MAINSTREAMING, INTEGRATION, INCLUSION, SPECIAL SERVICES

1. Mainstreaming:
 Concept focuses on integrating students with disabilities into the 'mainstream' of education,
rather than segregating them in separate classrooms with distinct instruction.
 Involves placing students with disabilities in regular classrooms, where they receive education
alongside nondisabled peers, potentially with additional support from special education staff.
 Term 'mainstreaming' remains prevalent in the US, while 'inclusion' gains more international
recognition.
 Aims to provide equal opportunities for students with disabilities to access education, gain
knowledge, grow individually, and participate in academic and social environments within a
school.

1. Reverse Mainstreaming:

 Involves providing opportunities for interaction between students placed in segregated settings
(self-contained classrooms or state hospitals) and nondisabled peers.
 Nondisabled students are brought into segregated classrooms or sites to work with or tutor
students with disabilities.
 School districts should not attempt to fulfil the LRE mandate by using reverse mainstreaming
exclusively.

2. Integration:

 Refers to the placement of special education students into regular education classrooms (similar
to mainstreaming).
 Also refers to placing students in special education classes within integrated school sites (sites
housing both special and regular education classes).
 Emphasizes systematic efforts to maximize interaction between students with disabilities and
nondisabled peers.

4. Full Inclusion in Education:

 Refers to total integration of students with disabilities into the regular education program with
specialized support.
 Primary placement is within the regular education class; no additional assignment to special
classes for disabled students.
 The disabled student becomes an actual member of the regular education class and may
temporarily leave for related services like speech or physical therapy.

Legal Mandates and Evaluation:

 Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 mandated services for disabled children.
 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1990 enacted that disabled children should
be educated alongside non-disabled peers.
 There has been an evaluation of the effectiveness of inclusion and its benefits for disabled
children.

Impact and Issues Surrounding Inclusion:

 Inclusion movement involved educators, researchers, and parents, addressing issues regarding
parental attitudes toward various aspects of inclusion.
 The attitude of different groups plays a significant role in accepting inclusion in educational
settings.

Terminology and Concepts:

 Inclusion has been referred to using various terms such as mainstreaming, integration, and
presently, inclusion.
 Advocates differentiate inclusion from mainstreaming, emphasizing that ‘integration’ may be
seen as a child adapting to a host setting (typically a school) while ‘inclusion’ may refer to the
host adapting in order to meet the needs of actual (and potential) pupils.
 Terminology differences across time and countries pose challenges for comparing studies.
 Inclusion has largely replaced integration and signifies a shift from a needs-based to a rights-
based agenda.
 Some argue that integration is perceived as politically neutral and a service delivery model, while
inclusion carries a strong ideological element emphasizing rights.
 The distinction between integration and inclusion might not always be clear in practice.

Teachers’ Attitudes toward Inclusion

 Studies yield mixed results regarding teacher attitudes towards inclusion.

 Some studies suggest lack of favourability toward inclusion while others show support.
 Major concerns for teachers include:
 Ability to instruct mainstreamed students
 Possible negative impact on peers
 Behavior problems in the classroom
 Lack of time and resources

1. Factors Influencing Teacher Attitudes:

 Severity and type of disability: Teachers show less acceptance towards severe disabilities,
particularly emotional and behavioral disorders.
 Teacher training and experience: More experienced and trained teachers in disabilities and
special education, and those with experience with special needs students, are more supportive
of inclusion.
 Gender: Female teachers tend to express more favourable attitudes towards inclusion and
special needs students compared to male teachers.

2. Bandura's Concept of Self-Efficacy:

 Bandura in 1977 and 1989 highlighted the significance of self-efficacy in social learning theory.
 Differentiated between response outcome expectations (belief in behavior leading to desired
outcomes) and perceived self-efficacy (belief in one's capacity to achieve a certain performance
level).

Application to Teaching:

 Gibson and Dembo (1984) and Ashton (1985) applied this concept to teaching by introducing a
two-factor dimensional construct called teacher efficacy.
 Teacher efficacy divided into Sense of Teaching Efficacy (TE) and Personal Teaching Efficacy (PTE):
 TE refers to beliefs that a teacher's ability to induce change is limited by external factors like
home environment or parental influences.
 PTE reflects a teacher's belief in their skills and abilities to influence student learning and
behavior directly.

Impact on Teacher Behavior:

 Teachers' efficacy beliefs influence their behavior in the classroom, affecting their teaching
efforts, goal-setting, and openness to new ideas.
 Higher efficacy correlates with willingness to experiment with new methods and adapt teaching
to students' needs.
 Higher self-efficacy leads to reduced criticism of student errors and increased patience when
working with struggling students.

Relationship to Classroom Management:

 Higher self-efficacy scores associated with employing more positive classroom management
strategies.
 Teachers with greater self-efficacy less likely to refer students with learning or behavior problems
to special education.
 More willing to use individualized instructional strategies, especially in inclusion classrooms.

Teaming and Collaboration

1. Trend Towards Collaboration in Education:

 Education and schools are moving towards increased partnership and collaboration among
professionals.
 Inclusion in schools requires effective collaboration between regular education and special
education teachers.
 Collaboration is defined by Friend and Cook (2000) as direct interaction between at least two
coequal parties engaged in voluntary shared decision-making towards a common goal.
 Collaboration is voluntary, requires parity among participants, is based on mutual goals, shared
responsibility, accountability, and resources, involves the emergence of a collaborative belief
system, trust, and respect.

2. Common Collaboration Activities for Students with Disabilities:

 Educators often seek collaboration for shared problem-solving, co-teaching, teaming, and
consultation regarding students with disabilities.

3. Co-Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms:

 Co-teaching is increasingly popular in inclusive classrooms, combining special education and

general education expertise.
 Approaches to co-teaching include: one teaching while the other observes (one leads the lesson,
the other gathers data), station teaching (divides tasks or subjects into stations for instruction),
parallel teaching (both teachers instruct half of the class simultaneously), and team teaching
(both teachers equally engaged in instructional activities).
 Growing evidence suggests that collaboration effectively promotes the academic integration of
students with disabilities, improving their adjustment, peer acceptance, and group unity in
inclusive classrooms.
DEALING WITH TEACHERS, PARENTS, SPECIAL STUDENTS & NON-HANDICAPPED STUDENTS

Navigating the dynamics between teachers, parents, special students, and non-handicapped
students within an educational setting is a multifaceted role that demands sensitivity, collaboration,
and a deep understanding of diverse needs. Here's a breakdown of this topic:

Collaboration between Teachers, Parents, and Students:

 Encourage open lines of communication among teachers, parents, and students to foster a
supportive environment.
 Facilitate regular meetings or communication channels to discuss progress, challenges, and
strategies.
 Emphasize the importance of understanding each student's unique abilities, challenges, and
learning styles.
 Encourage teachers and parents to work together to create personalized learning plans or
accommodations.

Supporting Special Students:

 Empower teachers to advocate for resources and accommodations that cater to special students'
needs.
 Offer training or workshops for teachers to better understand diverse learning needs and
effective teaching strategies.
 Promote inclusive classroom practices that celebrate diversity and encourage peer support
among students.
 Encourage collaboration between special and non-handicapped students through group activities
and projects.

Engaging Parents of Special Students:

 Offer guidance and resources to parents of special students, including support groups or
counseling services.
 Educate parents about their child's educational rights, available support services, and community
resources.
 Foster a welcoming environment for parents to actively participate in their child's education,
encouraging their input and involvement.

Fostering Understanding among Non-Handicapped Students:

 Educate non-handicapped students about diversity, empathy, and the value of inclusion.
 Organize workshops or activities that promote understanding and acceptance of differences
among peers.
 Encourage peer support programs where non-handicapped students can assist and befriend their
special peers.
 Implement initiatives that break stereotypes and foster a culture of respect and support among
all students.

Role of School Counselors:

 Act as mediators between teachers, parents, and students, fostering understanding and effective
communication.
 Provide guidance, counseling, and resources to all parties involved, addressing concerns and
facilitating solutions.
 Advocate for policies and practices that promote inclusivity and support for all students within
the school environment.
 Collaborate with educators and parents to ensure that educational plans are designed inclusively
and meet the needs of all students.

Dealing with the dynamics among teachers, parents, special students, and non-handicapped
students requires a collaborative effort, empathy, and a commitment to fostering an inclusive
educational environment where every individual feels valued and supported in their learning
journey.

Working with Parents of Students with Disabilities

 Role of School Counselors:

 Advocates for students with disabilities and their parents within the educational system.
 Understanding parental concerns and perspectives is crucial for effective partnership in a child's
education.

Common Concerns for Parents of Children with Disabilities

1. Grief, Loss, and the "Dream Child":

 Parents often have preconceived dreams and expectations for their children before birth.
 Discovery of a disability can shatter these dreams, leading to grief and ongoing sadness.
 Counselor response: Establish support groups, recommend relevant books, and provide
empathetic support.

2. Safety Concerns and "Over-Protectiveness":

 Millennial generation parents tend to be highly involved in their children's lives, especially
regarding safety.
 Concerns about safety at school: Accidents due to disabilities, potential injuries, bullying, and
limited communication abilities.
 Balance needed: Real concerns can lead to overprotectiveness hindering a child's independence.
 Counselor's role: Reassure parents about school safety measures, address concerns, and
encourage fostering independence.

Counselors' Support Strategies:

 Establishing or referring parents to support groups.

 Recommending relevant books that offer personal accounts of similar experiences.
 Encouraging a balanced approach to safety without hindering a child's independence.
 Providing reassurance and education about school safety measures.

Attitudes of Other Parents and Other Children

1. Increasing Inclusion in General Education:

 More students with disabilities are integrated into general education classrooms.
 Concerns exist among parents of these students about the attitudes and acceptance from
nondisabled students and their parents.
2. Challenges and Resentment:
 Instances of resentment regarding school resources spent on disabled students by parents of
nondisabled children can create tension.
 Fear and lack of exposure in classmates without disabilities towards individuals with disabilities
may lead to curiosity, fear, rejection, or other responses.

3. Role of School Counsellors:

 School counselors play a crucial role in educating all students about disabilities, especially about
a classmate's disability.
 Providing accurate information can help reduce bias in schools and society.

4. Concerns of Parents of Children with Disabilities:

 Concerns include the accuracy and privacy of information presented to their child's peers about
disabilities.
 Emphasis on what the child can do versus what they cannot, and avoiding evoking emotions such
as pity, are essential considerations.

5. Involvement of Parents and Students:

 Consultation with parents regarding the information provided to classmates is crucial.
 Involving the student with a disability in decisions about their involvement in presentations is
respectful and important.

6. Educating Broader Parent Population:

 Opportunities exist during school events to educate the broader parent population about
disabilities and the approach to inclusion.
 Consultation with parents of students with disabilities to address concerns about these
presentations is essential.

7. Confidentiality and Legal Protections:

 FERPA and IDEA protect the confidentiality of students' Individualized Education Programs (IEPs).
 Presentations should not disclose information that could make a student personally identifiable
or share details about diagnoses or educational programs.

8. Small School or Community Considerations:

 Even without names, limited information can make individual students identifiable in small
schools or communities.
 Care must be taken to safeguard the confidentiality of students in such presentations.