been atlc botanical s~gnlficance,and t h ~ sart~clemakes mostly done by women).
vin and Chataigner (1998, 333) comment noted. In such circumstances, we may sus- no attempt to deal with t h ~ sproblem. Ed~ble
on the more systematic presence of 0 . on pect that the debitage is the by-product of plants that are ident~fiable In the cunelform It is, therefore, withm a larger food cul-
sources are almost excluswely cultwated forms -ure dommated by grain, where foods of
sltes across the northern arc of the hilly re-working damaged or broken 0 . pieces. and constitute only a small fract~onof words de-
flanks zone, into the north Zagros at one Sites in Israel and Jordan produce very noting plants. Those not usually thought of as
mimal origin are consumed primarily by
end, and into the Syr~anmiddle Euphrates small percentages of 0. usually in the form "fru~t"or "vegetable" are noted only in passmg mimal herders and by the elite, that we
at the other, which may be related to d ~ s - of blades and bladelets, as well as some ( S . Getre~de -,Gewurze ', Kuche' , 0 1 - , Frucht .). nust try to envision the role played by
tance from the sources. Although 0. from small flakes and odd splinters. k i t s and vegetables. But, beyond t h ~ s we
,
Gollu Dag In Cappadocia has been iden- Whereas we saw in earlier periods that I. G e n e r a l . Food culture m anclent nust keep in mind what was not there in
tified on sltes in the Levantine corridor, and amounts of 0 . in use increased over tlme, Mesopotamia, as in most ancient societies mcient times. Rice seems to have come
although ~t is thought that at least one of towards the end of the aceramlc N e o l ~ t h ~ c rested primarily o n plants. Although crop rom India after Alexander the Great. Egg-
the chipping workshops adjacent to a ma- period, in the last quarter of the PPNB, plants dominate the archaeobotanical re- h n t , okra, spinach, and perhaps even the
jor source was already in use, no contem- there are signs " at one o r two sites that cord from the 8'" mill. on, wild plants con- vatermelon, are probably immigrants of
porary settlements are yet known in central amounts of 0 . In c~rculat~on were reducmg. tinue to be gathered as foods, medicines he I" mill. A. D. The chicken, which came
Anatolia. If 0 . was passed through a net- and materials. This type of gathering, al- vestward in the 9f" cent. B. C., probably
H.-G. Buchholz zooo: Erganzungen zu emer Ob-
work of settlements, we lack most of that s~dlan-Blbllograph~e,Stud~aTro~ca10, z ~ i - z 7 7 .
ways in a state of more or less slow change, riginally from amusement (fighting cocks)
network, particularly the sites m the first - M:C. Cauvm 1991: L'obsidlenne au Levant is almost impossible to identify in written ather than food has left no vis~bletrace in
three or four hundred kilometres r a d ~ u s prehistorlque: Provenance et fonctlon, In: Ca- o r archaeological evidence. Methodologl- he cuneiform sources. Moreover, one must
around the central Anatolian sources. hlers de I'Euphrate 516, 163-190. - (ed.) M:C. cally, however, we must keep its existence .eep m mind the absence of all "New
CauvlniA. GourgaudiB. GratuzeN. ArnaudiG. in mind, because it constitutes the social
By the beginning of the PPNB per~od,the PoupeauiJ. L. Po~devlnlC. Chatalgner 1998:
Xiorld" plants, since many of them are now
proportion of sites that are known to have L'Obsid~enne at, Proche et Moyen Orlent: Du and scientific background of the materia lbiquitous throughout the Near East and
0 . rlses to 70%. By contrast with the previ- volcan a I'utll (BAR Int.Ser. 738). - J. R. C a n d medica as well as of the food culture. ven specialists seem only subliminally
14 OBST UND GEMUSE. A. I OBST UND GEMUSE. A. I 15

aware of the significance of thls obvious 2. M e t h o d o l o g y . A few words about attempts to ident~fyspecies take place ir mill. Toward the end of the 3rd mill., pome-
fact: tomatoes, potatoes, most of the citation of evidence, identification of spe- that dangerous terraln where not just twc granates begm to turn up in the sources
squashes, all of the peppers (capsicum), hot cies, and methodology. Akkadian is cited but a whole group of dlsciphnes meet anc from S. Mesopotamia. Of these five, only
as well as sweet, and, above all, that ubiq- here in preference to Sumerian. The lexical where any specialist is inevitably going tc the date 1s native to that region. The fact
uitous, immensely variable, and delicious evidence on which most of the readings of find oneself on uncertain ground. It seem: that the pomegranate is absent from low-
vegetable, the "bean". It comes as a sur- Sumerian words are based is cited in the fairly clear that most species of plants men land sources down through the Presargonic
prise to speakers or readers of European Akkadian dictionaries (AHw., CAD). The tioned in cuneiform texts will never bc period points to the Akkad-Ur III period as
languages to learn that the "beans" one Sumerian names are often problemat~c,and identified with certainty, but precision ir the beginning of extensive lowland cultiva-
reads about In translations of anclent texts the graphic symbolization of many names terminology and attention to the natura tion. Species identifications of these five
do not even have genera in common with seems artificial (i.e., post-Sumerian). The distr~butionand history of flora do permii rest on etymology and context and are
the ubiquitous "beans" of modern times Latin binomials are gwen only to make at least an encouraging residue of probabk about as certain as most other translations
which are Phaseolus and come from the clear what plant is implied by the English identifications that may be increased in the from cuneiform texts. Noteworthy is that
"New World". name. Species identification in the diction- future as new evidence accumulates. After none of these belong to the highly per&
aries is a rather uncertain affair, since they all, cuneiformists now universally agree (a able fruits: apples, figs, and grapes can be
Similarly with "fruits", not only is there rare phenomenon) that the words amussu. and were dried, and neither pomegranates
do not, as a rule, use the Latm binomials.
no evidence for the various specles of citrus ezznnu, andabsu denote bulbous plants
Thus, one finds in AHw. under kamunu nor dates are susceptible to immediate
fru~tslike lemons, limes, and oranges, but rather than Vmeae, vetches, etc., as p o s ~
(AHw. 434) the defin~tion "Kiimmel", spoilage, w h ~ c hprobably accounts in part
even peaches and the now ubiquitous apri- tulated by R. Campbell Thompson (DAB.
which in German normally denotes Carum for their endurlng popularity.
cot are not identifiable in the ancient evi- publrshed posthumously 1949, 89 ff.). And
carvz (caraway seed), but what AHw. really In the uplands, these five also occur.
dence. What all t h ~ smeans is that, though most cuneiformists also agree that ?amai'-
means is "Kreuzkiimmel", w h ~ c his "cu- Dates, however, though they must have set
the food culture of ancient times shares i'ammumeans sesame, desp~tethat fact that
min" (Cumznum cymznum), under which fruit, as today, probably ripened as a rule
some foods in common wlth the modern CAD (S11 1989, 301-307) has opted for
food culture, ~t was profoundly different. unambiguous name ~t is now (Dec. 2001) not much beyond the northern reaches of
bemg sold in the Munchener Viktualien- "linseed" (contra: Powell, AulaOr. 9 [l9911 the alluvium, except in special ecological
T h ~ sconfronts us with a serlous method- 155-165; there 1s much additional evidence
ological problem. Are we to assume that markt. The situation in CAD is similar but n~chesand in unusually hot years. Never-
often more complex. CAD began its life in a in both cuneiform and classical sources theless, green dates are edible, and, more-
the important segments of the anclent food against the linseed theory). From a method-
culture now occupied by introduced crops world in which confidence in etymology pre- over, In anclent tlmes other parts of the
vailed but has gradually drifted toward a ological point of view, species ident~fication palm were consumed as edibles (e.g., palm
from India, Afrlca, Central-South-and-East
reasonable agnostic~sm,part~cularlywhere must always proceed from etymology to a heart: uquru). In addit~on, pear, quince,
Asia, Europe, and the New World were
the identification of plant species is con- consideration of context, w ~ t han aware- and plum seem likely.
simply blank, or filled out by those rela-
cerned. However, failure to use the botanl- ness of the history of flora in the region (In- These then represent, by and large, the
tively few species we can identlfy in the cu-
cal binomial system frequently leads to cluding the Med~terranean)and of the evl- l ~ m mof certitude as far as identification
neiform sources and In the archaeological
conclusions like that expressed In CAD'S dence of archaeobotany. If the etymological with modern botan~cal species is con-
evidence? Or, were there other plants that
filled these n~chesthat we st~llcannot iden- d~scussion of kasu (CAD K 1971, 2x0) and other evidence agrees, then probable :erned. Of some interest is that the fruits
tify In the available evidence? Our Imita- where the opinion is expressed that sahlu solutions become possible. However, where which we can ~dentlfy with some confi-
tions reveal themselves In the fact that these probably meant "watercress" (a notlon one the linguistic evidence itself is confused or ience are also those (with the exception of
questions cannot be adequately answered. encounters elsewhere, e. g., BSA 2 , 127). ambivalent, as in the case of legumes, it :he date palm) that turn up in early classl-
In all probability, one must reckon w ~ t ha This is, of course, impossible, because sahlti may never, given the nature of what is nor- :a1 sources (cf. A. Gutsfeld "Obst" and K.
situat~on hke that revealed In the Greek grows in fields and in dry places and can- mally recorded In cuneiform sources, be Tuffmg "Obstbaum" in Der Neue Pauly
and Latm sources where many plants are not therefore be watercress, w h ~ c his Nas- possible to arrive at satisfactory identifica- VIII [zooo] 1087-1090). Specifics are given
eaten that later went out of fashion, espe- turtzum offzcznale, and which has nothing tions. >elow in alphabetical order of the Enghsh
cially in and around towns, where this to do with the flower~ng,and also ed~ble, For fruits and vegetables In general, see lames.
great variety is gradually replaced by a rela- peppery tasting "nasturtium", which be- the articles in BSA 2 (1985) and 3 (1987),
tively small number of reliable domesti- longs to the topical genus Tropaeolum. In and, for use in cooking, see J. Bottero, Tex- S 3.2. Apple (Malus pumzla L.) (cf. B.
cates. What this means is that comparison short, sahlu is one of those cases in which tes culinaires Mesopotamiens (1995) with ; i . ~ ! ) baZhuru (Assyr~aniahsuru) l ha:=
of the modern food culture of the Near the early ph~lologistswere probably r ~ g h t rev. by Powell, JAOS 118 (1998) zgof. l u r , u b ~ q u ~ t o u3'd
s , mill. on. As In many
East with the ev~dencefrom the ancient cu- (cf. Gartenkresse", there identified as Lepz- anguages, "apple" is used with adject~ves
nelform sources wdl not necessarily help dzum satzuum; there are a number of S 3. F r u i t s . )r nouns (at least In the real o r art~fic~al
much in i d e n t i f y ~ nplants
~ where one has closely related specles natlve to Iraq: Flora 3.1. General. In the lowlands, we find iumerian wr~tingsof the names) to denote
little more than names and very limited of Iraq IVlz [l9801 886-891). The litera- a group of four basic fruits from the beg~n- )ther frults and things that have some real
contextual ev~dence.What can be inferred ture ls filled wlth contrad~ct~onsand ning of wrlting (ca. 3000) onward: apples, )r lmaglnary connection with apple. E. g.,
wlth some probability IS summarized be- guesses that range from educated to un- grapes, figs, and dates. All of these seem to n the lexical series Hh. (111 30 ff., S. Powell
low. founded. T h ~ sresults from the fact that be fully domesticated by the end of the 4"' ISA 3, 146f.) "upland (or foreign?) apple"
16 OBST UND GEMUSE. A. I

( h a g h u r - k u r - r a ) is equated with Akkad- 3.3. Aprtcot (Prunus armeniaca L.) (cf. Dates came to constitute, along with bar- cond only to the date m the lowlands is
ian words for "pear", "quince", and ar- B. S 1.2). Like the peach, this fruit seems to ley, one of the food staples of the south suggested by the elaborate termmology for
mannu (unidentified),and twelve other ideo- be a westward migrant from ChinaICentral and, above all, served as the major source the various parts of the plant in Hh. 111
graphic/logographic quahfiers of haBhur A s ~ awhose appearance in the Near East of sugar, since grapes and figs were much (Powell BSA 3, 146). Texts from the rnd
are equated with thirteen Akkadian names, probably post-dates the conquests of Cyrus more expensive and honey, even more ex- mill. o n suggest that grape cultivation for
two of w h ~ c hare "pear" and one the afore- the Great and Darius, i.e., roughly the half- pensive, was available only as import. The wine was concentrated particularly in the
mentioned armannu. In other words, the century 530-480 B. C. Proposals to iden- date was probably not cultivated for its Syr~anuplands and in the south slop~ng
lexical evidence points in the general direc- tify either of these fruits with Akkadian (to fruit in the uplands (as shown by its ab- mountain terrain where modern Syria, Tur-
tion of the Rosaceae but does not allow un- say nothing of Sumerian) words must be, sence in upland texts which mention fruits key, Iraq and Iran come together.
equivocal identification of specles. until clear archaeological evidence to the or fruit trees - cultivation north of Tikrit is Flora of Iraq IV/1, 443-448. - Powell, "Wme
It seems probable, despite the rarity of contrary, regarded as unfounded. restricted by winter cold), but the fruit and the vlne m anclent Mesopotarnla", ~ n :(ed.)
archaeobotanical finds, that the name ha:- Apr~kose.'. Postgate, BSA 3, 117-no, 131f- -
itself was doubtless imported from the P MacGovern et al., The origins and anclent h ~ s -
Powell, BSA 3, i 53-1 56. - Hunemorder, "Aprl- south. tory of wine (1996) 97-122.
huru denotes the domest~catedapple, but it
kose", Der Neue Pauly I 914 f.
may have included wild specles. Since most Dattelpalme', Palme'; Flora of Iraq V111 ( 1 9 8 ~ )
of the f r u ~ tdomest~catesdepend for their 263-265. - Postgate, BSA 3, 117 (wlth Ilt.). - S 3 . 8 Hackberry (Celtzs spp.) (cf. B.
genetic stabil~tyon propagatlon by cuttmgs 5 3.4. Cherry (cf. B. S 1.3). Not yet iden- Renfrew, BSA 3, 155. S 1.10). Not identifiable in the cuneiform
tified in cuneiform sources. It is not impos- sources. Powell (BSA 3, 149) suggested
and analogous clonings, and, since this
method of propagation is practically man-
sible that the sweet (Mazzard) cherry (Pru- S 3.6. Ftg (Ficus carica L.) (cf. B. S 1.8). ~dentifyngthe mesu 1 mes tree with Celtzs
nus avzum (L.) L.) or the sour (Morello) tittu l eB one of the five basic fruits From australisL., but this is probably wrong.
datory for grape culture, it seems likely that Celtzs (cf. caucasra L.) berr~esare known
cherry (Prunus cerasus L.) could have been the 3'%m;ll. on, ubiquitous, lowlands and
it was also pract~ced w ~ t hother fruits. from Tall al-Der but are thought to be
known in the uplands, but the domesti- uplands. Like dates and grapes, a major
However, slnce propagatlon of apples by cated cherry seems to have become wide- source of sweetness, as the Sumerian writ- upland imports (Renfrew BSA 3, IS$),
seed is attested even into modern tlmes, we spread only after the Pers~anEmp~re.A mg giS 191, "syrup tree", suggests. Hh. 111 whereas mesu 1 m e s trees were actually cul-
cannot exclude t h ~ sin antiquity, which more likely fruit (though very small) 1s the (cf. Powell BSA 3, 146) lists four "fore~gn" twated in S. Mesopotamia, especially for
would have led to a much greater genetic Mahleb or perfumed cherry (Prunus maha- variet~es,all more or less from the uplands: wood, and Celtzs does not grow well in
dwerslty and to a correspond~ngvariety in leb L. Mill.), but nothing in the cuneiform Marian (from Mari on the Euphrates), Sub- southern Iraq (Flora of Iraq IVIi, 69-75).
the resulting f r u ~ t . sources points clearly In this d ~ r e c t ~ oIfn .a arlan ( ~ . e . from
, the Assyrian-upper Tigris
The fact that the apple is not now exten- word for cherry ex~sted,one would expect reg~on),Elamite (SW. Iran), G u t ~ a n(prob. 3.9. Medlar (Mespzlus germanzca L.)
s~velycultivated in S. Iraq has led to the - to find ~t in the "berrys sectlons of Hh. 111, W-NW. Iran). One should note that the syc- (cf. B. 1.12). Not ~dentifiablein cuneiform
otherw~se unlustif~ed - assumption that since the olive is also entered there (S.be- amore fig (Ficus sycomorus L.) does not oc- sources. Identification by Thompson (DAB
bai'buru must denote somethmg else In cu- low). It 1s barely posslble that glS g ~ - r l - cur in Iraq. 305 f.) of :alluru / S e n n u r as medlar is un-
neiform texts. Apr~cot(S. below) has been z u m = girisu (Hh. I11 230 = MSL 5, 112) hkely (S. below under plum), because it oc-
Feigen(baurn) . Flora of Iraq IVh (1980) 87-
the preferred alternatwe. This assumption contans the ub~quitousword that turns up 89. Hunemorder, "Felge", Der Neue Pauly IV
- :urs from Ur 111 o n m the south, as well as
has no bas~sin fact. The apple was the pre- in various forms in Near East languages as (1998) 456f. widely in the north, where ~t turns up In
ferred specles among the Rosaceae in the well as in Greek kerasra and Latin cerasra large numbers as shoots for plantmg,
3rd mill. precisely because it had been do- (NB: not derived from Kerasous!), but cer- S 3.7. Grape (Vrtzs vtnifera L.) (cf. B. xlongs~depomegranate and fig. The med-
mesticated and f~lledan important niche in tainty is impossible, since the Near Eastern S 1.9). karanu I g e S t ~ n(zsbunnatu, "clus- lar, from the fact that its f r u ~ becomes
t pal-
the avadable domest~cates. Apples were words from which kerasra etc. derwe come ter"), ubiquitous, from early 3rd mill. on, itable only m a bletted, softened condinon,
cultivated in the same way that Cztrus spe- from some unknown language (or group of w~dely and extensively cult~vated in the las always played a minor role in fruit cul-
c m are grown m modern S. Iraq, namely languages), and, moreover, the Hh. I11 en- north, espec~allyfor wine, in the south ap- :we, and t h ~ swdl have hardly been dlf-
m the m~cro-chmatecreated by date groves. try remains isolated. parently more for fruit, which was proba- Ferent In ancient times (cf. Flora of Iraq U
Flora of Iraq IVIi (1980) 465 f. notes that, Flora of Iraq 112, 166-170. - Hunernorder, bly consumed more often as ra~sins 2 , 118 f.).
though cltrus trees (natwe to southeast "Kirschbaum", Der Neue Pauly V1 (1999) 489 f. (muziqu l g e i t i n UD), and for juice, which
A m , etc.) are too sensitive to stand the c11- was turned into syrup (dzi'pu I lal), I. e., the 3.10. Mulberry (Morus) (cf. B. 1.13).
mate of S. Iraq when grown in the open, S 3 .S. Date (Phoenzx dactylifera L.) (cf. so-called "honey" that turns up in modern 'uttu, attested only a couple of times In Per-
oranges (Cztrus stnensts) can produce enor- B. 1.6). gtizmmaru 1 g i B ~ m m a r the
, basic translat~ons of Sumerran and Akkad~an ;ian period texts. Heimpel (Maulbeere") is
mous harvests m properly spaced date f r u ~ t of S. Mesopotam~a, attested from texts. Likewise, the "wine" that turns up in :orrect in rejecting identifications with
groves. early 3rd mill. on. The vast date palm plant- lowland texts is almost all beer that has xher Akkad~ano r Sumerian words. Morus
ations known from modern times probably been flavored andlor fortified by the addi- dba L. (the preferred mulberry for silk-
Apfel . Flora of Iraq Uz (1966) 110. - J. N. Post-
gate. BSA 3 (1987) 116-119. 128-132. - M. A. began to take shape in the Ur I11 period but tion of grape syrup during the fermentation worm culture) was unknown in the west m
Pawell. BSA 3, 155 f. - C. Hunemorder, "Apfel", d ~ dnot reach anythmg l ~ k et h e ~ rmodern process. That, as a f r u ~crop,
t the grape was mclent tlmes, and Morus nrgra L. seems to
Der Neue Pauly I(1996) 831. proportions untd the Chaldean-Pers~anera. first in importance m the uplands and se- ,e a I" mdl. B. C. Immigrant from the east
18 OBST UND GEMUSE. A. I OBST UND GEMUSE. A. I 19
(but cf. B. 1.13 for earher mulberry wood onyms of iallaru / S e n n u r . The latter term has noted (BSA 3, izyf.), hauh, which the fact that it 1s the biggest fruit(tree) entry
at Uruk). begins to turn up in lowland texts from Ur must be the A r a b ~ ccounterpart to hahhu, in Hh. 111, following date and grape.
Flora of Iraq IV11, 79-85. - Hunemorder, [I1 on. If the Hh. 111 text is valid (i.e., not denotes "peach" in modern Iraqi and Granatapfel'.. Flora of Iraq IVh, 403-405. -
"Maulbeerbaum", Der Neue Pauly V11 (1999) corrupt), this may mean that Salluru is yet Egyptian but "plum" in Syrian. However, Postgate, BSA 3, 116, 121, 130. - Hunemorder,
1043. another word for pear, perhaps dialectical, since there is no evidence for peach In cune- "Granatapfel", Der Neue Pauly IV (1998) 1203.
a distinctive variety, or deriving from a d ~ f - iform, ~t is possible though by no means
-
S 3.11. 01zue (Olea europaea L.) (cf. B. ferent language from kamziiaru (cf. also certain - that ialluru and h a h m denote 3.16. Qutnce (Cydonia oblonga Wller)
S 1.14) serdu (szrdu). No independent Sum- below under plum). None of these words respectively the cherry plum (Prunus cera- (cf. B. S 1 . 1 ~ )supurgillu
. I h a S h u r N Sen.
erlan word is known, which fits the at- appear to be e~thcrSumerian or Semitic. It srfera Ehrh.) and the domesticated plum n u r - k u r - r a , only attested uplands (this
tested cultivation pattern (uplands: Syria, is possible that the wild Syrian pear (Pyrus (Prunus domestica L.). This would fit with fits modern cultivation patterns). Identtf~ed
Assyria, but not in the lowlands), and only syriaca Boiss.) is represented in one of the the Sumerian terms S e n n u r and big Sen. on basis of Arabic safargal. "Sumerian"
the domesticated form is known from Iraq. words associated with kamziiaru in Hh. 111, n u r , since the fruit of the cherry plum is equivalents are probably based on resem-
References to olwe wood in lowland texts however, though reportedly eaten in mod- normally not more than half the size of the blance of quince to apple and pear (cf.
begin in the Akkad period. The olive is ern times by the mountam people, it is not domestic plum. Unfortunately, Hh. (111 plum above).
listed In the "berry" section of Hh. 111 likely to have been cult~vatedfor fruit in 128-132 = MSL 5 , 103) also equates b ~ g Flora of Iraq Vz, 1o6f. P o s t g a t e , BSA 3, i j o f . -
(Powell BSA 3, 149 f.) and was probably ancient times. Part of the ambivalence in Sennur, S e n n u r UD, and S e n n u r of the Hunemorder, "Quitte", Der Neue Pauly X
grown mostly for oil, forming the upland the lexical texts must be attributed to lim- uplands w ~ t h"pear" (kamziiaru), and the (2001) 727.
counterpart to lowland sesame (H. Waet- ~ t e dcultivation in anclent Mesopotamia upland S e n n u r IS also equated with
zoldt BSA 3. 77-96). (only in the north), and it is not commonly "quince" (supurgzllu) and marmahhu S 3.17. For other, unidentlf~ed, fruits
Flora of Iraq IVII, 51%. ment~oned in the 3 r d mill. texts ( g i p a r ,
cultivated in modern Iraq. (meaning unknown), and the latter is also
UR X A.NA, m u d u m ) see J. N. Postgate,
B x n b a u m . Flora of Iraq 112, 108-110. - Post- equated with big Sennur. One is therefore
3.12. Peach (Prunuspersrca (L.)Batsch) BSA 3 (1987) 115-127.
gate, BSA 3, 130. - Hunemorder, "Birnbaum", faced with two equally unpalatable alterna-
(cf. B. 1.15). Not identifiable In cuneiform Der Neue Pauly I1 (1997) 693 f. tives: either the text of Hh. is corrupt or, 9 4. Vegetables. Reasonably certaln
sources and probably only comes into the
what is inherently more likely, a single an- are lettuce, cucumbers, garlic, onions, leek,
west after the eastward extension of the
Achaemenid Empire. Apparently unknown
S 3.14. Plum (Prunus x domestzca L.) (cf. clent name can, like the modern names, di- and two or more kinds of legumes. Much
to the Romans prior to the Mithr~datic B. S 1.17). Identiflcat~onis problematic, but alectically denote entirely different specles of the contextual evidence is ambivalent,
Postgate (BSA 3,129 f.) is probably r ~ g h In t or the same species could be denoted by and. species identificat~on is more often
Wars (88-63 B. C.). This fact and the name
suggesting that angaiu IS the Assyr~anword d~fferentnames. For example, Iraq1 '~ngas
perszca, I.e., "a Pers~an"(which is the ori- than not problemat~c. S. also Garten",
gm of the western European words for for plum. It occurs In the descr~ptionof and gauga both denote the cherry plum Gewurze', Kuche".
peach) suggest that it was not widely Ashurnasirpal's garden in the order pear, (P. cerasifera), the former being the redlpur-
known in Asia Minor until the I" cent. quince, fig, grape, angaiu, where one does ple variety and the latter yellow/green. S 4.1. Greens (leafy vegetables). Lactuca
B. C. and that "Persian" was what ~t was not expect another word for "pear" but a Flora of Iraq Vz. 153-171. - Hunemorder, sattva L., lettuce, is probably what is meant
called locally. See "apricot" above. distinct klnd of fruit tree. The fact that it "Pflaume", Der Neue Pauly IX (2000) 704. by ha& / hi-IS, but there is no way to be
1s sometimes translated "pear" reflects the certain that this is not as ambivalent as
Flora of Iraq Vz, 160f. - Hunemorder, "Pfir-
sich", Der Neue Pauly IX (2000) 703.
amb~valentnature of our evidence. As Post- S 3.15. Pomegranate (Punzca grana- "salad" with regard to species. The green
gate has noted, 'angas (or 'lngas) means turn L.) (cf. B. S 1.18). nurmu, lurmu, h - tops of leeks, onions, and garlic were prob-
S 3.13. Pear (Pyrus communis L.) (cf. B. "plum" in Iraq but "pear" elsewhere in the zmtu 1 n u - u r - m a , ubiquitous, lowlands ably eaten, as seems to be implied by
S 1.16). kamtiiaru, ident~fiedon the basis Near East, a sltuatlon which is part~allyex- and uplands. Not attested in Presargonic kismu, "cut", applied to a number of vege-
of words in Aramaic and Arabic. In the lex- plained by the fact that neither the Assyrian texts from Laga6, therefore probably Intro- tables with green tops, including what is
ical serles Hh. (111 33 f. = MSL 5 , 96) the nor A r a b ~ cword IS Semitic in origin but duced into the lowlands in the Akkad-Ur probably turnlp (laptu), but cune~form
"Sumerian" equivalent ha5 h u r - k u r - r a , from some unknown language. T h ~ ssame 111 period. The name apparently derives sources are taciturn about perishable com-
"apple of the uplands", may be artificial situation seems to have prevailed in ancient from some unknown language. Most of the modities. One should probably assume that
(i.e., post-Sumerlan), and the graph haS. times as well, because Hg., the commentary derivatives share the consonants n r, some the young green tops of herbs like corian-
h u r UD cannot be Interpreted with cer- series to Hh., probably equates angaiu n m r, as in Arabic rumman. Hh. 111 (186- der (ku/lszbzrru 1 Se-lu), a delicious but
tainty. Identification with pear is suggested with kamiiinru (pear) and with "Sumer- 194 = MSL 5, 107 f. + MSL y, 161) runs pungent green now known w~delyunder
by the close linkage with apple and quince ian" g18 h a 6 h u r - k u r - r a , "apple of the eleven entrles that seem to focus primardy the name "cilantro", were also eaten.
in the few texts which contain lists of two uplands" (this is the more likely restoration on taste (sweet, sour, etc.), but the Sumer- Among the Cruciferae, Lepidium (presum-
or more fruit(trees), however, a puzzling of this entry than the giS S e n n u r - k u r - r a ian gig I a l - d a r - r a seems to reflect the ten- ably satzvum, but there are a number of
section of Hh. 111 (126-132 = MSL 5 , 103) of MSL y, 166 that is accepted by CAD S. v. dency of the pomegranate rind, when fully closely related native species: Flora of Iraq
that is sandwiched in between words for in- angaiu). A similar ambivalence is reflected rlpe, to split open and drip syrup. As in the IVIr [iy80] 886-891), identified with
cense (trees) and nut trees treats both pear in the equations Se n n u s = ialluru and Sen. Mediterranean, it is a fruit with religious sahlu I za-ah-11, seems likely. This is the
(kamiiSaru) and qulnce (supurgtllu) as syn- nur-gal (big S e n n u r ) = hahhu. As Postgate associations. Its importance is ~ndicatedby "cress" (Germ. "Kresse") that appears In
20 OBST UND GEMUSE. A. I

Assyriological literature, a peppery plant oecause, under certam circumstances (age, L.), but, given the rather complex terminol- Into the Near East remains unclear, and, if
that can be eaten green but which seems to drought, temperature, etc.), the cultivated ogy attested for these species and the lim- mung beans seem rather unlikely, the same
have been cultivated ~rimarilyfor its pep- xcumber can also be quite bitter, or, on ited nature of the contextual evidence, it is cannot be said of cowpeas, for which we
pery seeds. The cabbage and mustard ge- :he other hand, rather sweet. Other species often impossible to distinguish species from must await more archaeobotanical evi-
nus, Brassrca, (Flora of Iraq IVIz, 847- :hat may lurk in these names are the cultivar or phase of growth, e.g., chives dence. If archaeobotanical evidence indi-
853) must also have been known, but none bottle gourd (Lagenarta sicerarza (Molina) from, let us say, young leeks or green on- cates rts presence in the ancient Near East,
have been identified with absolute cer- Standl.) and the luffa gourds (Luffa aegyp- ions (scallions) o r even young garlic. In any it may be difficult to identify lexicographi-
tainty. Mustard has been sought in Akkad- tiaca Mill. or Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.). case, garlic played a central role in vege- cally since, in the first part of the twentieth
ian kasti, like "cress" grown for seed, but The latter two are edible when young, but table culture. It is the basrc name for "bul- century it was cultivated by d~ggingholes
gazi, the corresponding Sumerian term (or ;he first is thought to be of African origin, bous" plant in Sumerian, and the sign In the wet soil after the spring inundation
graphic representat~on)is still troublesome and the latter two of tropical and Indian serves t o denote bulbs even outside the My and putting in a few seeds. One thinks of
and may refer to two (or more) plants. xigin respectively. We have as yet no clear family, as in andahi'um, perhaps a crocus, terms like i'egunu; but, as usual, the
Moreover, no one is in a pos~tionto say svidence for the watermelon (Citrullus la- of which two edible species are native in contextual evidence is ambivalent.
whether the Akkadian term would refer to matus (Thunb.) M a t s u d a k a i ) , which may Iraq (Crocus brflorus and C. cancellatus: There are two sets of words In Akk.1
Brasszca nzgra or Stnapsis alba. Neither not have arrwed In the anclent Near East Flora VIII 226-232). That garhc was re- Sum. interpreted as legumes by cunei-
cabbage nor any of its closely relatives in from its putative south Afrlcan homeland. garded as the primary bulb vegetable is formists: kakku I g u - t u r and halluru / g u -
the Brassica oleracea group is identifiable, [n any case, grven the rather unlque charac- probably because it is, by far, the least per- gal. In the past, these have usually been in-
but they will not have resembled the ter of the watermelon and the large role ~shableof the Allturn crops. The cloves tend terpreted as lentils (e.g., Linse") and chick-
modern cultlvars closely enough for us to played by it in modern Iraq where, with
- to dry out rather than rot like onions, and peas. Moreover, like many commonly oc-
recognlze them anyway. irrigation, it flourishes, ~t would be rather the loss of a single clove does not mean loss currlng commodities, the Sumerograms
surprising not to be able to recognlze it in of the whole bulb, as with onions or other g u - t u r 1g a l (lit. littlelbig bean or pea) are
S 4.2. Cucurbrtaceae (cf. B. S 2.1.2). In the economic texts. The ancient history of juicy Allturn specles. And, it is also for this often used instead of writlng out the Ak-
this group the cucumber, qtii'u I ukuS, pre- the cultivated Cucurbitaceae is not well reason that garlic cloves are represented In kadlan words syllab~cally. Thus, it is a
sumably Cucumls satruus L., is relatively understood, and one should keep in mind the archaeobotanical record. matter of faith rather than evidence, when
certain. The Akkadian term seems to de- that the cucumber (Cucumrs sattuus). Flora of Iraq VIII (1985) 137-177. - Charles, one transcribes these Sumerograms with
note primarrly the cucumber, whereas the whrch cuneiformists assume w ~ t h o u tques- BSA 3, 11-13. Waetzoldt, BSA 3, 23-56. - Scol,
- kakkti and halluru. In fact, in texts of the
Sumer~anukuS IS a collect~veterm for all tion to be represented by qzSiu 1 ukuS and BSA 3, 57-80. Achaemenid period, it is now clear that
the Cucurbttaceae (cf. Gurke'). The cantel- w h ~ c hoccurs widely m texts from the latter exher hallziru is the word for beadpea with
oupe or sweethusk melon (Cucumis me10 half of the 3 r d mill. on, is thought to be 5 4.4. Beans, peas and other legumes (cf. a very broad semantic range or, more
L.) is represented by a still occurring wild from I n d ~ aor Central Asia. Most of the B. S 2.4). Identificat~onof species still poses I~kely,that halluru 1s not the Late Babylo-
form in Iraq (Flora of Iraq IVh, 203-206) cultivated squashes and pumpkms are from serious problems. The cultivated plants we nian readmg for g u - g a l . In Late Babylo-
and, therefore, may be mplied by the term the New World (e.g., Cucurbtta pepo, expect are lentils (Lens culznans Medik.: nian texts, the word halluru clearly denotes
"sweet" (matqu) and the Sumerian terms C. moschata, C. maxima). Flora of Iraq I11 544-548), chrckpeas (Ctcer of a shekel (Powell, AOAT 205
ukuS-lal and ukuS-ku,-ku lit. "syrup Flora of Iraq IVIi, 190-208 - M. P. Charles. arietznum L.: Flora of Iraq 111 505-5i2), [l9791 101f. and MaBe und Gewichte* V
ukuS" and "sweet sweet uk:'Sn (MSL 10 BSA 3, 6-10. - M. Stol, BSA 3, 81-91. broad beans (Vrcia faba L.: Flora of Iraq 111 A.lb, p. xiif.), and it is only in these
p. 98, p. 115, MSL 11p. 127 f.), but if it were 542-544), and common peas (Plsum sari- :ontexts that it is written syllab~cally.Thus,
an anclent cultivar in Mesopotam~a,it is cu- S 4.3. Roots, bulbs, etc. (cf. B. S 2.2). uum L.: Flora of Iraq 111 573-578). How- ~tcannot denote the chickpea, and this has
rlous to find so little evidence of it in the an- Among these, turnip (Brasstca rapa L. ssp. ever, bearlng in mind the case of the cu- the further impl~cationthat g u - g a l , w h ~ c h
cient Mediterranean. There are around rapa), laptu / l u - u b , and radish (Raphanus cumber with lts putative Ind~an-Central x c u r s frequently in Late Babylonian texts
twenty Sumerian and Akkad~annames for sativus L.), puglu 1 (Sum.?) seem relatwely Asian origin, we cannot exclude Vrgna un- from the MuraSC archive, is also not likely
Cucurbrtaceae, but it 1s difficult to distin- certain, beet (Beta uulgarzs L.), Sumuttu 1 guiculata (L.) Walp (Flora of Iraq 111 581f.), :o be the chickpea. From modern cultiva-
guish species, varieties/cult~vars, etc. from s u m u n - d a r less so. That these vegetables known variously as cowpeas and in Amer- :ion patterns, one does not expect chlck-
names that merely denote characteristics would have looked very similar to the vari- ica under a number of varlety names (black ?eas in S. Iraq, and there is a northern term
like stage of growth, taste, appearance, etc. eties famlhar to us 1s not likely when one eyes, crowders, purple hulls) and in Iraq as :appanu: "nosey"), w h ~ c halso has etymo-
Two or more of these names probably de- considers the enormous variat~onIn mod- lubia, a popular summer grown vegetable, ogical support for ~dentifyingit with the
note the colocynth (Cttrullus colocynthis ern cultivars, somewhat less so. Among the nor Vzgna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek (Flora of :hickpea. The leguminous vegetables one
(L.) Schrad., perhaps ttgrlii) and the squirt- bulbs (lily family), garlrc (Allrum satlvum), Iraq III), known as green gram o r mung :xpects In the south are lentils (Lens), com-
ing cucumber (Ecballlum elaterium (L.) A. iumu I s u m , onion (Allzum cepa L.), beans and In Iraq as mas. The former is of n o n peas (Pzsum), and broad beans (Vrcra
Rich), but these two are medible. It has iuskrllu, Samaikrllu 1 s u m - s i k ~ l and
, leek Afr~cano r I n d ~ a norigin, the latter from In- 'aba), but how these species relate to the
generally been assumed that "b~tter" in (Alltum porrum), karaiu 1 g a - r a g , seem dia and has not been ident~fiedIn any an- ~ a r i o u sg u words in Sumerian (or to their
Akk./Sum. denotes medible specles, but un- quite certain. Among Allrum specles one cient sources, but, like the cucumber, the deographic-logographic use in the writrng
fortunately, that too is not necessarily true, also expects chives (Allrum schoenoprasum preclse era in which they were introduced >f other languages) and to kakku and hal-
22 OBST UND GEMUSE. A. I1 OBST UND GEMUSE. A. II

luru rernalns unclear. A rather unhappy TUR (KUB 12, 55+ 57 i 7'), den ,,Oliven- 5 3. O b s t und Gemuse.
conclus~on.However, among other species garten" (@KIR16 g"SE,,;IR-TUM) und Obst und Obstbaume
~dentificationproposals that one encounters ,,WeingartenC' @%IRI,.GESTIN (S. Haas
( d ~ Seitenzahlen
e bez~ehenslch auf Hoffner 1974, 95-112)
In the literature, one can exclude bitter vetch 1988, 121 mit Anm. 2 und 3; 12;).
(Vzcra ervilia L. [but cf. B. S 2.4.51: Flora Bewasserungssysteme waren %h be- Deutsch Heth. Hart. Akkad~schU. HohlmaRe
of Iraq 111 526), common vetch ( V sativa L. kannt ($p ,Ibewassertes Feld" A.SA iiiiu- Hurr. Luw. Akkado- und Behalter
[but cf. B. S 2.4.41: Flora of Iraq 111 534- raj; A. SA SA PA, KUB 8, 75+ i 61), 212), Pal. gramm
536), and chickling vetch or grass pea (La- obwohl diese eme kleinere Rolle in der
thyrus satrvus L.: Flora of Iraq 111 554- Landwirtschaft spielten als in Mesopota- Obst, GURUN INBI BAN, PA
Obstbaum lNBU NAMMAND
556). These are all fodder crops, though the mien (S. heth. Gesetze, Hoffner L H [l9971
first two have been used as scarcitylfamine S 109: S. 201, S 162147: S. 212; ders. 1974, TUM, SUTU
foods (cf. B. $ 5 2.4.4-S), and the third, oc- 21-24; S. a. Bewasserung-L, Kanal(isat1-
casionally for human food. However, since on).'.). 4pfel (S. 38, heth. [hlk-
there is virtually no evidence for fodder 113-115); karza] ?am(a,
crops in cune~formsources and since land S 2. Q u e l l e n . ZHD S. U. ?a- lu-, ?amal(u)-
use in the irrigated south (from which most 1. Die alteste Ouelle fiir Obstbaume in n (a) lu wan(+; hatt.
of our evidence comes) 1s not hkely to have Anatolien ist das jar tamharr-Epos (ca. um ?a-a-wa,,-at(?
hurr. hmzun;
tolerated the plant~ngof an inferior crop, 2300). Hier werden Obstbaume auf klein- pal.
none of these are likely to turn up in the asiatischem Geb~etwahrend des Sargon- ?amluwa-
cuneiform sources as human food. Feldzuges genannt, deren Identitat aber un-
31me (S. 115)
Flora of Iraq 111 (1974) 505-586 ( V ~ c ~ e a e , gewig ist (bearb. H. G. Guterbock, ZA 44 3ergapfel ( ? )
Phaseoleae). - Charles, BSA 2, 39-45. - Ren- [l9381 45 ff.). S. 38, 115 f.,
frew, BSA z, 67-71. - K. Maekawa, BSA 2 , 97- z. Z u den altesten sicheren Erwahnun- 181
118. - Stol, BSA z, 127-139. - J. E~dem,BSA z, gen gehoren die Landschenk~n~surkunden
141-143. - Hunemorder. "Bohnen", Der Neue
Pauly 11 (1997) 729-
(LS), die Schenkungen des Konigs, haupt-
sachlich Vieh, Felder, Baumpflanzungen 'flaume ( ? )
M. A. Powell S- 38; 118)
und Garten betreffend (bearb. von K. Riem-
Fruher.
schneider, M 1 0 6 [l9581 321-381).
iprikose,
I, IKU ~"MU.SAR 18-IKU S"TIR S"@HUR.- d~spel)
Obst und Gemiise. A. 11. In Anatolien. KUR.RA 6';HASHUR W E N N U R l...] . . SA E.GAL
S. a. Apfel ,, Blrnbaum -,Fenchel ,Garten ', Gar- INA uruzantHnania ... Iattel (S. 118) leth. ha?(?)- su1uppu
tenkresse- , Gerste ,, Gurke ,, Maulbeere ', 01, .,X Iku Gemusegarten, 18 Iku WaldIBaumpflan- klge (S. 116) ka-(?) tlttu, tmu,
Olbaum*, Sesam , Wem . . zung h u t ) Blrnen (?)-, Apfel- und Pflaumenbaumen iurr. zdumpa
dem Palast gehorlg In Z. ..." (LS 4 Vs. 13, S. 362 f., tl'u, hliatu
I. Allgemem. - 2. Quellen. - 3. Obst und a h n h c h L S i Rs. 32, S. 35rf.; L S i Rs. 4 4 , s . j ~ z f . ) .
Gemuse. - 4. Besnmmung. ;ranatapfel ieth. nuratz-(? nurmu, nur
3. Der Text zur Wiederherstellung des -baum) mrr. nurantz- matu
Kultes der Gottzn Ijhara in Kizzuwatna 5. 119 f.)
1. A l l g e r n e ~ n .
Zu den Grundnahrungsmltteln in Anato- gibt ebenfalls AufschluB uber Baum-, Obst- :ornelkrr- eru(m), e'ru
hen (Gerste", heth. halkz-ISE), Dinkel und und Olivenpflanzungen (KUB 40. 2; bearb. :he(?) (S. 38)
Emmer, die man zu M e h l und Brotzuberel- als Bo. 4889 be1 A. Goetze, Kizzuwatna mletzt als
tung und zum Bierbrauen verwendet hat) [l9401 61-76 S. a. 01, Olbaum" B. $ 2.2). Veide ~dentl-
karnen Obst- und Gemuse, deren Kultivie- 4. Obst-, 01- und Weinpflanzungen stell- zlert, S. Ste~n-
rung im Laufe der Jahrtausende verschie- ten einen groBen Wert dar (S. 01, 01- eller 1987,
dene Phasen durchlaufen hat (Schachner baum" B. S z), was In den Hethztrschen 4)
1999, 18 ff.). Gesetzen bestatigt wird. Es wurde Buge be1 IIwe S'~SE~,-IR-
Baurnpflanzungen, Weinberge und Fel- Baumfrevel' aufgelegt, S. H. A. Hoffner, ;. 116f.), S. a. TUM
der sowie Gemuse und Krautergarten bil- Jr., LH 1997, 5 104/'4, S. ioof., 199; ebd. )l, 01-
deten emen festen Bestandteil der Land- S los/".s, S. IOlf., 199 f. aum" B.
wirtschaft. Man kannte den ,,GartenZ' 5. MythologdJe Texte, Beschworungs- re~ntraube karanu
(~''KIRI,), den ,,Gemuse- und Krautergar- rituale. '. 39, 113; S.
(em, Weln-
ten" g " M ~ (KUB . ~ 7,~ I+ ~ r 19, KUB 13, E. Laroche: C T H Nrn.321-370; Nrn. 390-500. aube )
18 Vs. IS), den ,,kleinen Garten" @'KIR16 - V. Haas 2003: Kap. XIII.
OBST UND GEMUSE. A. I1 25

Gemiise und Krauter Gemuse und Krauter

Deutsch Heth. Hurr.


Luw.
Sumerogramm Akkad~sch E~genschaften HohlmaRe
und Behalter
I Deutsch I Heth. H u r l
Luw.
l Sumerogramm 1 Akkadrsch 1 E~genschaften 1 HohlmrRe
und Behalter
I
Hulsenfruchte Kriiuter (Fortsetzung)

Bre~te-l
Saubohne
(S. 98 f.)
umeEar (nut
n Bog.)
Lorbeer

I U KUR.RA5"' nanahtc, nrnun


ass. nenra
Erbse BAN
Klchererbse PA(R1SU)
(S. 97f.)
,.elne kleme
Asa foer~da
(S. 110)
U NU.LUH.HAW' nuhurtu
l
Erbsenart", Pflanzen zur Olgewinnung
L~nse(S. 95 f.)

W ~ c k e(als
V~ehfurrer)
(S. 99-101)
DUG.KA.-
DU.A T U R
Olive S. 01.
Olbaum

Sesam
-
luw. daln(1)
hurr. z m t ~
YYEL,-
IR-TUM
l
hurr. fumz-
Knollen ~wachseund Wurzelgemuse
GurkeKurbrs lakkarwan'." UKUS
( ? ) (S. 106) (S. 112) 5 4. B e s t i m m u n g . den cmigc anderc Obst-, aber vor allcm d ~ e
Lauch (S. 107) GA RAS"'
Nach den Untersuchungen In den mes. Gemusearten durchwegs sumerographisch
Knoblauchl waihar""" SUM"' Quellen (S. Obst und Gemuse : A. I. In Me- wiedergegeben. Das wurde bedeuten: Wenn
Zw~ebel iupprwai- SUM SIKIL"' sopotamlen) bleibt zu fragen, wieweit un- Unsicherhelt uber die Interpretation von
(S. 108) har"."l
. (S sere Ubersetzungen im Hethmschen uber- solchen Wortzeichen schon In mes. Quellen
R~eken1999, haupt zutreffen. besteht, ubertragt sich diese Unsicherhelt
311-314) Wenn das dort unter Aprikose (Apricot erst recht auch auf das Hethitische. Wenn
iupp~waihanal 5 3.3), Kirsche (Cherry 9 3.4), Mispel man zwlschen Kichererbsen (Ctcer arieti-
11- (,,Zw~ebel- (Medlar 5 3.9) und Pfirs~ch(Peach 5 3.12) m m ) , Erbsen (Ptsum sativum), und Sau-
bundel"?
Gesagte sich als haltbar erweist, dann bohnedBreitbohnen (Vicia faba) nicht klar
Knoblauch, SUM S E S * ~ , schelden alle diese Obstarten auch fur das unterscheiden kann, so gllt das auch fur d ~ e
b~tter(S. 109) Hethitische aus. Das hatte zur Folge, daB heth. Texte.
man bei den Relhen wie ""HASHUR, Man kann daher den vorlaufigen SchluR
Krokus AN TAH SUM"' ~ ~ ~ H A S W R . K U R . RundA ""SENNUR (z. B. ziehen: Alle Obst- und Gemusearten, d ~ e
(S. 109 f.) in den heth. Gesetzen oder in den Land- nur mit Wortzeichen geschrieben sind und
schenkungsurkunden) am wahrsche~nlich- dle In mes. Texten mlt Unsicherheit belastet
Krauter sten ,,Apfel, Birne und Pflaume" zu uber- sind, konnen auch In den heth. Texten nicht
/ Fenrhel* setzen hat, wobel man die Pflaume nur mit
Vorbehalt einbeziehen kann. Dles wurde
bestlmmt werden. Vor allem, well zusatz-
lich noch gar nlcht sicher ist, ob die Hethi-
Garten- dann auch fur d ~ ebelden Obstarten Feige ther ein Sumerogramm X mlt demselben
kresse
(S. IlOf.)
(""PES) und Granatapfel (~"NU.UR.MA) Sinn erfullt haben wie die Mesopotamier.
gelten, uber deren Identltat in den mes. Man mui3te sich folglich aufs Neue mit die-
Kor~ander Quellen kein Zweifel besteht. sem Bereich des materiellen Lebens im
(S. 104 f. Bei den Gemusearten sleht es noch alten Anatolien auseinandersetzen, vor
schwieriger aus. Denn wahrend die heth. allem unter Beriicksichtigung der von H. A.
Kummel u.TIN.TIR (GE,,, L " 5 ~ GAN
~ G (hatt., hurr., luw. und pal.) Aussprache fur Hoffner, Jr. (1974) zusammengestellten
(S 103 f ) BABBAR) ,.Med~z~nbeu-
Apfel, Granatapfel und Pflaume(?) durch Spelsen und Speisekultur der Hethither, fer-
tel"
syllablsche Schreibungen bekannt lst, wer- ner der jetzt ziemlich grundllch erforschten
OBST UND GEMUSE. B 27

Flora der Turkei (S. P. H . Davis 1965- Obst und Gemiise (Fruits and Vegeta- nately we can draw on evidence from ex- 1.3. Cherry (cf. A. 9 3.4). Sweet cherry
1988), der zuwachsenden palaobotanischen bles). B. Archaobotanisch. cavations in surrounding regions to map (Prunus avium (L.) L.) and sour cherry
Daten sowie der philologischen Untersu- the arrival of new crops from Europe or (P. cerasus L.) were probably taken into
9 1. Frults. $ 1.1. Apple. 1.2. Aprrcot. 5 1.3. cultivation in Europe, perhaps in the Clas-
chungen. Cherry. $ 1.4. Christ's thorn. 9 1.5. C ~ t r o n . 1.6. Central Asia. Where a crop is found in the
Date. $1.7. Russian Olrve. 91.8. Frg. $1.9. Levant, Turkey o r Iran it can usually be as- sical per~od.Mahaleb (Prunus mahaleb (L.)
Allgemem: A. Arch1 1975: Rez. von H . Hoffner, Grape. $ 1.10. Hackberry. 9 1.11. Hawthorn. Mill.) is a wild tree that grows in northern
Jr., Allmenta Hethaeorum. Or. 44, 326-329. -
sumed that it would have been available (if
$ i Medlar. 1.13. Mulberry. 1.14. Ollve.
1.12. not cultivated) in Mesopotamia. Equally, Iraq. Its f r u ~ t sare usually reported as inedi-
H . B e r m a n 1976: Rez. von H . A. Hoffner, All- 1-15. Peach. 9 1.16. Pear. 1.17. Plum. 1.18.
menta Hethaeorum, JCS 28, 143-246. - Y. D a - Pomegranate. 1.19. Qumce. - 9 2. Vegetables. absence (as with so many of the fruits) ble, but the pulp and the roasted kernels
h e r 1970: Agncultura Anatohca (=StOr. 42). - 2.1. Cucurbltaceae. 9 2.2. Roots, bulbs, etc. from these regions supports the view that are used for flavouring. There arc no arch-
H . E l c h n e r 1982: Zur heth. Etymolog~e..., m: 9 2.3. Greens. 5 2.4. Pulses. the plants were also absent from Mesopo- aeobotanical finds of cherry from the Near
Gs. H . Kronasser, 16-28. - H . E r t e m 19741
1987': Bogazkoy merlnler~ne gore hltitler devrl tamia. East, apart from Prunus mahaleb at EB
anadolu'sunun floras] (Flora des herhrterzelt- Plant remains recovered from archaeo- Hammam al-Turkman.
l~chenAnatohens nach den Bogazkoy-Texten). - logical contexts are the most direct form of S I. F r u i t s .
V. H a a s 1988: Magle In heth. Garten, In: Fs. H . evidence for the use of plants in the past. S 1.1. Apple (Malus pumila Mdl.) (cf. A. 9.13. Chrrst's thorn (Ztziphus spzna-
Orten, 121-142; d e r s . 2003: Mater~aet Maglca chrzstz (L.) Willd.). Seeds of this wild tree
Hethrtlca. Em Beltrag zur Hedkunde m Alten Where waste from crop-processing is pre- 9 3.2). Crab apples (Malus sylvestris (L.)
Orlent. - H. A. H o f f n e r , J r . 1967: An English- sent - for example cereal chaff - then Mill.) were found in an EB tomb in the are common at sites In the Arabian Penin-
H~ttrteGlossary, RHA ~5180,7-99 (S.v. frults, archaeobotanical remains are also evidence Royal Cemetery at Ur, Iraq, dried, cut in sula and occasional in the Levant and
pp. 43-45; vegetable, pp. 92-93; plants p. 69); for local cultivation. Recovery of seeds half and threaded on strlng. These are Egypt. The fruits are eaten and might have
d e r s . 1974: Alimenra Hethaeorurn (= AOS 55); been an Item of trade in Mesopotam~a.
d e r s . 2001: Alunenta Revlslted, In: StBoT 45
from kitchen contexts can demonstrate that either imports of wild apples from Turkey
(Akten des V1. lnternat~onalen Kongresses fur plants were used as human food in the or northern Iraq, or might derlve from lo-
Hethrtolog~e. Wurzburg, 4.-8. Oktober 1999) past; two important examples are of grass cal cultivation of wild apples, which are 1.5. Cztron (Citrus medzca L.). Intro-
199-z1+. - W.-D. H u t t e r o t h I V . H o h f e l d pea and bitter vetch, often thought of only not native to Iraq. Domesticated apple duced to the Near East by the Hellenistic
1982, zooz': Turkel (= Wlssenschaftllche Lan- as animal feed. However two factors hmit (Malus pumila) is now known to have been period (4'h cent. B. C.); one isolated
d e r k u n d e ) . H. O t t e n 1974: Rez. von H. A. archaeobotanical record from Hala Sultan
Hoffner, Allmenta Hethaeorum, ZA 64, 293- the usefulness of archaeological data in re- domesticated from wild populations in
297. - E. R ~ e k e n1999: Untersuchungen zur solving amblguitles in philology. central Asia, and then to have spread west- Tekke, Cyprus, LB (1200 B. C.) and one un-
nommalen Starnmhlldung des Hethmschen Firstly, most plant remains will only sur- wards. The date of its arrival in the Near confirmed find from Nippur.
(= StBoT 44). - A. Schachner 1999: Von der vive if charred by contact with fire. Seeds East is unknown, but may be as late as the E. lsaac 1959: Sclence 129,179-186.
Rundhutte zum Kaufmannshaus (BAR Int. Ser.
807). - 0 . S o y s a l 1989: ,,Der Apfel moge d ~ e and frults are much more likely to survive classical period. The scarcity of apple seeds
Zahne nehmen!", Or. 58, 171-19z. - P. S t e ~ n - charring than fleshy roots o r leafy vegeta- at Near Eastern or Egyptian sites sits uneas- 1.6. Date (Phoenzx dactyltfera L.)
k e l l e r 1987: The Foresters of Umma: Toward a bles. Seeds and fruits that are very abun- 11y with the identification of ha?htrru/hai= (cf. A. 9 3.5). Early records are from
Definltlon of Ur 111 lab or^, In: (ed.) M. A. Po- dant in a farming settlement - for example, h u r as apple. Apple cultivation in southern around the Arabian Gulf, including Dalma
well, Labor In the Anc~entNear East (= AOS 68)
grains and pulses - are in turn more likely Iraq is also problemat~c:unlike sub-tropical Island, U. A. E., and 'Oueili, Iraq, mdl.
74. - J. T l s c h l e r 2002: Herhltlsche Apfel, In: B. C.; then at many sites in the Levant and
Fs. M . Popko, 345-350. - C h r . Z l n k o 2001: to be charred than those of uncommon or fruits such as orange, apple buds require
Bemerkungen zu elnlgen heth. Pflanzen und valuable plants such as splces o r Imported low winter temperatures to break bud rest. Mesopotamia, e.g., in Iraq Ur Royal Ceme-
Pflanzennamen, In: StBoT 45, 739-757. fruits. Oil-rich seeds such as those of ses- Although cultivated apples do occur to- tery (EB), Uruk (LB), Nimrud (Iron Age).
ame or cress are also more vulnerable to day, rarely, in southern Iraq, "neither tree Archaeological evidence for uses includes a
Botansch und Palaobotanxsch: P. H. D a v t s (ed.)
1965-1988: Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean disintegration during charring. However, rt or fruit attains great s ~ z e "(Flora of Iraq I1 Bronze Age (1750 B. C.) madbasa for ex-
Islands I-X, fur hler bes. V1 (1978). - H . has proved possible to use archaeobotani- [l9661 110). Neither the archaeological nor tracting date honey at Failaka, Kuwait.
H e l h z k 1961: Late Bronze Age and Byzantmie L. Costantlnl 1985: In (ed.) G. GnoliL. Lanclottl,
Crops at Beycesultan, AnSt. 11, 77-97. - M .
cal data to build up a fairly comprehensive ecological evidence are consistent with
m: Gs. J. TUCCI,209-217. - M. Nesbltt 1993:
H o p f 1992: Plant Remams from Bogazkoy, Tur- list of the important grains, pulses and large-scale cultivation of apples in ancient A r a h ~ a nArchaeology and Epigraphy 4, 20-47.
key. Revlew of Palaeobotany and Palynologle 73, fruits of ancient Mesopotamia. Those fruits Iraq.
99-104. - M. N e s b ~ t 1993: t Anclent crop hus- that are absent from the Bronze Age arch- 1.7. Russzan olive, Oleaster ((Elaeag-
bandry at Kaman-Kalehoyuk: 1991: Archaeobo- aeobotanical record apple, plum, peach, 9I2 Aprzcot (Prunus armenzaca L ) (cf
tanlcal Report, BMECCJ 7, 75-97. - R. P a s t e r -
-
nus angustzfolia L.). Ed~ble, ohve-shaped
n a k 1998: Uhers~chtuber dre Ergebnlsse der ar- apricot are indeed likely to have been ab-
- A 3 3) Taken Into cultlvat~onIn central fruits. No archaeobotanical records of
chaeobotanrschen Arbelren In Ku~akll 1994- sent or rare in that period. A s ~ a ,l ~ k edomesticated apple archaeolog~ fruit, and probably not native t o Iraq.
1997 und em Interpretat~onsansatzzu den Befull- The second limitation is In the uneven cal ev~dencesuggests a late arrival to the However wood remains have been iden-
den, 160-170, In: A. Muller~Karpeet al., Unter- application of modern recovery techniques Near East There IS one archaeobotan~cal
suchungen In Kugakh, MDOG 130, 93-174- - A . tified from an undated context at Uruk,
U n a l 1998: Hrttlte and H u m a n Cunelform Ta- for plant remains at excavations. These record, Iron Age (Urartian) from Bastam, Iraq-(Kat. 1939) and from Neo-Assyrian
blets from Ortakoy (Gorum), Cenrral Turkey 47. have been adopted most enthusiast~callyat Iran, but the absence of aprlcot stones from Tall Seh Hamad, Syrla.
- D . Z o h a r y l M . H o p f 1988: Domest~cat~onof prehistoric sites, but we have llttle data for other Iron Age sltes suggests ~t d ~ dnot
Plants In the Old World. the first mill. B. C., when many new crops spread to Mesopotam~aand the Levant un 9 1.8. Fzg (Ficus carzca L.) (cf. A. S 3.6).
G. Frantz-Szabo certainly arrived in Mesopotam~a.Fortu- 1
til later Common at Near Eastern sites from Neo-
?
i

I
3
B
1
28 OBST UND GEMUSE. B OBST UND GEMUSE. B 29

1 1 t hperiod,
~ but probably not domesticated $ 1.14. Olive (Olea europaea L.) (cf. A. cord, from Iron Age Hasanlu, Iran, but in- $ 2.3.3. Turnzp (Brassica rapa L. ssp.
until the fourth mill. B. C. Present at Meso- $ 3.11). Probably domesticated in the Le- completely published and in need of dating. rapa). Like radish, n o secure records before
potamian sltes, e.g., Abu Salabih (EB), vant in the Chalcollth~cperiod. Numerous the class~calperiod. A root fragment has
Nimrud (Iron Age). Although archaeo- records from many Near Eastern sltes, in- 5 2. V e g e t a b l e s . been identified from i j r hcent. Byzantine
botanical remains are sometimes identified cluding in Iraq Tall Taya (Akkadian) and 5 2.1. Greens (cf. A. 5 4.1). Sparta, Greece.
as sycomore fig (Fzcus sycomorus L.) this is Nimrud (Iron Age). 5 2.1.1. Lettuce (Lactuca satzva L.).
unlikely because this species was mainly Probably grown in ancient Egypt, based on $ 2.4. Pulses (cf. A. $ 4.4).
grown In Egypt. 5 1.15. Peach (Prunus persrca (L.) artistic and textual evidence only; n o other $ 2.4.1. Chickpea (Czcer arzetznum L.),
Batsch) (cf. A. 5 3.12). Taken into cultiva- records until the classical period. Lentrl (Lens culznaris Medik.), Pea (Pisum
$ 1.9. Grape (Vztzs vznzfera L.) (cf. A. tion in central Asia. Present at Samos, sativum L.). Common in the Near East, in-
$ 3.7). Wild grape seeds are occasional at Greece, in the 7'h cent. B. C., but other re- 5 z.1.z. Cress (Lepidium satzvum L.). cluding Mesopotamia, from the Neolithic
Neolithic and Chalcol~thic sites; slender cords are post-class~cal:Byzantine (6rhcent. Cress seeds were found in the tomb of Tut- period. Chickpea appears more commonly
seeds with long beaks, typical of domesti- A. D.) Upper Zohar, Israel, and Sasanian ankhamun. Probably domesticated in the in northern Mesopotamia, pea in the south;
cated grapes are common from the EB on- Merv, Turkmenistan (6-7'h cent. A. D.). Near East, but n o archaeobotanical re- lent~lsare widely distributed.
wards in the Near East and Egypt. Claims cords.
of chemical evidence for wme-making (and, $ 1.16. Pear (Pyrus communzs L.) (cf. A. 5 2.4.2. Horsebean (Vicia faba L.). Most
thus, probable domestication) in the Chal- 5 3.13). Wild pears (Pyrus syriaca Boiss.) 5 2.2 Cucurbitaceae. pre-Bronze Age records are of small num-
colithic period are controversial. are occasional on prehistoric sites, though $ 2.2.1 Cucumber/melon (Cucumzs satz- bers of seeds and are of doubtful reliabil~ty,
not yet found in Mesopotamia. They are vus L. and Cucumzs me10 L.) (cf. A. $ 4.2). as several wild species have seeds of similar
M. A. MurrayJN. BoulrodC. Heron rooo: in
(ed.) P T . N ~ h o l s o f l . Shaw, Anclent Egyptian common wild plants in northern Iraq. In Seeds of the two species are ~ d e n t ~ cin
a l ap- shape. The first certain records of horse-
rnaterlals and technology, 5777608. - R. L. Persia wild pears were ground Into flour m pearance. Archaeobotanical identifications bean as a crop are from the m~ll.B. C.,
ZetrlerJN. F. Miller 1995: In (ed.) P. E. McGov- the iBCh cent., while in Turkey today they to one species must therefore be treated as e.g., at 'Arad, Israel, later occurrences are
ernis. J. Flernmg/S. H. Katz, The orlglns and an- are eaten, like quince and medlar, after sporadic, e.g., Horbat Rag Zayit, Iron Age,
aent h~storyof wme, 12;-131. uncertain. The dating of numerous un-
bletting. Wild pears seem an unllkely candi- charred seeds from EB Sahr-I Sohta, Iran, Israel. Records from Mesopotam~aare of
date for trade to southern Mesopotam~a. requires confirmation. The earliest reliable few seeds and are thus amb~guous,except
$ 1.10. Hackberry (Celtts australzs L.) Pears may have been domesticated In for a large store from Early Islam~cBazmo-
(cf. A. $ 3.8). A wild frult, common at Neo- records are from Iron Age Nimrud and
Europe, by the class~calperiod. Samos. Evidence for melon In Pharaonic slan, Iraq. Large seeded forms (broad bean)
lith~c snes In Turkey and occasronally appear to be a very recent (Islam~c?) form.
found at later sltes, e.g.. Tall al Der, Iraq, Egypt is stronger than for cucumber.
5 1.17. Plum (Prunus) (cf. A. $ 3.14). The
c. 16x0 B. C. little archaeobotanical evidence for culti- $ 2.4.3. Cowpea (Vzgna unguiculata (L.)
vated plum (Prunus x domestica L.) 1s from
5 2.2.2. Watermelon (Cztrullus lanatus) Walp). Domesticated in Africa; taken to In-
9 1.11. Hawthorn (Crataegus). Several (Thunb. M a t s u d a k a i ) . Abundant as
class~cal~ e r i o dEurope. The earliest defi- dia during the second m ~ l l e n n ~ uB.
m C., pos-
specles. small but sweet fruits often casu- chaeolog~calremalns are known from se sibly reached the Mediterranean in classical
nite record from the Near East is of Euro-
ally consumed, occasional at Ncar Eastern cond mill. B. C. Egypt, but not found In the tunes, and the Near East in the Islamic
pean plum (domestzca group) and damson
sites. In Iraq, restr~ctedto upland areas. anclent Near East.
(msztrtia group) from Islam~c (c. 1250 per~od.Seeds have been found atTall Guftan
A. D.) Qaryat Midad, Syna. As wlth apple (1000 A.D.) and Qaryat Midad (1250
$ 1.12. Medlar (Mespzlus germanzca L.) and pear, the absence of archaeobotanical $ 2.3. Roots, bulbs etc. (cf. A. $ 4.3). A. D.), Syria. A variety of other beans are
(cf. A. $ 3.9). No archaeobotanical records data suggests ~ l u m of
s any specles were not $ 2.3.1. Garlic (Allium satzvum L.). In known from znd millenn~umIndia, includ-
from the Near East. Thought to have origi- cult~vatedin the ancient Near East. cultivation at least from the r n dmill. B. C., Ing black gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper),
nated in Transcaucasia or Iran, the first tex- e.g., 350 cloves from Tall al-Der, Iraq, greengram or mung ( K radiata (L.) R. Wilc-
tual evidence is from the classical period $ 1.18. Pomegranate (Punzca granatum c. 1630 B. C. Onion (Allzum cepa L.) is zek), and hyacrnth bean (Lablab purpureus
and cultivat~onhas been largely restr~cted L.) (cf. A. $ 3.15). Grown in the Levant abundantly documented from znd mill. (L.) Sweet). Although all are cultivated to-
to Europe. from the EB onwards. Only rarely found at B. C. Egypt. day In Iraq, we can be reasonably certain
sites in Iraq (Nimrud, Iron Age) but today that none were cultivated or consumed In
$ 1.13. Mulberry (Morus nrgra L.: com- cultivated throughout the country, and 2 3 2 Radzsh (Raphanus satzvus L ) anclent Mesopotamia.
mon or black m.: Morus alba L.: white m,) hkely to have been cultivated In the past. Rad~sh1s thought to have been mdepen-
(cf. A. $ 3.10). Introduced from central or dently domesticated m E u r o ~ and
e In south $ 2.4.4. Grass pea (Lathyrus satzuus L.).
south As~a;one archaeobotanical record $ 1.19. Quznce (Cydonza oblonga Miller) east ksla. Evidence for rahlsh I" anclent Probably first domesticated In Neolith~c
for seed of M. nzgra from Sarnos, Greece, (cf. A. $ 3.16) Domesticated In Caucas~aor Egypt is unclear, and it is not well attested as southeast Europe. Fmds of just a few seeds
7rh cent. B. C. Earher ~ntroduction1s sug- central Asia, usually thought to be a late a crop m the Med~terraneanuntil the classi- may be of closely related wdd specles. Defl-
gested by wood fmds from EB Uruk, Iraq, arrival in the Near East, perhaps in the cal period. No radish seeds have been found nlte finds in the Near East Include Tall al-
(Kat. 1914) and Iron Age Pella, Jordan. classical period. One archaeobotan~calre- in the anclent Near East. Sweyhat, Syr~a,EB (c. 2200 B. C.); Hadldi,
30 O'CALLAGHAN - ODA (HYDE)

Syria, (MB, 1900-1500 B. C.) and Bazmo- 'Oueil~.Travaux de 198 5, 32%-329; Tall al-Saw- Okologie. Das Wissen um okologische van de N e r o o p 1992, 155 ff.; Steinkeller
wan: H . H e l b x k 1964: Sumer 20, 45-48; Tall Zusammenhange beruhte in Mesopotamien
sian, Iraq (Old Babylonian, 1900-1700 Taya: J . G . Walnes 1973: Iraq 35,185-187; Ur:
1987, 75 ff., 92ff.).
B. C.). Sometimes mistakenly said to be R. E l l ~ s o n l J M . . RenfrewlD. B r o t h w e l l l auf Erfahrung. Es wurde jedoch nie syste- Uberweidung konnte man trotz des ho-
toxic; In fact safe for human consumption if N. Seeley 1978: JArS 5, 167-177; Uruk: T. E n - matisiert. Die drei Faktoren Boden, Wasser hen Viehbestandes vermelden durch Verfut-
well cooked, and sold today in Iraq for soup- gel/H. K u r s c h n e r 1992: In (Hg.) M. van Essl und Klima bestimmten weitestgehend terung von Rohr'" und der im Uberschui3
F. Pedde, Uruk. Klelnfunde 11, 263-264, 271- Land- und Viehwirtschaft in den drei dafur
making. An important food pulse In India. 274. - LEVANT Pella: G . W ~ l l c o x1992: In produzierten Gerste. Daneben dienten alle
M. E. K~slev1989: Economlc Botany 43, 262- (ed.) A. W. McN~coll.Pella In Jordan 2, 253- nutzbaren Zonen: den Tieren bekommlichen Pflanzen und
270. 256; Upper Zohar: S. B o a r d m a n 1995: In (ed.) I. Gebiete mit Regen oder Bewasse- Pflanzenabfalle als Futter (Waetzoldt 1992,
R.P. H a r p e ~ , Upper Zohar, 113. - SYRIA rungsfeldbau, 2. Palmenhame (Palme':) 129f.; Stqpien 1996, 32ff.; zu duhltubbu
Hammam al-Turkman: W. van Z e ~ s t l W .
2.4.5. Bztter vetch (Vicia eruilial. W a t e r b o l k - v a n Rooljen 1992: Vegetation
und Garten' meist nahe Flussen und Kana- z. B. M. Srgrist, SAT 213, Nos. 852, 923,
Willd.). Common at archaeological sites in History and Archaeobotany I, 157-161; Qaryat len, aber auch in Stadten, und 3. Weidege- 928, 970, 1008, 1586, 1825; AHw. 1366).
Turkey from the Neolithic period, uncom- Midad: D . Samuel roof: In (ed.) S. Berthler, biete. Bereits dle fruhesten Ackerbauern Zur Sicherstellung der B e und Entwas-
mon rn Mesopotamia. Present at EB Tall Peuplement rural er amtnagements hydroagrl- bzw. H m e n sahen sich mit der Gefahr der
coles dan;la moyenne vallee de I'Euphrate, 343- serung der Felder und Garten in den Lan-
Qurtass and Iron Age Nimrud, cultivation 481; Tall Seh Hamad: W. FreylC. J a g ~ e l l a I H . Versalzung" der Boden durch Bewasse- desteilen rnit zu geringen Niederschlagen
perhaps then, as now, restricted to northern K u r s c h n e r 1991: In (Hg.) H. Kuhne, Dle rezente rung" oder zu hohen Grundwasserspiegel war die Anlage und Unterhaltung emes um-
Iraq. Today a fodder plant, but often found Umwelt von Tall %h Hamad, 137-161; Tall Guf- bzw. mit der Getahr der Zerstorung der fangreichen Kanalsystems notwendig. Dies
in archaeologrcal k~tchen contexts that tan: see Qaryat Midad; Tall al-Sweyhat: W. van Pflanzendecke durch Uberweidung kon-
Z e l s t l J . A. H . B a k k e r - H e e r e s 1985: Palaeo- gehorte zu den Aufgaben des Konigs, wie
strongly suggest use as a food for humans. hlstorla 27, 247-316. - TURKMENISTAN front~ert. zahlrerche Jahresdaten belegen. Der Konig
Lrke grass pea, toxic unless cooked. Merv: M . N e s b l t t 1994: Iran 32, 71-73. hatte fur das ,,Wohlergehen des Landes" zu
M. Nesbltt Dle Bauern entwickelten vorbeugende sorgen, d. h. alle notwendigen MaRnah-
g 2.4.6. Common uetch ( V u a satma L.). Anbaumethoden: men zur Sicherung der Nahrung fiir Mensch
A Near Eastern fodder crop. Seeds are similar I. Einstreuen des Saatgetreldes mit dem und V~eh,aber auch des (Hande1s)verkehrs
to rnanv wrld relatives. no certain archaeo- O'Callaghan, Roger Timothy. Historian Sapflug
- - (Pflug') in Furchen im Abstand auf Kanalen und Fldssen zu ergreifen. We-
botanical records. Possibly a recent domesti-
cate.
General: D. Z o h a r y l M . Hopf zooo: Domestl-
I of the ancient Near East. Born in New York
City October 13. - 1912:
, dled in a trafflc mis-
hap near Baghdad March 5 , 1954. H e en-
von ca. 50 bls 75 cm rnit nur drei- bis vler-
maliger Bewasserung gezielt rn diese Fur-
gen der bedrohl~chenFruhjahrshochwasser
muilte er die Flusse und Kanale eindeichen
chen, 2. Anlage von Drainagekanalen zur lassen. Dle Anlage groRer Flutbecken
catlon of plants In the Old World; Pulses: A . tered the Jesuit order in 1929 and was or-
Absenkung des Grundwassersp~egels, 3. dlente bei Gefahr d a m , Wasser zur Entla-
Butler 1998: In (ed.) A. B. DamanralJ. Valkoun/ dained a priest in 1939. He studied ancrent
G. W~llcoxIC.0. Qualset, The origins of agrlcul- Auflockerung der obersten Bodenschicht In stung der De~che und zum Schutz von
Near Eastern languages, history, and ar-
ture and crop domestlcatlon, 102-117. - M . P. chaeology under W. F. Albright at John der heii3en Jahreszeit zur MinimLerung der Mensch und Vieh abzuleiten (Kanal(isa-
C h a r l e s 1985: BSA z, 39-61. Verdunstung von aufgrund der Kapillarwir- tron)'; viele Beitrage In BSA 5 , 1990).
Hopkins University 1942-45, where he ob-
Fruits and vegetables in Egypt: M. A . M u r r a y tained his doctorate, followed by post-doc- kung des Bodens aufstelgendem Wasser Man experimentierte auch mit impor-
zooo: In (ed.) P. T. N ~ c h o l s o d .Shaw, Anclent und 4. Anbau salztoleranter Pflanzen, be- tierten Pflanzen; so gelangte In der altak-
Egypt~anmater~alsand technology, 609-655. toral studies at the University of Chicago
1945-46. He taught philosophy at Ford- sonders Gerste" und bei den Baumen die kad. Zeit Sesam:' als Olfrucht (Bedigian
Sites: AEGEAN Samos: D . Kucdn 1995: JDAI Tamariske" (HruSka 1990, 391ff., bes. 1985, 159tf.; Waetzoldt 1985, 77ff.) und
1x0, 1-64; Sparta: J . G. HatherIL. P e n a -
ham University (1941-42) and anclent Near
C h o c a r r o I E . J . S ~ d e l l l q g zEconomlc
: Botany Eastern history and archeology a t the Pon- 411 ff.; Jas 2000). wohl auch Bambus ( g i - M a - g a n k ' ) zum
46, 395-400. - ARABIA Dalma: M . Beech1 tifical Biblical Institute, Rome (1946-52). Dre Garten waren wahrschernlich wegen Anbau. In nA Zeit IieRen dre Konige zum
E. S h e p h e r d 2001: A n n q u q 75, 83-89; Ras He participated in excavations at Byblos. der geringeren Verdunstung aufgrund des Teil exotische Pflanzen (z. B. Baumwolle)
al-Ginzr: L. C o s t a n t ~ n ~ l PA. u d l s ~ o zooi:
Tall Far'a (near Nablus), and Nippur. Au- mehrstockigen Anbaus (Palmen ', darunter und Baume anpflanzen. An Tieren fuhrte
Paltorlent 2611, 143-156. - CYPRUS Hala Sul-
tan Te!&e: H . H j e l m q v ~ s t1979: in (ed.) U. thor of Aram Naharaim (Analecta Orien- Obstbaume und Gemuse' und Gewurz- man im 11. Jahrtausend Pferd", Kamel-'. und
Obrtnk, Hala Sultan Tekke 5, 110-133. - IRAN taha 26, 1948), a study of the history of pflanzen) weniger durch Versalzung gefahr- Katze ' em (Akklimatisation'; Limet 1998,
Bastam: M . H o p f l u . W ~ l l e r d ~ n1988: g In eastern Syria between 2300 and 900 B. C., det. Dort produzierte man auch Holz (Gar- 33 ff.).
(Hg.) W. Klelss, Bastam 11, 263-318; Hasanlu: and a series of articles, primarily on Hur- ten".). Die Holzer stammen z. B. von Dat- Ein fruhes okologisches BewuRtsein zeigt
M . V. H a r r l s 1989: Expedltlon 31, 12-23; Sahr-
iSohta: L. C o s r a n t l n ~1977: In (ed.) G. Tuccl, rian and Phoenician subjects. telpalme' , verschiedenen Obstbaumen, sich z. B. auch In Briefen und literarrschen
La cltta bruclata del deserto salato, 159-171. - F. L. M o r ~ a r t y1954: Cathollc Blbhcal Quar- Pappel', Weide" und wenlgstens einer Kie- Texten; denn Felder, Weidegebiete, Kanale,
IRAQ Abu Salabih: M. C h a r l e s 1993: In (ed.) terly 16, 328-319. - E. Vogt 19 54: B ~ b l ~ c35,
a fernart. Es gab auch Waldchen und regel- der Euphrat oder Wasser werden als
A. Green, Abu Salab~kh excavations. Vol. 4, 258-259 ( w ~ t ha b~bllograpbyof O'Callaghan's
203-zzo; id. 1994. In (ed.) R. LuffIP. Rowley-
rechte Baumpflanzungen. Die gefallten ,,Lebensgrundlage" (worthch ,,Lebens-
wrltmgs). - Anonymous (March) 1954: AI
Conwy, Whlrher environmental archaeology?, Baghdad1 zrlz, 1-2. Baume bearbeitete man vor O r t z. B. zu odem") des Landes bezeichnet (CAD Nli,
181-184; Bazmosian: H. H e l b z k 1963: Sumer Dachbalken, Pfosten, Schiffsplanken und 302f. b L').
19, 27-38; Coga Mami: H . H e l b x k 1972: Iraq J. A. Brlnkman
Pflugscharen; dre Aste wurden z. B. zu SI- Ackerbau- und Ackerwirtschaft rn sum.
34, 35-48; Nimrud: H . H e l b x k 1966: In (ed.)
M. E. Mallowan. Nlmrud and ~ t sremains, 613- chelgriffen oder Spatenstrelen verarbertet Zeit" ; Landwirtschaft.' bes. 5 2-4, 5 6-8,
620; 'Oueili: R. Neef 1991: In (ed.) J:L. Huot, Oda (Hyde) S. Uda. (BM 14309 (unpubl.); Powell 1992, 99 f.; g 12.

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