ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH METHODS —_ lecture 05 29 June 2022 The Survey Method in Architectural Research Purpose of the unit To introduce the use of Survey strategies in architecture and the broader built environment and illustrate its application in both academic research and practice. Expected learning outcome(s) The student should understand of basic terms, characteristics, data collection and analysis techniques as used in architecture. Mode of delivery Lecture and case studies Unit content Definitions. Characteristics. Standards of Survey Research: reliability, validity, representativity, response rate, statistical significance. Data Collection Techniques. Measurement scales: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio. Data Collection Tools & Tactics: Questionnaire, Observation, Sorting, Archives, Mapping. Use of statistics in analysis in ‘survey strategy. Mapping in architectural surveys: urban analyses, micro-scales spaces, space syntax, mapping in Nairobi Housing studies. Strengths and Weakness of Survey Strategy. Further Reading. Introduction Survey strategies’ in architecture aim to relate spatial design parameters to function in order improve its utility and other desired goals of the architect. They rely on fairly large numbers ~ large ‘n’ [unlike Case Studies that use singular; or small numbers — small ‘n’]. The basic strength of the strategy its capacity to use a representative sample and thus mostly gauges positions of the entire population. It is also based Deductive reasoning mostly realised through statistical analyses. Though it uses fairly large numbers, it employs limited numbers of variables. This facilitates easier comparisons and correlations. The common tactic for surveys is the Questionnaire. [as shall be shown other tactics can be used in architecture] Definition of Basic Terms Survey strategies rely on established methodological structures and employ common terminologies. Some are hereby defined and explained i) Population Sometimes called the “universe’, the term ‘population’ refers to the entire group of individuals, events or objects a researcher wishes to investigate. Other than individuals architects may observe events, buildings and processes - that thus constitute the population. One must define the population that they want to generalize results beforehand. One must list and define all the units that could be in used for the study. In architecture can be defined by the characteristics that are likely to affect space and design including humans and non-humans! Hence it could be people, houses, buildings, building * in other Iiterature its called Correiational Research [see: (Groat, Correlational Research, 2002)]ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH METHODS lecture 05 29 June 2022 elements, and even processes. This can be further characterized by geographical delimitations i.e. neighbourhood, city, and even country amongst others. ii) Sample Given the size of the population, it may demand time and resources to investigate all of them. One identifies a representation called a sample. This is carefully selected to reflect characteristics of the population. Each member of this group is referred as a unit of enalysis, if human this could be called a ‘respondent’ or ‘interviewee’. As already mentioned sampling isnot haphazard and demands systematic structure and indeed Sampling Theory? has been further elaborated especially in the Social Sciences. Hence we encounter terms like: simple random sampling, cluster sampling, intentional sampling, self-selection, casual interviewing and quota sampling. iii) Variable These are the characteristics or attributes measured amongst the units of analysis and thus assume different values based on circumstances. In surveys these are based on real world and are naturally-occurring [and not constructed as in laboratories / workshops used in experiments] iv) Dependent voriable A Dependent variable is variable that is influenced. v) Independent variable Independent Variable (s) is one or more variables that influence the dependent variable. vi) Data This refers to all information gathered in research. It includes Primary data captured from empirical work ie. from the sample. Secondary data is gathered from other sources lik articles, books, and established sources. vii) Statistics This is a system of science for organizing, describing and analysing quantitative data. Descriptive statics only describes data. Inferential statistics draw inferences about a given phenomenon based on the randomly used sample. The purpose of inferential statistics is to test hypotheses and facilitate the researcher to generalize findings from the sample. Characteristics of Survey strategy The key characteristics of surveys include: (i) the focus on naturally occurring pattern, (ii) A focus on measurement of specific variables, and (iii) use of statistics in the analysis, ‘A Focus on naturally occurring patterns In architecture, this takes the form socio-physical relationships i.e. social use of designed ‘space. The strategy thus assumes the researcher ‘only measures variables of interest and analyses their interrelationships. The aim is to redesign the space or guide future designs. This characteristic is shared with Case Study strategy. B. Focus on measurement of specific variables Aresearcher aims to remain focussed by identifying specific measureable parameters. Our focus of space and functionality means there must be the ‘spatial element and human use. Often we measure how an existing design affects usability and social interactions. ‘Surveys are thus firmly rooted in the Quantitative paradigm. * This theory is not an objective in this Unit as itis rarely used most architectural research.ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH METHODS lecture 05 29 June 2022 C._ Use of statistics to clarify relationships These range from pure descriptions [descriptive statistics] of frequency to correlations and even describe the strengths of the relations in regression analyses. The depth a researcher depends on the nature and aims of the study. Statistics are also used to test hypotheses. Computer software that use statistics include: SPSS and Excel. Caution is however necessary as statistics can distort reality and in fact such disconcertingly titled books like ‘How to Lie with Statistics’ by Huff (1973)! Standards of a good survey research The judgement of a good research quality and usefulness that is used mostly in the questionnaire surveys is based of five basic factors: Reliability, Validity, Representativity, Response Rate and Statistical Significance. A. Reliability This is the exactness in all phases of the research, theoretically so that another project carried out the same way would have the same result. It thus concerned with internal Properties of measure that may contaminate scientifically acceptable outcomes. B. Validity The relevance of thee data to the research question, the appropriateness of the questions as measuring the qualities they are intended to measure. It thus refers to relationship between the data and the variables being measured. C. Representativity All units in the population [or universe] have known probability of being chosen in the sampling procedure. A representative sample is important if one wants to generalize the results of the research. A random sample does NOT mean haphazard as sampling is done systematically to ensure representativity. D. Response rate In social science-related survey [sometimes necessary in architectural schemes like Housing and Urban Design], the percentage of the sample who responded to questionnaire is called the Response Rate and is important for validity and reliability. E. Statistical significance The size [in relations to the universe] of a selected sample definitely informs on the quality and thus generalizability of the results. This measure is called Statistical Significance and has been deeply investigated in statistical research literature. This is important if we opt for a representative sample only and in available software [SPSS] this determined as one of the outputs. If, on the other hand, one studies the ENTIRE population, this is NOT necessary. Data collection tactics in architecture Although Questionnaires as a commonly used in surveys and this is thus frequently confused as the only survey tool, others also exist. These include Observations, Mapping, Sorting and Archives, discussed here: A. Survey QuestionnairesARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH METHODS lecture 05 29 June 2022 Questionnaires as structured set of questions with standardised responses developed by the researcher based on their synthesis of the problem. The main advantage of the survey questionnaire is the broad scope of information that it can capture. The information includes: demographic characteristics, behavioural habits, opinions and attitudes. Further a fairly large segment of the population, the sample, can be assessed in a fairly short time. This however comes at the expense of in-depth understanding of the issues. For depth one employs qualitative analyses possible in Case Studies. Questionnaire must be developed based on well-described rationale that emanates from the research questions or hypothesis. Figure 1 is a structured question in a Questionnaire segment used from study in the US, B. Observation Observations are necessary tactics for understanding design and gaining useful knowledge for improvements. For observations to be verifiable one needs use appropriate tools and | 8S 88985 SH988 HRB Mockntee 3 33333 i @2829 saeee § NOR BIE a neenenncnssosecemonicne ‘Mixture of housing types... SS 83535 3333 82 sea80 Gevelop appropriate tactics for their use. These include time-lapse video filming and other Photography from cameras. These tools ought to be authenticated and well-described in the methodology sections of the work. Sorting Sorting is tactic used in both research and practice for unearthing user-perceptions of Gesign. Here, respondents are asked sort various options [pictures, words] in order priority {of say a design, function...]. The objective is to identify the optimum design choices, values, et D. Archives The use of archival data to guide includes sourcing records from an authority to determine how an existing built-environment has shaped and influenced user-reactions. For instance Oscar Newman used police crime records to study ‘defensible spaces’. He found out aboutARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH METHODS —_ lecture 05 29 June 2022 privacy gradients in housing, crime rates and building type and their location. About crime, he found it increased with building, for instance. Figure 1: Oscar Newman's ‘defensible space’ hierarchy in a mult-level dwelling, source: (Groat, 2002 p. 244)ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH METHODS lecture 05 rooms to urban neighbourhoods. Mapping in architectural Surveys The following sections illustrate how mapping has been used in research in architecture Published in various books in other research, ‘A. Mapping in Urban analysis Kevin Lynch’s famous book, ‘The Image of the City’ (1975), maps derived from interviews that were utilized in evolving concepts urbanism in ‘American Cities [Boston, Los Angeles & Jersey City]. He went further to develop famous concepts of Urban perception: paths, nodes, landmarks, districts and edges. is classic example of the use of 29 June 2022ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH METHODS —_ lecture 05 29 June 2022 Figure 4: Lynch's 5 urban features (Bentley eta, 2005.P. 43)ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH METHODS lecture 0S 29 June 2022 In urban analyses mappi hence design interventions in (2005)’s book on urban desig These establish the nature of techniques are often used to evaluate urban legibility and neighbourhoods, streets and even entire cities, Bentley, etal., n is useful in the use of mapping that architects often adopt. both physical forms and activity patterns. Cuure' rly COPA "ees: Urban egty ana ia \ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH METHODS lecture 0S 29 June 2022 ‘At micro-space level mapping is used variously to assess spatial parameters like furniture layout to determine space-usage by dwellers in houses. John Zeisel (Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environmental Behaviour Research, 2006, p. 167)has used in Environmental-Behaviour [E-B] studies he calls ‘Physical Traces’ (see: Fig. 6]. Mapping of physical traces use such recording tools like: annotated diagrams, drawings, photographs and counting. Figure 7:"Physical Traces’ mapping analysis ofa flat, source: (Zesel, 2006, p. 167) C. Space syntax analysis, aoe TT | Does the bathroom location next 10 the kitchen]. y Jeating area bother oT ‘The kitchen seems to be | plae to ear hi Mg months The living 100m door permanently ‘covered seems to indicate that the kitchen door és the main and onts entrance to the apartment. Does this mean that most people Ht the kitchen mot! of te ee? Pictures, saint, and expensive TV ove dow | i the living room seem to say “this room isa revered, special almost | sacred rooms.” Is Does blocked living room door [covered by @ curtain mean it is improper ro invade the sacred room? Hillier & Hanson (The Social Logic of Space, 1984)developed Space Syntax analysis in mapping micro-level as well as urban space. This has been used in Housing Transformation studies by (Housing Themselves-User-Initiated Transformation of Government-Built Housing in Developing Counties, 2000). Figure 7 illustrates graphically an example of how growth of dwellings can understood and analysed [details not shown]. Computer algorithms now employ the theory for urban analysis based on Hillier & Hanson.ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH METHODS lecture 05 29 June 2022 10ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH METHODS lecture 05 29 June 2022 Figure: Unit level funcional enelyss ot Buru-Bury estate, source: (Matacha, 20128) ey