Theme 9: Caribbean Society, 1900 - 1985 2017

Subject: Caribbean History

Date: March 30, 2017

Objective one: Describe the social and economic conditions existing in the Caribbean
between 1900 and 1935.

Focus: Housing, cost of living, working conditions, unemployment, health and education.

Housing

o In the town areas, the majority of the housing facilities for the masses could best be
described as overcrowded unhygienic tenement yards. They were poorly constructed
hovels without much inside plumbing. The tenants shared one standpipe in the yard.
From this they collected water for washing and cooking. There was one central bathroom.
It was often divided in two, one part was the shower and the other compartment was the
toilet.
o The roofs were often made from corrugated and even rusty zinc. They leaked when it
rained because the landlord's emphasis was not on repairs but collection of rent. Because
the demand for housing was so high, a number of persons were afraid to complain too
loudly. The landlord's would merely give them notice and rent the place to someone else
forcing them to find another place. This was not an easy task especially if you had
children.
o In the rural areas most of the houses were constructed by the owner with the help of other
villages. A number of persons inherited land from their families who had acquired it
through the free village movement the century before. It would not be uncommon to see
thatch houses, nor outside bathroom and kitchen as described in the health conditions.
Many of the houses were made of bamboo walls and or wattle and daub (mud). They
usually had dirt floors. The houses usually had a large room which was called the hall
(living room). The verandah was a must. It afforded one the pleasure of looking out on
the horizon and calling to one's neighbor.
o In British Guiana and Trinidad a large majority of the population were descendants of
immigrants. They still lived in the long unsanitary barracks that were provided for them
as part of their contract.

Cost of living

Two indicators: inflation and GDP per capita

o The rise in the cost of living contributed to the protests and demonstrations in the 1930s
in the British Caribbean.
o Goods and services were exorbitant - inflation
o Inflation affected poor people more seriously than the rich, because the poor spend a
greater part of their income on necessities, such as food.
o GDP per capita – amount of goods and services produced by a country, divided by the
population.

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 Theme 9: Caribbean Society, 1900 - 1985 2017
o Shows how wealthy a country is.
o Doesn’t tell how well off people are, since the distribution of wealth might be
skewed

Working conditions

The employers had the upper hand. In some territories unemployment reached a high of 50%!
The demand for work was so high that they felt that they had a right to exploit their workers. To
make matters worse Trade Unions were not legalized before 1938 so the workers were at the
mercy of the employers.
o They worked for long hours, up to ten hours and more for very little pay.
o Some worked from Monday to Saturday. They were not given pay for overtime.
o Those who worked in the factories were exposed to dangerous machines. They were not
compensated if injured in an accident. They were merely sent home. They had to bear
any medical expenses involved in the treatment of the injury that they sustained.
o They were not given any vacation or sick leave.
o Women were not granted maternity leave.
o The employers often dismissed workers unfairly.
o The women suffered from sexual harassment.
o Children were often employed in the factories and fields.
o Those worked in the agricultural industry especially sugar, suffered from seasonal
unemployment. They were employed for only a part of the year and the rest of the year
they were left to starve.

Unemployment

o Major problem in the British Caribbean then and even today

o In Jamaica unemployment averages between 20% and 30% of the workforce – the total
number of people employed or employable.
o In Barbados and in Trinidad and Tobago it is between 17% and 18%
o In smaller islands more than 20% of the workforce is usually unemployed.
o Unemployment was a major concern for women

Health

o Malnutrition was prevalent. This was mainly due to the fact that the masses could not
afford three meals a day or even one well balanced meal for the day. The majority of
them had too many mouths to feed. They had to focus on quantity rather than nutritional
value (quality). Their diet lacked most of the essential nutrients and vitamins required to
build a healthy body. Statistics show that only 45% of the population in Jamaica was
adequately nourished. Needless to say they had very little resistance to diseases.
o Diseases were rampant. The most common diseases were typhoid, yellow fever, malaria,
dysentery, tetanus, hookworm, yaws and tuberculosis. In the 1930's up to 70% of the
poor in the British West Indies suffered from hookworm while tuberculosis was
responsible for 15% of all deaths.

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 Theme 9: Caribbean Society, 1900 - 1985 2017
o There were very few trained doctors in relation to the size of the (ever growing)
population. Many of them were not interested in attending to any member of the lower
class. This was not only because they were prejudiced but also because the poor could not
afford the fees. In addition most of the doctors were located in the towns, far removed
from the deep rural districts and villages.
o A number of them did their own doctoring. They used home remedies passed down from
generation to generations. Here are some interesting examples: comfrey bush/leaf for
headaches, eucalyptus bush or oil for cold, coconut water for hypertension (high blood
pressure) and sage tea for baby gripes.
o Some of the members of the lower class were very superstitious. They believed that
forces of evil were responsible for illnesses. As a result they did not seek medical help
but resorted to ‘bush doctors' and obeahmen.
o There was a high infant mortality rate. 137 out of every 1000 infants did not live to see
age one or two.
o After World War 2 (1939-19450 international agencies such as World Health
Organization (WHO) were formed. They made important advancements in the areas of
eradication and prevention of diseases.
o The establishment of the University Hospital of the West Indies provided an important
training institution for doctors of the region.

Education

The 20th century saw the expansion of those educational services that were begun in the
19th century. The Churches were still pretty much in control. Many of the schools were built and
operated by them. The number of elementary and secondary schools increased.
1. Government built Teachers' Colleges throughout the Caribbean:
a. Jamaica – 4
b. Trinidad – 3
c. Antigua – 1
d. Barbados – 1
e. Guyana - 1

2. Teachers' salaries were increased

Departments of Education were created in addition to the inspectors who were also known as
education officers. With the introduction of internal self government the Departments evolved
into Ministries.
A more realistic curriculum was introduced. The students still did Latin in school but there was
also general science, commercial subjects and domestic science.
In 1948, higher education was available in the region with the establishment of the University
College of the West Indies in Jamaica. It operated at first as an arm of the University of London.
It became an independent University in 1962. Soon after Barbados and Trinidad had their own
campuses: Cave Hill and St. Augustine respectively. The University of Guyana was also founded
that year as an independent University.

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Objective 2: Outline efforts made to improve social conditions by different agents.

Focus: organisations involved in improving living conditions: Trade unions; governments

(policies); women’s organization; United Improvement Association (UNIA);

Numerous measures were implemented by varying organisations to improve the socio-economic

conditions of Caribbean people during the period from 1900 to 1985. Some of which include:

1. Social organizations developed: in the post – 1930 period, after the Labour Riots, many
groups and organizations were formed which provided assistance to people in
impoverished areas. For example, public assistance, soup kitchens and homes for the
poor and homeless ere established.

2. Trade unions emerged from 1937 onwards which fought for better working conditions of
labourers, higher wages and job security. The following is a list of trade unions which
were established from 1937 onwards.
o Progressive League – Barbados
o Workingmen’s association – St. Vincent
o People’s National Party – Jamaica
o Jamaica Workers’ and Tradesmen’s Union – Jamaica
o Jamaica United Clerk’s Association – Jamaica
o All- Trinidad Sugar Estates and Factory Workers’ Union – Trinidad and Tobago
o Seamen and Waterfront Workers’ Union – Trinidad and Tobago
o Public Workers Union – Trinidad and Tobago
o Oilworkers’ Trade Union – Trinidad and Tobago
o Federated Worker’s Union – Trinidad and Tobago
o Transport and General Workers’ Union – Trinidad and Tobago

3. Labour laws were developed to protect the rights of the workers. Laws pertaining to
shorter working hours, workers’ compensation, better working conditions, restrictions on
child labour and social insurance were debated and put into effect.

4. Universal adult suffrage was introduced so individuals over the age 18 had the right to
vote.

5. In many territories, schools were constructed and primary schools were built and more
students had an opportunity to complete studies at secondary level.

6. The larger and/or richer territories such as Trinidad, Barbados and Jamaica started to
build hospitals, highways and secondary roads, housing developments and sport facilities.

7. Welfare schemes, including free education and school meals in Barbados, were all very
important in improving the socio-economic conditions of Caribbean people.

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Government Policies

1. The maternity leave act was passed in 1976 in Barbados and Jamaica
2. The maternity protection act was passed in 1998.

Friendly Societies

They offered various social services such as help with burial and sickness. Antigua was famous
for these. There were quite a number of them. One example is the Daily Meal Society. As its
name suggests it provided meals free of cost to those who could not afford them.

Religious Groups

They were also instrumental in providing recreational facilities and wholesome activities for
young people. Among these are:
a. Girl Guides
b. Boys Scouts
c. Picnics and concerts
d. Camps and retreat
The Salvation Army is a most renowned religious institution. They are among the first group to
provide a place of safety and learning for the blind. They also operated hostels that provided
relief for the destitute and infirmed.

Women's Organizations

There were literally dozens of organizations that were founded and operated by women in
response to the adverse social and economic conditions that they faced on a day to day basis.
These organizations provided skills training for women, opportunities for education and child
care among other facilities.
Here are some examples:
(i) St. Kitts - Ann Liburd was the first President of the Caribbean Women's Association. It
became an umbrella group for over 500 women's organizations in the Caribbean.
(ii) St. Vincent- Sarah Baptiste spearheaded the local chapter of the Girls Guide and Mothers'
Union.
(iii) Jamaica - Una Marson was one of the founding members of the Jamaica Save the Children
Fund. It built and operated several day care centres. The children received one hot meal per day
and had a safe place to play while their parents were at work. After 1946 the organization also
began to operate Basic schools. After this period also they received assistance from Canada and
became known as CANJAM- Canada Jamaica Save the Children Fund.
(iv) Trinidad- Amy and Merle Dowers were among the founding members of the Negro Welfare
and Cultural Industrial Youth Movement. The organization provided wholesome activities for
the youth in an attempt to prevent juvenile delinquency. Handicraft, sports, concerts, short story
competitions, the performances of plays written by Merle were some of the features of this
organization.

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The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA)

This dynamic organization was established by Marcus Garvey (1887-1940) of Jamaica in 1914.
This became an important lobby group. Garvey pressured the British government over issues
such as wages, civil liberties such as the right to strike, universal adult suffrage and land
ownership for people of African descent in the Caribbean. It is said to have more than 30
chapters over the world. The U.N.I.A. was actively involved in health. Black Cross nurses
provided health care for those who were sick. A number of nurses were trained to give services
at the community health centres that were established. Garvey established a cultural centre at
Edelweiss Park in Jamaica.
In 1929, Garvey founded the Peoples Political Party. It was the first political party to be started
or founded by a black man in Jamaica.
Excerpts from the Party's Manifesto:
 an eight hour work day
 a minimum wage for the working class
 the passing of a law to promote and protect local industries
 a legal aid department for the poor
 technical schools for each parish
 the establishment of a Jamaican University and Polytechnic Institution
 libraries and civic amenities for each parish
 imprisonment of judges who use the law to oppress the poor

The following year (1930) he started a Trade Union the Jamaica Workers. Additionally, the
UNIA was committed to the growth of ‘black consciousness’, that is, a sense of identity among
Africans. It promoted racial pride and the establishment of an independent black nation in Africa.

In 1917, Negro World was published. This journal promoted Garvey’s ideas of African
nationalism and African pride. It promoted the idea of the brotherhood of man and fatherhood of
god. The UNIA’s motto was ‘One God! One Aim! One Destiny!’

The UNIA collapsed in 1935 but during its lifespan it contributed immensely to the growth of an
African identity and African Pride. It also influenced the formation of other organisations and the
ideas of Garvey, or ‘Garveyism’, spread throughout the world.

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Objective 3: Describe various aspects of social life

Focus: ethnic/race relations; festivals and celebrations; recreation; transport and communication;
art forms (architecture, visual and performing arts).

Ethnic and race relations

After slavery ended in the British West Indies, there was no immediate embracing of the black
population by the whites. The ex-slave masters were still very prejudiced and still tried to treat
the newly freed black men and women as property. The traditional theory had been that being
black meant being enslaved and being white was to be free. When this was removed by
emancipation, the white population sought other ways to denigrate the black population in an
effort to preserve their social supremacy.

The white elite reduced in numbers over the period but remained very influential as some of their
numbers migrated; others remained in the island and became involved in various economic
enterprises. The blacks in Jamaican society had no initiation into freedom. They now had to seek
an independent existence. Many were illiterate, few schools had been built, and health care was
at the absolute minimum. Unfortunately many blacks still sought to emulate the whites and felt
that their black skin colour was negative.

However, the Caribbean region is exceptional in having had few or no incidents of racial
violence in the twentieth century. Nevertheless, there are pockets of historical resentment against
a group seen to represent the former slave masters and who are still economically dominant in
the region. Nonetheless, some Caribbean territories have created their own versions of race
prejudice.

Racial tensions have been expressed mostly in Guyana and Trinidad and to some extent this is
because of the presence of a larger percentage of people of Indian ancestry.

Areas in which racial conflict was displayed in the English Speaking Caribbean

Employment
Appointments and promotion on the job, for example in the Civil service were made on the basis
of family connections. Job security and permanent appointments were easily guaranteed to
persons of the lighter hue (color) while others worked for decades as ‘temporary' employees.

Education
The Education System was reflective of all three areas of conflict: that is gender, class and race.
Let us start with the gender. At the secondary and tertiary levels there were more places in terms
of scholarships and more schools for boys than girls. In Trinidad, the then Governor Lord Harris
established ‘ward' schools for the Indians to attend. In terms of class, one would find that the
‘free' elementary or Government schools were poorly equipped and less Government funds were
allocated to them.

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 Theme 9: Caribbean Society, 1900 - 1985 2017
Ostracism
Members of the upper class completely ignored those of the lower class except in cases where
the latter worked for them. In Jamaica, in the 1940's, 50's and 60's the practice was for those of
the upper class particularly from the urban areas, to recruit young girls from the ‘country': rural
areas to work as domestic help. It was a common thing to look in the newspaper and see ads for
‘young girls from the country to work in the home'. These young girls were often treated very
badly, in some cases they worked like slaves until all hours of the night and were referred to in
the most disparaging way.
But ostracism was also practiced by the upper class against any member of their elite and
privileged group who dared to marry outside the class. For example, Norman Manley's mother,
a white woman got married to his father who was a black (colored) man. She was disowned by
her family and forced to work as a postmistress at Belmont. In those days it was unheard of for a
white woman to be working to support her family. Only the working class did that sort of a
thing!
We see this same sort of ostracism taking place in the area of recreation. Even if they could
afford it, the laboring class in general was excluded from participating in any of the organized
sports or joining any of the members' only clubs that were in operation. If you were to go to
horse racing in those days, it would be the privilege of the upper class to watch the races with
their ‘trophy' wives on their arms, with the signature parasol (umbrella) to shade them from the
sun. Any blacks or lower class that would be seen would be the workers such as the stable boy.

Gender conflict
a. Women who worked on the sugar estates were paid less than men. This is ironic because
during the time of their enslavement the men and women performed the same tasks in the fields.
In Jamaica, men earned one shilling six pence per day while women were paid six pence. That is
almost fifty per cent less than what the men were getting!
b. Women were excluded from certain professions and jobs. For example, they could not enter
the police force.
c. Sexual harassment and physical abuse characterized the conflict that existed between the two
genders. A number of domestic helpers had this sort of experience.

Religion
The Established Church (Anglican) practiced ‘selective seating'. The blacks or members of the
lower class were relegated to the rear of the Church.

Access to Financial assistance

Banks would not even consider lending money to the working class. The excuse would be that
they "did not have the necessary collateral." Yet, in British Guiana in particular, preferential
treatment of loan concessions were granted to Portuguese merchants and you can imagine
that not ALL of them met the ‘collateral criteria'. The poorer class had to resort to informal
means such as the partner system, better known in some parts of the Caribbean as throwing box
or susu.

Political participation
The political arena was seen as the exclusive domain of the whites or ruling class. Firstly, before
1944, the franchise- the right to vote- was reserved for those who owned a certain amount of

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wealth. This would be certain acreage of land, business etc., Now, we know that Britain had not
yet granted Universal Adult Suffrage to her West Indian colonies. Jamaica was the first to
receive it in 1944, Trinidad a year later (1945) and the others following in the 1950's. But, the
fact of the matter is, the establishment of the Crown Colony Government (1865) paved the way
for a certain group to monopolize the few positions that were available. Throughout the British
Caribbean, the ‘new' legislatures consisted of members that were nominated by the Governor.
Who would he nominate? What class would these persons belong to? In essence therefore the
system closed the door to those of a certain hue wishing to vote and or enter politics.
Let us look at what happened to Marcus Garvey, founder of the first modern political party in
Jamaica from as early as 1929. He was imprisoned for three months for the tenth point of his
manifesto which expressed the view of the majority of the population at the time. Garvey argued
that there should be a provision in the law which allowed for the imprisonment of judges who
dealt unjustly with the people.

Decreasing Tensions and Assimilation

1. It is fair to argue that both the Indians and the Chinese immigrants began to adopt European
culture in their manner of dress in particular. Indian women in their saris and even worse, men in
their dhotis were ridiculed, laughed at and talked about. After a few years this mode of attire was
replaced by what they had seen and what was available in the West Indies.

2. Bridget Brereton, (Social Life in the Caribbean 1838-1938) tells us that in British Guiana
(Guyana) a number of Indians adopted the Creole custom of the wake (nine night). Indian men
could also be seen at the wakes of their departed Creole friends.

3. The Indians and Chinese realized that they were the subject of ridicule because of
their language and ‘strange' accent. As a survival strategy therefore, they began to learn the
English Language, used it more in public and reserved their native language for the homes where
of course, it was definitely accepted. Some even decided to give their children who were born in
the West Indies either English names or easier names for their friends to pronounce.

4. Conversion to Christianity - By the early 1900's a sizeable group of immigrants had

converted to Christianity. Much credit must be given to the Catholics and Canadian Presbyterian
Society as well as the others who worked assiduously in this area. We find also, that many of
these persons who became Christians also opted for a Western marriage ceremony instead of the
practices and customs they would have used if they were in their native land.
One would expect also that as time passed both immigrants and Creoles served on the same
committees, sat in the same pews and eventually began to relate better with one another. It is fair
to argue that both Chinese and Indian immigrants worked on charity and various fund raising
events at their Churches. They became well liked for their success in this area, as you would
imagine.

5. Education - At first, parents in Trinidad and British Guiana in particular were afraid to send
their children to public schools. They were reluctant to do so because they either felt or heard of
instances where children of immigrants were mocked and abused. As time went by they realized
that education was perhaps the single most important means of social mobility for the children of

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working class. Amidst these fears they sent their children to these public schools. Again with
time, the children became friends on the playground. In the classrooms, as children tend to do,
they devised various little mischievous acts and pranks together.

6. Cultural assimilation took place in the area of food. The groups shared or passed on various
recipes to each other. Curry is now a favourite Caribbean seasoning. Chinese restaurants became
popular.

7. By the 1940's the Chinese were an example of a progressive and successful minority group.
Through their various commercial activities they had made a significant contribution to the
economic development of their host countries. How did they manage to accomplish this?
Through hard work, determination and thrift.

8. The Chinese shopkeepers operated the trust system in their wholesale and haberdashery
stores. They credited or ‘trust' the blacks the goods that they so badly needed until pay day. They
often kept a little book where they recorded what the peasants had ‘trusted' and the amount. They
sold vital consumer goods such as foodstuff: flour, cornmeal, saltfish and such in very small
quantities.
Even when they were aware that they were being teased, they gave polite service and attention to
the blacks. This was something that the blacks had not experienced from the Portuguese
merchants. They felt that they could trust the ‘Chineyman'. On the other hand, it was said that the
Portuguese engaged in fraudulent business practices such as short weighting the goods. The first
self serve supermarket was opened by the Chinese in St. Andrew, Jamaica.

9. The Chinese also operated ice cream parlours and restaurants. These became a source of social
release.
10. By the 1940's they sat on various municipal councils. They sent their children to school and
they excelled. They became professionals: physicians, dentists and lawyers- who gave quality
service to their clients without discriminating on the basis of race or status. Many were in
the Government medical services.

11. While it is true to argue that the Chinese maintained much of their own cultural practices we
must also note that they did mix with the other races. Eugene Chin, (Trinidad) son of Chinese
immigrants, used his garden to host cocktail parties, games and even open air meetings. It is not
difficult to see then how they came to earn the respect of the masses as well as members of the
ruling class.

13. The tension decreased because interracial marriages took place. To use an old cliché, love
sees no barrier and regards no class. So, naturally some of the immigrants fell in love with
people from the other groupings and formed permanent relationships. Some got married.

14. Persons from different groups lived together in the same communities. While this is a source
of conflict it is also a source of unity. For some persons living together in the same place with
someone of a different culture presented problems (conflicts) for others it represented
opportunity. They travelled to the river and washed clothes together. They passed the time
together talking and sharing as they worked together.

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Festivals and Celebrations

Persons who contributed to the Festivals and Celebrations

 Amerindians, especially in Belize.
 Europeans (Spanish, French and English)
 Africans
 East Indians (especially in Trinidad and Guyana)
 Chinese
Religion also came to play an important role in the selection and practice of festivals and
celebrations in the British Caribbean 1838-1938. Chief among these are
1. Christianity
2. African- Christian syncretic religions for example Orisha, Kumina and Revivalism
3. Islam (Muslim)
4. Hinduism

(a) It was not the culture of the masses that was accepted and or widely practiced in the
Caribbean
(b) It was the culture of the ruling class- the dominant class that mattered and was therefore
approved as appropriate by the colonial authorities, who themselves, belonged to that group or
class.
(c) The dominant or ruling class viewed the cultural practices of the masses with scorn and
veiled hostility.
(d) The masses faced much opposition when they tried to practice any aspect of their culture that
was seen as backward and uncivilized by those who looked through the lens of a colonial
upbringing.
(e) To some extent, a curious mixture of European and African festivals and celebrations did take
place in the British West Indies, partly out of a ‘survival' response to the pressure and opposition
and partly because of the fact that the two races were forced to co-exist on the plantations for
generations!
(f) Sadly, some amount of culture erosion occurred with the increasing influence of the
Americans in the Caribbean, particularly during and after their sojourn at bases here during the
Second War.

Yam Festival
As its name suggests this festival is a time of thanksgiving for the yams harvested. In Jamaica in
particular, a wide variety of yams were (are) planted by the enslaved people and later on by the
peasantry. Examples of these are: yellow yam, white yam and soft yam.
To speed up the process neighbors would get together and reap the harvest. The feasting would
follow. It was not just yam that they cooked but a variety of other starchy foods which they
served with ‘salt ting' such as saltfish or salt pork. A big jug or pan of ‘wash' (lemonade) would
be on hand to wash down the food. The music and dancing provided a perfect atmosphere for the
celebrations and thanksgiving amidst loud laughter and chatter as wishes for a good price for the
yam at the market was offered as one would a toast as a wedding. It was a time of unity and
fellowship. Those who were religious or cared to do so saved the best of the harvest for the
Church Harvest festival.

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Harvest Festival
Giving thanks for the harvest is perhaps one of the commonest festivals to be celebrated by a
number of people in various cultures. The earliest occupants of the New World, the Tainos and
the Mayans held harvest celebrations. Both groups would pray to the gods for a good harvest.
When their prayers were answered they thought it was only fair and right that they should return
thanks for the said harvest by giving an offering. This would often take the form of an offering of
the best of the crops. This was the same for the other groups that would later control the region:
the Spanish, French and English and to a lesser extent the Dutch.

Christians
Let us begin by stating that the Non-Conformist Churches as well as
the Catholics and Anglicans or Established Churches were engaged in this practice. There was
keen rivalry among the villagers to give the best of the harvest. This included those who were not
even regular church goers as well as members. The Church would be decorated with a variety of
flowers to transform it into a festive environment. Coconut palms were often used to form
arches. These were sometimes plaited so that flowers could fit between them.
Booths, erected by the members would be used to display the variety of produce from the harvest
according to its kind. Top of the list would be the ground provisions- yams of all sort, cassava,
dasheen and so on. Then there was the display of an abundance of fruits such as pineapples and
naseberries that were so sweet you could smell the pungent flavour from afar off. Even the
livestock was on show: goats, chickens, rabbits and even pigs. Coffee, cocoa, ginger and other
spices perfumed the air as well.
One cannot overlook the preparatory process. It provided another opportunity for the people of
the villages to work together. For example in the pimento picking and gathering process, some of
the owners organized a match to see which team would pick the most. Not there was necessarily
a prize for doing so, but the ‘competition' added to the excitement and made the work seem
lighter. Everyone sang as they worked with a few jokes interjected between the changing of
songs.

Hindus
According to Laxim and Ajai Mansingh Holi or Phagwa is the Hindu festival of coloured waters
or harvest celebration. It is however celebrated just before the harvest. Throughout the day,
participants move from house to house, singing, dancing and playing their instruments. They are
given sweetmeats and other food items by members of the various households that they come in
contact with. At the end of the day there is a community gathering in a designated spot or place.

Divali: Festival of Lights

This festival is celebrated in October. It is one of the highlights of the Indian festive calendar.
The festival of Lights celebrates the triumph of good over evil, darkness over light.

According to the myth surrounding this festival, the demon Mahisha Sura, was destroyed by
the goddess Lakshmi on this day. She is the goddess of prosperity and so during the festival one
prays to her for all sort of prosperity: physical, material and spiritual. She is depicted as having

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four arms. These symbolize the extent of her ability to perform. She is standing on a lotus flower,
holding a lotus in one of her back hands and a conch shell in the other.
She radiates
 Peace
 Non-violence
 Truthfulness
 Humility
 Contentment
 Control of senses
 Faith
 Endurance
 Compassion
The demon is not in the sense that Christianity teaches it but is symbolic of the inner evil forces
which are destroyed by this goddess. The festival also marks the return of Lord Rama after
fourteen years of exile. It is yet another victory of good triumphing over evil
Festive preparations and activities start at least a week before the festival. Before they are
decorated with lights, there is much cleaning of homes, offices and farms to be done. One's
property must be clean. Lights are strewn on the walls, roofs, driveways and lawns. At least
one diya, that is, a clay bowl with oil and cotton wick, or an oil lamp is to be found in every
room or on nay object which is connected and involved in providing a source of knowledge and
income for the family. It is the lady of the home who traditionally lights the diya while the other
family members chanted, prayed and gave thanks to the goddess for material and spiritual
prosperity.
The business places proudly boasted their chirag- the equivalent to the diyas. On the plantations
where many Hindus lived and worked, the employer gave permission to hang the lights from the
banana and plantain trees. On other plantations such as cocoa plantations arches were set up. The
lights were then hung from them. Household gifts are bought by everyone. This is in addition to
the gifts that are exchanged among family members, friends and business associates. Of course,
special dinner dishes are prepared and served. In the night prayers are performed in every home.
Those who were able to do so, gathered at the home of the priest for devotional songs and
dancing.

Emancipation Day Celebration

As the name suggests Emancipation celebration was held in remembrance of and thanksgiving
for the emancipation of some three quarters of a million enslaved Africans in the British West
Indies on August 1, 1838. That first celebration was a day of prayer and thanksgiving. Many of
the emancipated Africans went to Church services as the bells rang loud and clear on that first
freedom morning. The Anglican Church offered Holy Communion to those in attendance.

In the early years after Emancipation, the first of August was more important to the black
population than Christmas. Of course a number of them still went to Church. What thoughts ran
through their minds as in the Established Church of England the minister read from and based his
sermon on the book of Philemon? This book talks about servitude or slavery among the Jews. It
is the story of how Onesimus a slave ran away from his master Philemon and found Paul who is
now begging his master to forgive him and to charge Paul with any expenses that Onesimus'

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absence may have caused. You may make your comments as to the appropriateness or poor taste
of such a choice for the sermon on Emancipation Day.
Before the 1890's the celebrations tended to be more spontaneous and organized on a community
basis. There would be music and dancing and of course food! There would be a week long
celebration. Five nights of all night tea meetings, though the Missionaries did not like or approve
of these, picnics, concerts and so on.

During the 1890's and afterwards, some members of the black and colored middle class tried to
put a structure to the festivities. They suggested that different persons such as Abolitionists and
Missionaries such as Knibb and Phillipo be honored. This did not receive any kind of meaningful
support from the ruling class and one can understand this. After all they still bore resentment
towards them for the part they played in the emancipation process. It is no secret that there was
much conflict between the ruling class (plantocracy in particular) and the Non-Conformist
missionaries. This continued even after Emancipation over issues such as the Free Village
Movement and the exercising of the franchise by the new black landowners (peasants).
In the 20th century the idea of an essay competition was accepted. You may well imagine that
this would be best supported by the literate members of the population. The masses with whom
the celebration originated would not be able to even enter a competition that was organized to
celebrate ‘their' event?

The winning essay argued for the involvement of the upper class in the celebrations, that there
should be a service in the market place and a sports competition to follow. Clearly this
was NOT the idea of the master mind behind the competition. The essay competition came to an
abrupt end.

After the 1920's Emancipation took a backseat to the race for legalizing Trade Unions and
Political Parties as the Caribbean journeyed on the long path to political independence. Marcus
Mosiah Garvey considered Emancipation day to be a sacred day. You already know how he felt
about the importance of culture to the dignity and stability of the African race.
Indeed, it was on Emancipation Day, August 1, 1914, that he launched the Universal
Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). Through the UNIA, Garvey organized street parades
and dramas to mark the day. His most notable production, in my opinion, was the drama entitled
Slavery - from Hut to Mansion. This performance took place at Edelweiss Park in 1930.

The Chinese and the Jews

The Chinese
Squibs and firecrackers were used to welcome the New Year and chase away the old year. The
sky would light up on New Year's Day as a number of firecrackers were sent hurling in the air by
excited celebrants. The Chinese sold these items along with dynamite and gunpowder at their
shops. These explosive items were usually kept in large open barrels in the shops. The other
races bought these from the Chinese grocery for Christmas as well as New Year‘s Day
celebrations.

Modern Chinese New Year celebration

Later on, there is going to be much opposition from the upper classes about this practice. In
British Guiana (Guyana) in particular, the practice is declared illegal after a shop and several

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other buildings and houses were completely destroyed by fire, three days before Christmas on
December 22, 1913. The fire is said to have started by someone accidentally throwing a match or
a lit cigarette on one of the barrel of firecrackers or was it gunpowder?

The Jews
The Jews New Year celebration is known as Rosh Hashanah. It is a time of self examination
before God. One is expected to remain serious and solemn even though it is also acknowledged
as a time for happiness and festivity. I call it the time of the 3R's: rejoicing, reflecting and
resolution.
It is customary to eat apples and twisted loaves dipped in honey to symbolize hope for a pleasant
(sweet) New Year. Greeting cards are sent to family and friends with the wish for a year of good
success.

Compare this to the European upper class celebrations in the early twentieth century. They
would have elaborate and expensive dinners and balls. The Myrtle Bank Hotel (Jamaica) was
the place to be for many a celebrant of the upper class. Music and dance commenced at about
9:30 p.m. until midnight when the music stopped to allow the air to ring out with the musical
voices of those present shouting the traditional ‘Happy New Year!!!!' and wishes for a
prosperous year to all.
There were others who chose to welcome the New Year by attending Watch Night Service at the
various chapels located throughout the island. As the clock struck the midnight hour, the church
bells would ring, signaling the start of the New Year. I have no doubt that there would be
whispers of gratitude to the Almighty for the gift of another New Year's Day.

The rest of the day would be spent either at home with friends and family watching the children
play several ring games or attending one of the many bazaars that were hosted on the hotel
grounds. Still there were others who preferred the excitement of the sporting activities.
Here is a list of some of the activities that were available back then. How many of them are still
available on New Year's Day in this century?

 Cricket at Sabina Park- from 1892, the New Year cricket carnival was held annually
under the patronage of the Governor. The Band of the West India Regiment added to the
excitement and air of festivity with their delightful music.
 Rifle shooting competitions at the Norman Range in Kingston
 Horse racing at Race Course
 Football matches
 Hockey matches
 Polo matches

In Antigua, the New Year would be ushered in with feasting and merriment. There would be
music, dancing, masquerading clowns and a host of festivities that were designed exclusively for
the whites. In fact, the Antiguan white population credits the Scotchmen with bringing
merrymaking New Year and Christmas celebration to Antigua.

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Hindu Celebrations
For the Muslims, marriage is seen as a legal and social contract. A proposal from the groom's
family is sent to the bride's family. If they accept the proposal, the ceremony is held at the bride's
home. The groom and his party of men are seated in the front yard while the bride and the
women are seated at the back.

Hindu weddings
Firstly, we must note that strict principles are applied. The entire arrangement is an elaborate
affair. The ceremony is seen as the most important one for the couple and it is of course the most
expensive!
Arranged marriages were very common and accepted as the norm. The first step is for the bride's
father or uncle or brother to offer the prospective groom a silver or brass bowl with food and
jewelry item in it. If the man accepts it, it is a signal that he is willing to marry the daughter (or
sister or niece). So a few days later the prospective groom's family showers the girl's family with
gifts only these are deposited in her lap instead of being handed to her in a bowl. The day of the
marriage is determined by astrological means. Interestingly, the marriage should not be
solemnized during the planting or reaping season.
On the day of the wedding the bridegroom travels to the bride's house amidst a happy dancing
procession (barat) of relatives and friends. The ‘on foot' procession includes a musical band.
The groom is the centerpiece of the procession. He rides on a tastefully decorated horse or car at
the rear of the procession. Ceremonies are held at nights and the route to the bride's home is well
lit to add to the gaiety of the event.
On arrival at the bride's home, the groom is met at the entrance and is welcomed by his mother-
in-law. He stands there until his bride appears surrounded by her sisters and friends. She
welcomes her husband by placing a garland around his neck. He then places one around hers and
the ceremony begins. Both the bride and the groom are in traditional dress: sari and kurta. More
often than not, the groom wears a turban. The bride's sari is usually red or a vibrant pink.
Songs welcoming the groom are sung and the blessing of the future couple follows. The wedding
ceremony is usually conducted in an open area under a specially built canopy, the posts of which
have been wrapped with banana and mango leaves.
Prayer is a very important part of the ceremony. This is usually done after the giving away of the
bride by the parents. The prayer area (vedi) is in the center with a fire pot, jug of water and a
small plate with an oil lamp. Fire, sky, earth, water, and air are important witnesses to a Hindu
wedding ceremony. We must note however, that a number of marriages in Trinidad took place in
temples.
The couple walks around the fire seven times signifying the seven virtues of marriage. Three of
these are: compatibility, understanding and good health. They say their vows amidst the chanting
of the mantras by the priests.
The symbolic hair parting exercise is an important part of the ceremony. The husband puts
powder on the hair parting of his wife while she puts powder on his forehead. The wedding
necklace and toe rings are put on the bride. She is expected to wear these and the powder on her
hair until she is widowed.

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Recreation
Recreational activities within the British Speaking Caribbean includes: festivals and carnivals,
celebrations, music festivals such as Reggae Sumfest, Crop Over, sports – athletics and cricket.

A lot of the activities were seen as the exclusive domain of the ruling class. It is not until the
20th century that some of the barriers were removed.
The upper class engaged in:
 Grand balls
 Visiting theatrical groups
 Swimming (going to beach)
 Hunting and bird shooting
 Horse racing, betting and gambling (1906)
 Hotel entertainment- especially at New Year when they host balls.
 Reading
 Sports: golf (1930's) Lawn tennis, cricket and Yachting

The lower class engaged in

 Ring games
 Work games
 Tea leaf meeting
 Dances
 Cricket - they played amongst themselves with bats and balls that they made. This was
usually done in an open space in the community commonly known as the ‘ball ground'.

The Churches provided the following means of recreation:

 Camps
 Retreats
 Outings
 Picnics
 Concerts
 Sporting Competitions
 Clubs such as Girls Guide, Boys Brigade and Brownies

Cricket

 Cricket was very important at the primary/elementary level in the schools in the 1930's.
In many schools throughout the West Indies the boys not girls, represented their schools
at matches against other schools.
 West Indian colonies began playing cricket matches from as early as the 1890's. You
already know that at that early stage there was a colour bar on for the all of the exclusive
cricket (sporting) clubs that were in operation at that time. By the 1920's things began to
change.
 The West Indies cricket Board (WICB) was granted test status in 1928. The first test
match was played at Lord's in England.

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 Even though the whites dominated the side there a few blacks or coloureds on this
team. Learie Constantine was one of them. The Trinidadian was among the first to
break the colour barrier. He debuted in this historic test match of 1928.

 He was soon joined in the 1930's by the Jamaican (Panamanian born) George Headley.
The West Indies won the series against England in 1934-1935. He went on to become
of the first black man to captain the West Indies team in 1947 -1948.
 By the 1940's there came the famous Barbadians- the three W's (Clyde) Walcott,
(Everton) Weekes and (Frank) Worrell. Weekes' test record of five centuries in
consecutive innings must have caused a few whites and blacks to jump together in true
West Indies style. It helped to erase some of the prejudices that whites tended to have
against non-whites.
 By the 1950's, a number of players of Indian descent joined the team. Among them
were Sonny Ramadhin and Rohan Kanhai. The great Garfield Sobers also debuted at
age 17 in 1954. The West Indies won the Test Match against England at Lord's in the
1950's.
 They played and won Pakistan in JAMAICA in 1958. At this match, Sobers made his
historic 365 not out.
 The Calypsonians could not let the moment pass without ensuring that it entered the
annals of our history. Men such as Lord Beginner and Lord Kitchener recorded songs
such as cricket, lovely cricket. You know the power of music in uniting people
everywhere.
 The colonial experience was meant to teach us that nothing good comes from the
colonies. It comes from overseas. It wanted to teach us that we were inferior and the
Mother Country superior. Some of us choose not to learn that lesson but rather to defy it.
This is where our cricketers come in.
 The lower classes were not allowed membership in the exclusive cricket clubs. They
played cricket among themselves with bats and balls that they made themselves. They
would not have been able to afford the gears, bats and balls that the professionals and
elites used.
Transport and Communications

The first most important developments were due to inventions such as steam power or petrol
engine that drives cars and aero-planes.

In the English-Speaking Caribbean the change in transport brought the greatest benefit to work
of road and bridge improvement. This made it possible for the peasantry to move their crops to
the coast or the market town.

In some areas transportation was still done by foot, leading a donkey or, for women, carrying
baskets on their heads. Changing a mule track into a reasonable road with bridges also brought
remote free villages into contact with the rest of their territory.

Means of transportation in the Caribbean include during the time in question:

Animal transportation – carts (drawn by horses, bulls) – horseback
Vehicles – lorries, trucks, cars

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Bicycles, scooters and motorcycles
Airplanes
Ferries, boats

Art Forms

Jamaica and Trinidad were the two British Caribbean territories that were most engaged in visual
art. Edna Manley, wife of Jamaica's most eminent politician was a professional artist. Most of
the Caribbean art that was on show copied European themes. This is understandable since the
majority of their patrons were whites- creoles. Those who were interested in local art were
usually self -taught and therefore not recognized by society. By the 1930's the picture began to
change. Marcus Garvey philosophies and teachings gave great impetus to local artists. Edna
Manley was instrumental in this.

The Institute of Jamaica encourages local art exhibition in the 1930's. By 1940, there was an
exhibition of all Jamaican paintings. By 1950, the Jamaica School of Art was established and
artists such as Mallica "Kapo" Reynolds a Rastafarian spearheaded a group of artists who
emphasized African heritage as their theme.
Trinidad's native art movement also began in the 1930's. In 1943, the Trinidad Art Society was
created and the following year (1944) they hosted their first Annual Art Exhibition. While
Jamaica forged ahead with paintings and sculpturing of local themes Trinidad seemed to focus
on abstract themes. In 1962, Trinidad's National Museum and Art Gallery was founded.

Performing Arts

Beryl McBurnie and the Trinidadian dancers. The NDTC movement in Jamaica.
1. Ward Theatre National Pantomime: By the 1950's people from all walks of life in Jamaica
were attending the Pantomimes. The themes moved from early British favorites such as Jack
and the Beanstalk (1941), Sleeping Beauty and Pandora's Box to Anansi, Carib Gold
(1960) and Banana Boy (1961). Phenomenal roles were played by (Mas Ran) Randolph
Williams and (Ms. Lou) Louise Bennett Coverly.
2. Natives were writing their own plays. The play: Bluebeard and Brer Anancy (1949) was
written by Louise Bennett and Noel Vaz.

Architecture

Caribbean architecture was imported by the different colonial masters that ruled the region:
Spanish, British, French and Dutch. Spanish architecture is best seen in the cathedrals and forts
that are left behind. They used stained windows, solid stones and arches. The stone pillars
indicate that they copied from the Greek and Roman styles. ?
British architecture is best seen in the remnants of the Great Houses and forts that are in the
territories. Jamaica is famous for Devon House and Rose Hall while St. Kitts is famous for
Brimstone House. The houses were usually three stories high. Built of stone with huge rooms
and curving connecting staircases. They usually have a verandah or porch. They are built to
withstand hurricanes and the tropical weather.

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In the islands that were at some point controlled by the French: Grenada, St. Lucia and
Dominica: we see evidence of French influence especially in the roofs which are usually made
from fish scale tiles. Architecture in the Caribbean, though imported from Europe takes into
consideration the climatic conditions of the region. Hence the houses are built with a lot of
windows to let out the heat and hopefully attract the breezes. The wooded windows are latticed
or criss crossed and open outwards.

They are also built to withstand hurricanes and earthquakes as much as possible. Later on when
iron and steel building material became available these were also used. In addition local material
is often used. Belize and Jamaica are famous for their hardwood which was used for both
flooring and supporting posts.

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Objective 4: Explain the reasons for the emergence of various groups in the Caribbean

Focus areas: Christian churches – Established and Evangelical; Hindu; Muslim; African –
Christian syncretic religions, for example, Orisha, Shango, Kumina, Revivalism, Spiritual
Baptists; indigenous religions, for example Rastafarianism.

Rastafarianism

The Rastafarian movement began in Jamaica in the 1940's. It began as a rebel movement against
the oppression and exploitation of colonialism. Rastas reject European social standards. They see
whites as oppressors, the ones who introduced slavery to the Caribbean. They were the ones who
dragged their forefathers across a continent and enslaved them. After slavery whites remained
the rulers and continued their oppression and exploitation of the black race.
Its founder Leonard Howell was an ardent supporter of Garvey and his philosophies and
program. He was especially attracted to the teachings regarding Africa being the homeland of all
Africans, the back to Africa movement and the idea of blacks worshipping a black divine being.
They also preached racial pride and dignity.

They proclaimed Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia as god. The fact that he is from the lineage
of David and was crowned with the title king of kings and lords of lords seemed to confirm
Garvey's prophecy that Africans should look for a black god. According to Rastafarians this fits
in also with prophecies from the Bible.

They follow a strict code of conduct with regards to diet and dress. They do not eat pork. They
consider the pig to be an unclean animal. They are mostly vegetarians. A few eat fish. They eat
strictly ital, which means that their food is cooked or prepared without salt. They believe that all
herbs and trees are given for food and healing. They constructed their own language. They greet
each other with the term ‘blessed love'. They refer to themselves as I and I. the word ‘irie' is
originally theirs.
They dress in the colors of Marcus Garvey: red, green and gold. They are fully clad from head to
toe and usually wear sandals that they make. They sport a dreadlock which means that they wear
their hair matted and uncombed. They are supposed to look fierce and lion like. Members of the
upper class in particular began to spread propaganda against the Rastafarians claiming that they
were untidy and even smelly.
They engaged in growing provisions, corn, cassava, yam and fruits and vegetables: chiefly for
their own use. They also made brooms, mats and other craft items which they sell for a living.
They are famous also for their music. The beating of drums and the chanting of their god's name:
Jah Rastafari accompanied by the titles, ever living, ever faithful and ever sure scared quite a few
children. They smoked ganja as part of their religious rituals. Their pipes which they also made
were called chalice.
They were ostracized by the society in general. The Christian community found their doctrines
blasphemous. The colonial authorities saw them as dangerous. They were heavily persecuted and
hunted down like common criminals. On the orders of those in charge, police raided their
settlements, beat the men and carried them off to jail frequently on the charge of being
disorderly.

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It is no wonder then that the Rastafarians called the police Babylon. This term is also loosely
applied to anything that the white man is said to have created or is a part of. This includes the
King James Version of the Bible. The Rastafarians use the Maccabees version instead. They
read and study their Bible in depth.
The parents of upper and middle class children feared for their daughters and sons. They feared
that their daughters would fall in love with a Rasta and be carried off into the hills to become his
queen and have his children. Rastas do not believe in the sacrament of marriage. They believe
that once you take a woman unto yourself and call her queen that's it. They do NOT believe in
contraception either. They see it as a plot to ‘kill out black people'.

African Religions
Orisha is a religion of the Yoruba people of West Africa. This is a monotheistic religion. They
believe in one Supreme Being who communicates with his followers through emissaries called
Orishas. Participants sing until they fall into a trance and are possessed by the spirits. In
Trinidad, the shango religion is believed to be derived from the Orisha. They share the same
rituals and practices, except that their god is the god of thunder and lightning (shango). It also
has a mixture of Catholicism with the Baptist faith.

Revivalism

They also believe in spirit possession. Their dress is distinctive. They wear robes of white, blue
and or red. Their heads are wrapped. Some even wear a pair of scissors in their hair. Men are
often seen with a pencil behind their ears. They see themselves as messengers of God. They give
this message in public places where they are sure to be heard. Many claim that they can ‘read' a
person. That means that they can look at a total stranger and tell what is happening in their life.
Women play a leading role in this religion. They are known as ‘mother'.
Their place of worship often has a basin or bottles of water at the altar. Some carry a flag or flags
of red, blue to identify it as a sacred place. Music and dance are important to the ceremony. They
do not sing traditional English or American hymns used in the traditional Christian churches.
Someone ‘tracks' the song, that is they say the words mostly from memory and the others sing
after them. Their drums have a distinctive beat. Men and women dance and gyrate as they are
‘possessed' by the spirit. Some even ‘turn around in circles' or are spun by others. This is known
as ‘turn your roll'.
This religion is seen as a cult by Christian community. They do not mix with them. Some people
are afraid of them because they believe that they are actually mixing with evil (demons).

Spiritual Baptists

Practices: They believed in communicating with departed spirits and that they briefly inhabit the
bodies of the faithful. The purpose of this is so that the ancestors could share their wisdom.
Songs were often sung during rituals. Some did chanting.

Islam
Some Africans were Muslims but they had to abandon this when they were forcibly transported
to the West Indies. This religion revived with the introduction of the East Indian immigrants.

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The central figure of this religion is the Prophet: Mohammed. Muslims believe in one God. His
name is Allah. There were five important pillars which each Muslim had to practice on a daily
basis. They had to pray three times a day at particular hours facing Mecca. The masses felt that
this was too demanding. It would not fit in with the strenuous workload that they had to carry.
Gender Relations
The man of the house had ultimate power in house matters and decision making. Women were
not allowed to be educated. Fathers sent sons but not daughters to school. At the mosque or
masjid, the men sat together at the front while the women huddled together at the back.
Family Life
Men were the head of the house hold Women were home makers. They stayed home and raised
the children. Boys were considered more important than girls and were generally privileged.
Both Hindus and Muslims practiced arranged Marriages and got married at an early age. Most
women did not leave their home without a veil covering their hair and sometimes a robe covering
their clothing. They were teased for their dress and beliefs.
Muhammed Khan came to Jamaica in 1915 and built Masjid Ar-rahman in Spanish Town (1957)
Masjid Hussein (another organization) was built in Westmoreland. British Guiana and Trinidad
had the largest Muslim population and number of Mosques since they received the most East
Indians in the migrants during the period of slavery.
Festivals
The festivals were most commonly practiced in Trinidad and Guyana. The two most known
festivals are Ramadan and Hosein. A number of the lower classes found the thrill, color and
pageantry of Hosein very attractive and they would actually join the processions.
Ramadan is the 9th month of the Islamic lunar Calendar. During this month Muslims all over the
world abstained from food drink and pleasure. Young children, elderly, chronically ill and the
pregnant were exempted. This was conducted in order to purify the soul and reconnect with God.
This was something that African men felt they definitely could not manage!
Conflicts
Name calling: some were scorned due to the fact that some blacks were Muslim. They were
ridiculed by other religions because of the five pillars (praying five times a day)

Hinduism
The East Indian immigrants introduced this new religion to the region. It was different because
of its doctrines and practices. First of all, the Hindus were polytheistic. That is they believed in
many gods whereas Christians believe in One God. To make matters worse these gods were
represented by images of animals. There was one god who was an elephant and another was part
monkey. This was ridiculous if not sacrilegious to the Christians and those of the African
religions.
They also believed in reincarnation and animism that is that all things have life. The Vedas was
their scripture. It is these beliefs and practices that gave the immigrants the hope and strength
that they needed to endure the harsh conditions that they faced on the estates in particular and in
the Caribbean society in general. They buried their dead on a pyre. The Africans thought this was
disrespectful.
They met to worship and formed important links and friendships. Some met their partners and
got married.
But there was also another feature of their religion that sparked some positive connection with
the masses. Their food and spices were adopted by a number of people.

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Christianity

1. The Christian Churches taught the following about gender:

(i) The men were superior to the women
(ii) The man was the head of the household
(iii) The women were to stay at the home and take care of the children and home life while the
men worked
(iv) Church men were given leadership positions; e.g. Local preachers, Deacons, Priests
2. They provided recreational and educational facilities
3. They did valuable charity work such as operating soup kitchens and day care for desperate
mothers.
4. They conducted informal adoptions. Some of the Missionaries themselves adopted and took
care of orphaned or less advantaged children. They operated Boys and Girls Homes.
5. They provided a wide range of occupation for lower class people, allowing them a measure of
social mobility: clergy men, deacons, watchmen of the church grounds and caretakers.
6. Health Practices: The Church taught that "cleanliness is next to godliness". Members were
therefore encouraged to practices good hygiene.
Diet: some denominations such as Seventh Day Adventists taught their followers to abstain from
eating certain foods such as pork and beef. They had a vegetarian diet.
7. Conflict: in the early period (1838-1850) the blacks experienced much discrimination when
they tried to worship in the Christian churches such as the Anglican and the Catholic churches.
They were required to sit at the back. The services were conducted partly in English and partly in
Latin. They did not understand much. The way it was conducted was outside of their culture and
experience. They were not asked to do much. They found the exercise quite boring.

The Challenges in practicing Festivals

Difficulties and obstacles faced by the organizers and participants in their attempts to practice
these festivals.
1. As more and more persons became converted to Christianity the number of Indians in
particular who were willing to participate in the festival dwindled. This was because of the
Christian leaders' condemnation of some of these festivals which they saw as wrong. As a result
the organizers lost the financial support of some of its most faithful supporters.
2. Wages were kept deliberately low. Some of the festivals required funding such as the tazias
building and the gift giving. This prevented some of those who would have wished to participate
from becoming involved.
3. There are particular cases to consider. For example the 1860's was a difficult time for the
entire Caribbean. It all started with the American Civil War (1861). There was a massive
increase in the price of imported foodstuff. Flour, a main meal item for the masses rose by eight
three per cent! (83%) The cost of living rose by sixty per cent (60%). In order to cushion the
blow for themselves, the authorities imposed heavy and new taxation on the masses. For
example, carts were previously untaxed but after 1864 the owners (who are obviously those of
the poorer class) were required to pay eighteen shillings per year on their carts!
5. Each successive generation became less and less interested in the culture and practices of
their forefathers. This was partly because they spent more and more time at school. As they

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became more and more educated and exposed to other cultures they became more and more
integrated, they made friends with children from other races and did not want to be seen or
stand out as different.
6. In some instances potential leaders of the ceremony and men of influence became more
involved in the formation and fight to legalize Trade Unions (1930's) and their political
careers or aspirations for political office in the 1950's and 1960's when Constitutional changes
were taking place in the British Caribbean and a number of coveted posts were made available.
7. The upper class opposed these cultures. The rowdy behaviour, the rum drinking and the loud
music were seen as barbaric and uncivilized. They made no attempt to understand the new
cultures that were injected into the society instead they reacted with scorn and derision. For
example in 1884 the Governor of Trinidad passed a law, placing certain restrictions on the
Taziya procession. A Proclamation was issued to the East Indians of Naparima, (Trinidad)
notifying them that they would NOT be allowed to pass through San Fernando.
8. Those members of the lower classes who managed to send their children to schools desired for
them a better way of life. Very often this ‘better way of life' meant aspiring to the values and
traditions of the upper class.
9. The Americanization of the Caribbean led to a lot of culture erosion. This was especially so
after the American soldiers spent some six years in the Caribbean on the different bases. Persons
became more attracted to the American culture- the rock and roll music, the seductive moves of
Elvis ‘the pelvis' Presley and certainly after the late 1950's for those who could afford it
television became the centre of attraction not festivals and celebrations! A number of persons
lost their taste for ‘those things'.

Sources consulted:
Notesmaster.com
Caribbean History for CSEC by Baldeosingh and Mahase
Caribbean Story Book 2 by Claypole and Robottom
Decolonization and Development (3rd edition) by Dyde, Greenwood and Hamber
Social Life in the Caribbean 1838-1938 by Brereton
Macmillian Revision Guides for CSEC Examinations: History by Atkinson

N.B. Please do additionally reading to be able to expound on areas that were not elaborated on.

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