Chapter 1 Introduction 2

Chapter 2 Design strategies Long and Short Term Planning 55

Chapter 3 Surface Facilities and Primary Development Layout 111
Chapter 4 Naturally Supported Mining Systems 150
Chapter 5 Artificially Supported Mining Systems 235
Chapter 6 Caving Mining Systems 274
Chapter 7 Ground Support Systems and Mine Backfill Systems 329
Chapter 8.1 Mining Methods-Practical Discussion 402
Chapter 8.2 Longhole Open Stope Design-Practical Discussion 431
Chapter 9 Introduction Surface Mining 450
Chapter 10 Strip Open Cast Method 504
Chapter 11 Open Pit Mining Method 536
Chapter 12 Stripping Ratio 570
Chapter 13 Introduction to Surface Mine Production Planning 597
Chapter 14 - Haul Road Design 620
Chapter 15 - Waste Disposal- Planning and Environmental 645
 MN 471:PART II
UNDERGROUND MINE PLANNING AND
DESIGN

(CHAPTER 1)

INTRODUCTION

COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE

COURSE AIMS, OBJECTIVES &
EXPECTED OUTCOMES
 Course Aims & Objectives

The aims of the course are:

❖To prepare the student to become a good mining

engineer by exposing him or her to engineering
techniques used in designing & planning an
underground mine, with emphasis on mining
systems.

❖To equip the student with engineering skills by which

he she can design an underground mine & plan the
mining operations so that the mining will be safe &
economically gainful.
 Course Aims & Objectives
The objectives of the course are:
❖To expose the student to the objectives & problems of
underground mining.

❖To introduce the student to the various underground

mining systems & their conditions of applicability.

❖To introduce the student to basic engineering

concepts of, & techniques for, underground mine
design & planning.

❖To encourage the student to employ engineering

concepts to design technically & economically feasible
underground mines.
 Expected Course Outcome
At the end of the course, the student is expected
to:
❖Understand the engineering concepts used to design
& plan an underground mine.

❖Be able to analyse problems associated with

underground mining systems & solve them properly by
the application of sound engineering techniques.

❖Be able to design underground mining systems & plan

the mining operations so that mining will be safe &
economically gainful in his or her professional life.
 Course Outline & Presentation

Underground Mine Design & Planning (UMDP) is the

second part of a 3 credit hour course, and deals with
common sense & engineering techniques used in
designing & planning safe & economic underground
mining systems. It covers the following areas:

❖Objectives & definition of UMDP.

❖Factors that influence UMDP.
❖Checklist for UMDP.
❖Siting of surface facilities.
❖Primary & secondary development layout design.
 Course Outline & Presentation

Design of mining systems, including:

➢ Naturally supported mining systems

➢ Artificially supported mining systems.
➢ Caving mining systems.
➢ Equipment selection.
➢ Long & short erm planning and scheduling
 Course Schedule
The schedule for the second part of the course has
been summarised in Table 1.1.
Tale 1.1 Course Schedule
WEEK WEEK ENDING CHAPTER
1 15-Jan 2021 -
2 22-Jan 2021 1
3 29-Jan 2021 2&3
4 05- Feb 2021 4
5 12- Feb 2021 5
6 19-Feb 2021 Catch Up
 Course Assessment
Student Assessment:
Two forms of student assessment are designed for the
course, namely:

❖Continuous assessment &

❖Examination.
➢ Continuous assessment: 40% of the total
mark for semester
➢ End of Semester Exams: 60% of the total
mark for semester
 Course Assessment
Lecturer’s Assessment:

❖At the end of the course, each student will be

required to evaluate the course & Lecturer’s
performance by answering a questionnaire specially
prepared to obtain the views & opinions of the student
about the course & the Lecturer.

❖Students are encouraged to be sincere & frank in their

answers so that the answers can be used as a good
basis for improvement.
 The Syllabus
Overview of Underground Mine Design & Planning
(UMDP):

❖Objectives & Definition of UMDP

❖Factors influencing UMDP
❖Design & Planning as Complementary Partners
❖Safety & Economy as Opposing Partners
 Checklist for UMDP

❖Climatic & Physiographic Data

❖Geological Data
❖Geomechanical & Geochemical Data
❖Economic Data
❖Corporate Policy
❖ Environmental & Mining Laws of Host Country
 Design & Planning Strategies
❖Definition & Classification of Mining Systems
❖Mining System Selection
❖Equipment Selection
❖Short & Long Term Planning
 Primary Development

❖ Siting of Surface Facilities.

❖ Design of Primary Openings Layout.
❖ Shaft Location & Pillar Determination.
❖ Determination of Level Intervals.
❖ Mine Life & Working Regime.
Open/Naturally Supported Methods

❖Room & Pillar Mining Method

❖Sublevel Stoping Mining Method
❖Large Open Stoping Method
❖Longwall Mining Method
 Artificially Supported Methods

❖Cut & Fill Mining Method

❖Shrinkage Mining Method

❖Square Set Stoping Method

❖Undercut and Fill Stoping
❖Continuous bench backfilling Stoping
 Caving Method

❖Block Caving Method

❖Sublevel Caving Method
❖Longwall Method
 References
● Beniawski, Z. T. (1974). “Estimating the Strength of Rock Materials”, J.S. Afr., Inst.
Min Metall, pp. 312-320.

● Bready B. H. G. & Brown, E. T. (1985). “Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining”,

George Allen & Unwin, 527 pp.

● Hartman, H. L. & Mutmansky, J. M. (200, “Introduction to Mining Engineering”,

2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 570pp.
● Hustrulid, W. A. (1982). “Underground Mining Methods Handbook”, Society of
Mining Engineers, 1726 pp.

● Janelid, J. C. & Kvapil, R. (1966). “Sublevel Caving”, Int. J. Rock, Mech. Min. Sci.,
pp. 129-153.

● Thomas, L. J. (1978). “Introduction to Mining”, Broken Hill Division, University of

New South Wales, Australia, 471 pp.
●
● Salamon, M.D.G. & Munro, A. H. (1967). “A study of the Strength of Coal Pillars",
J.S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall, pp. 55-57.

● Stock, J. & Chris, D. (1979). “Mineral Processing”, Open University Technology, a

Third Level Course, pp. 43-55.
 CHAPTER 1 – INTRODCUTION:

OBJECTIVES & EXPECTED OUTCOMES

Chapter Objectives & Expected Outcomes
The objectives of this chapter are:
❖To discuss the nature of underground mining.
❖To define Underground Mine Design & Planning
(UMDP) through examination of its tasks.
❖To present safety & economy as opposing partners.

At the end of the chapter, the student is

expected to:
❖ Understand the nature of UMDP.
❖ Appreciate the scope of the course.
❖ Appreciate his input for good understanding.
OBJECTIVE: Identify, Evaluate and Provide an Optimal Extraction Plan for the Mineral
Resource that Satisfies Corporate Business Objectives
What is the grade Is the ground
of the orebody competent
for safe
mining?

We have to
Geological Model make the
best plan for
RM Model
mining
Geologists

Where is the Geotech Engineers

orebody
located on How
plan? conducive is
the work
area?
Mine Plan Planning Engineers

Surveyor Survey Plan Vent Model Vent Engineer

MINE & PROJECT STRATEGY WORKSHOP 21
 Services Delivery Process Flow & Customers
Operations
Mine Backfill
Planning &
Design
Geological
Information thru Drilling, Blasting
exploration Face Examination
Drilling & GC Slot Raise
Mucking & Primary Secondary
Drilling Longhole Blasting Mucking
Support Support Tramming
Drilling

Development Stoping
Block Long term
Modeling Planning Short term Planning

Gold
Hoisting Production
Processing

Key customers
• Mining Operations
• Processing
• Finance ROM Pad
 Nature of Underground Mining
❖ Underground mining is inherently less flexible than
surface mining.
❖ The time taken to gain access to the orebody is
usually greater (i.e. very long pre-production
periods).
❖ It is much more difficult to deviate from the
planned production schedules.
❖ The maximum output from any working place is
usually much lower than in surface mining & it is
often necessary to mine simultaneously in several
locations to achieve the desired production rate.
 Nature of Underground Mining
Note: It is therefore extremely important that overall
mine plan & the work schedules are prepared well in
advance of actual operations.

❖ Before production begins, access must be provided

to a sufficient number of mining areas to ensure
continuous flow of ore at the desired rate when
production commences.
❖ This stage can take several years to complete.
❖ At the production stage, mining of the ore must be
co-ordinated with underground development of
horizontal, vertical or inclined roadways to get
access to particular blocks of ore i.e. put in raises,
levels/drives, sublevels, etc. to block out the ore
blocks for mining.
 Nature of Underground Mining
❖ To sustain a constant level of production,
development must precede mining operations.

❖ Because of the importance of advance planning,

have Long term plans (5 – 20 yrs); Medium term
plans (2 – 5 yrs) & Short term plans (a few months to
2 yrs).

❖ It is normal to programme work in some detail for at

least 12 months ahead with an outline plan for up to
five years or longer. The 12 month programme
normally specifies work schedules on at least a
monthly, weekly or even daily basis.
 Definition of UMDP
❖ Underground mine design is a 2-D or 3-D technical
drawing or artwork, based on engineering, economic
& safety considerations, showing the detailed
framework of an underground mine or part of it.
❖ In 2-D form, the design is presented as sections &
plans while in the 3-D form it is presented as solid
object.
Examples of 2D and 3D Mine Planning Software:
• 2D: Autocad
• 3D: Datamine; Surpac, Studio 5DP, EPS, Ring King,
Agies, Vulcan etc.

❖ Presentation of the design of a whole underground

mine in a single technical drawing will be
cumbersome, as the details are too many.
 Definition of UMDP
❖ Usually present the design showing only salient
features & present the design of other features
separately.
❖ Design of an underground mine should show the
orebody & country rock, the layout of primary
(capital) development openings such as shafts,
adits, ramps, bins & main level drives, sublevels
crosscuts, orepasses, loading points & the
ventilation network.
❖ Details should include major distances such as;
Level intervals, Distance between sublevels/inter-
levels, Distance between raises, Dimensions of the
openings (e.g. Development headings, Stope blocks
etc.) and the Orebody.
 Definition of UMDP
❖ Other features of the design that may be shown
separately are; the Shaft, Mining system for stoping,
Developments & Stope blasting, Supporting systems,
Loading & Haulage systems & Ventilation network.
❖ The design of each of these should show the
dimensional details.
❖ Fig. 1.1 is a simplified mine design for the 21st
century showing underground infrastructures,
orebody and different mining methods.
Fig. 1.1 Typical Mine Design for the 21st Century
 Definition of UMDP
❖ Underground mine planning is a scientific decision
making process involving the selection of actions to
be taken to achieve set objectives such as achieving
production targets, making maximum profit,
providing social benefits, ensuring maximum safety
& health of workers (i.e. causing fewer accidents &
causing little or no damage to the environment).

❖ The outcome of planning is a schedule of work

showing the times to work, the amount of work such
as development to accomplish or tonnage to be
produced in a given time, the material, human &
financial resources to be used as well as the rules,
regulations & code of ethics that apply.
 Definition of UMDP
Table 1.2 Shows Some Mine Planning Figures of the 20th and
those of the 21st Century.
Table 1.2 Planning Strategies for the 20th and those of the 21st Century

1993 2050
Capital $250 million $150 million
Tonnes/day 4000 4000
Workforce 200 67
$/hr $40 $20
Tonnes/Employee-shift 20 60
Cost/Tonne $34 $19
Time to Commission 5 yrs 2 yrs
Can we account for the differences between the figures of
the 20th Century and those of the 21st Century?
Table 1.2 Planning Strategies for the 21st Century
1993 2050
Capital $250 million $150 million

Tonnes/day 4000 4000

Workforce 200 67

$/hr $40 $20

Tonnes/Employee-shift 20 60

Cost/Tonne $34 $19

Time to Commission 5 yrs 2 yrs

Can we account for the differences between the figures of

the 20th Century and those of the 21st Century?
 Checklist for UMDP

UMDP requires a set of data which should include the

following:

❖ Climatic & Physiographic Data;

❖ Geological Data;
❖ Geomechanical, Geotechnical & Geochemical Data;
❖ Economic Data;
❖ Corporate Policy; &
❖ Environmental & Mining Laws of Host Country.
 Climatic & Physiographic Data
The climate & physiographic data is vital to assist in
siting surface facilities & should include vital
information about the area such as:
❖ Maximum, minimum & average temperature;
❖ Maximum, minimum & average rainfall & its pattern;
❖ Maximum, minimum & average humidity;
❖ Predominant wind direction & average speed;
❖Type of vegetation cover;
❖A map showing streams, rivers & lakes; &
❖Contour map & a good description of the
topography.
 Climatic & Physiographic Data
The climate & the physiography of the area where an
underground mine is to be developed are important
information for mine design & planning.

Climate could simply be permafrost, temperate or

tropical but each of these climates can influence the
choice of surface facilities especially roads.

❖ E.g. heavy rainfall & snow may make roads

impassable, whereas a rail system would be more
secure. Roads may have to be sealed & well-drained
for all-weather work.

❖ Topography of the area will also dictate the type of

transportation system & sometimes the facilities to
be constructed.
 Climatic & Physiographic Data
❖ In hilly areas, roads will require less civil engineering
works than rail & therefore roads may be preferred to
rail transportation system.
❖ In very rugged areas some composite arrangement may
be made such as an aerial ropeway down to valley or
up a hill or rope haulage or conveyors to minimize the
cost of road way construction for trucks.
❖ In Ghana, for example, most of the mines are located in
hilly areas so roadways for trucks are preferred. An
aerial ropeway was used in former Prestea Goldfields
Ltd. to convey ore from the central shaft to the mill.
❖ Numerous streams or rivers in the concession area or
the mountainous nature of the area may necessitate
that only essential facilities may be constructed on the
mine vicinity; the rest may be located further away
where flat ground can be found.
 Geological Data
Complete geological & mineralogical information are
required to assist in selecting the appropriate mining
method, type & layout of development openings & the
appropriate mining techniques.

The geological & mineralogical data should include the

following:

❖ A map & good description of the regional & local

geology;
❖ Thickness of overburden;
❖ A good description of the country rocks (hanging an
footwalls);
 Geological Data
❖Plans & sections & a good description of the mineable
orebodies;
❖Size & orientation of orebody including the depth, dip,
strike & thickness;
❖The continuity or discontinuity within the mineralized
zones;
❖The distribution of various minerals in the mineable
orebodies;
❖The sharpness between mineralized zones & waste
material;
❖Presence of alteration zones in both mineralized &
waste zones.
 Geomechanical & Geotechnical Data
Geomechanical, Geotechnical & Geochemical data are
required as a basis for designing stable openings,
supporting systems & working out the way broken
material should be treated so that mining can be safe.

The Geomechanical & Geochemical data should include

the following:

❖Depth & characteristics of overburden;

❖Structure of host rock (hanging wall & footwall)
❖Approximate strengths of the overburden, host rock &
orebody (compressive strength (UCS), RQD);
 Geomechanical & Geotechnical Data
❖Any weakness such as noted zones of high stress;
❖Temperature of zones to be mined;
❖Any acid generating nature of host rock; &
❖Any tendency of the mineral to change character
after being broken, e.g., oxidizing, recompacting,
becoming fluid or generating acids.
 Economic Data
Economic data is required as the basis by which an
underground mine can be designed & planned to be
economically gainful.

The economic data should include the following:

❖Mineral reserves, i.e. the grades & tonnages of the

orebody categorized into measured, indicated &
inferred reserves.
❖Possible dilution & losses & the grade of run-of-mine;
❖Recovery of land ownership & price of saleable
mineral; ‘
❖Details of land ownership & lease holdings;
 Economic Data

❖Benefits, tax & royalties payable; &

❖Infrastructural details such as location of the mining
area in relation to existing roads, railroads or
navigable rivers, power, commercial supplies &
residential, social & health facilities.
 Corporate Policy
Corporate policy is required so that UMDP can be carried
out to meet set objectives of the company.

The corporate policy may dictate, for example, that:

❖The mine must be designed & planned to have high

production rate & short mine life or vice versa.
❖Purchase or hire equipment or employ particular type
of equipment.
❖Construct residential facilities or pay workers to find
their own accommodation.
❖Process the run-of-mine at the mine or sell it out.
 Environmental & Mining Laws
❖Underground mining should comply with the
environmental & mining laws of the host country.

❖Thus the design of the mine & planning of mining

operations should take full account of the
environmental & mining laws of the host country.

Can we state some environmental & mining

laws of Ghana that are crucial to
underground mining?
Important note:

❖ One would have wished that all the information

necessary for UMDP is available before the start of
a project. Unfortunately, this is never the case.
❖ Information is never complete & most of available
information is speculative at the beginning of a
project.
❖ There is a limit as to how much it is prudent to
spend & how much time should be taken to
determine all the information while still at the
exploration stage, even when it is established that
mineralization is of commercial value.
Important note:

❖ Mining engineer often has to make do with available

information. Accordingly, general knowledge of
similar rocks or structures in existing mines is
always helpful.

❖ Initial designs & planning will definitely need

revision as mining proceeds & more accurate
information becomes available.
 Design & Planning as Complementary
Partners

❖By their nature, the main objective of both design &

planning is to mine the deposit economically & safely.

❖However, while design is concerned mainly with the

type, specifics, & method of mining, planning is mainly
concerned with what & when to mine, quantity of
what to use & who to mine.

Which comes first? Design or Planning?

 Design & Planning as Complementary
Partners
First School of Thought:

❖They have the view that the decision to open an

underground mine is a decision process, which is
planning, & therefore planning comes before design.

They prefer to call the discipline as “Underground

Mine Planning & Design”.
 Design & Planning as Complementary
Partners

Second School of Thought:

❖They believe that design comes before planning

because one needs to put the design of an
underground mine in place before you plan what,
when to use & who to mine according to the design.
 Design & Planning as Complementary
Partners

❖Important to note that design & planning are

complementary.

❖It is futile to attempt to place one before the other as

in the case of chicken & egg.

❖Design & planning are indeed complementary with

the same objective: mining safely & economically.
 Safety & Economy as Opposing Partners
❖Main objective of UMDP is to mine a given orebody as
safely as possible & as economically as possible.

❖This means that, ideally, all development openings

need to be spacious, reinforced & supported in such a
way that there can be no failure; all stoping, loading &
haulage operations must be carried out with such
equipment & in such a way that there can be no
accidents whatsoever; & mine air conditioning need to
be superb.

❖Unfortunately, creating such ideally safe conditions of

mining requires a lot of money.
 Safety & Economy as Opposing Partners

❖Cost could erode the whole revenue & render the

mining project unprofitable.

❖On the other hand, concentrating on making

maximum profit at the expense of safety could
collapse the mine.

❖Safety & economy are therefore opposing factors.

❖Mining engineer has to find a compromise between
these two opposing partners so that mining will be
adequately safe & technologically & economically
feasible.
 LECTURE ASSIGNMENT

Give a brief write up of your

understanding of UMDP and state the
areas which you think should be studied
in detail.

Write up should not be more than 3

pages.
 MN 471:PART II
UNDERGROUND MINE PLANNING AND
DESIGN

(CHAPTER 2)

DESIGN STRATEGIES, LONG AND SHORT

TERM PLANNING

COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE

DESIGN STRATEGIES, LONG & SHORT
TERM PLANNING
Chapter Objectives & Expected Outcomes

The objectives of this chapter are:

❖To outline the strategies for Underground Mine
Design & Planning (UMDP).
❖To define & present the principles for selecting an
underground mining system.
❖To discuss the determination of mine life & working
regime.
❖To consider equipment selection.
❖To explain short & long term planning.
 DESIGN STRATEGIES, LONG & SHORT
TERM PLANNING

At the end of the chapter, the student is

expected to:

❖Appreciate the strategies for UMDP.

❖Be able to select a mining system & suitable
equipment.
❖Be able to determine mine life & working regime.
❖Understand short & long term planning.
 Strategic Approach to UMDP

❖The objective of UMDP is to design an underground

mining system & to plan the mining operations so
that a given deposit can be mined safely &
economically.
❖A strategic approach to achieve this objective is
presented in Fig. 2.1.
❖All data necessary for UMDP must be collated &
validated.
❖Comparison of the data with those of existing mines
with similar geologic environment is always useful.
 Fig. 2.1 Strategic
Approach to
Underground Mine
Design & Planning
 Strategic Approach to UMDP

❖ Next step is to select an appropriate mining

method & equipment & then design a
technologically feasible mining system that is safe
& economic.
❖ A good approach is to design alternative feasible
mining systems & then select the most economic of
them.
❖ Work out the mine life & yearly production as well
as the working regime.

❖ Planning process largely depends on the mineral

reserves, mining method, corporate policy & mining
laws of the host country.
 Strategic Approach to UMDP

❖ Selection & design of the layout of primary

development openings now need to be carried
out.

❖ Physiographical data & orebody configuration play

a vital role in the selection & layout design of
primary development openings.

❖ Finally, primary & secondary development as well

as stoping operations need to be planned so that
all objectives can be achieved.
 Mining System Selection

Definition of Mining System

An underground mining system comprises:

❖ Mining method.
❖ Layout of secondary development openings
❖ Technique by which a given deposit is mined.
 Mining System Selection
❖ While the mining method is the general approach
to stoping, the layout is the network of openings
by which the orebody is accessed & stoped.
❖ The technique includes the technology, tactics,
equipment, precautionary measures and safety
gadgets employed in mining.
❖ Examples of underground mining systems are
room-&-pillar, sublevel stoping, sublevel caving &
longwall.
❖ Examples of a layout are longitudinal or
transverse layout of openings. A technique can
be LHDs or slushers or simply gravity to muck
broken ore from stopes.
 Mining System Selection

❖ A particular mining system therefore has the

method, the layout of development openings & the
technique of mining well defined.

❖ It must be understood that two operating mines

may have the same mining method & even the
same layout of development openings but may
have different mining systems because their
techniques, e.g. equipment, are different.
 Classification of Mining Methods

❖ A traditionally accepted classification of

underground mining methods is based on the type
of ground support (see Fig. 2.2).

❖ In this classification, there are two main methods,

namely the supported methods & unsupported or
caving methods.

❖ The supported methods may then be further

subdivided into those using natural (rock) or
artificial (man-made) supports.
Fig. 2.2 Classification of Underground Mining Methods by
Rock Strength
 Classification of Mining Methods

❖ Further subdivision of these methods lead to eight

basic mining methods.
❖ A very large number of different techniques have
been developed over the years, the vast majority of
modern production systems is derived from the use
of these eight methods.
❖ When the geological & rock strength characteristics
of a particular mineral deposit are evaluated, the
choice of method is usually reduced to one or two
alternatives from which the final selection is made
on grounds of relative cost.
 Classification of Mining Methods
❖ The primary geological factors vital in selecting
mining methods for given deposits are:
❖ the dip (inclination to the horizontal)
❖ thickness of the deposit.
❖ By inclination, a deposit may be classified as
being flat, inclined or steep.
❖ Table 2.1 shows the classification of deposits by
inclination to horizontal or dip.
❖ By thickness, flat deposits may be classified as
being very narrow, narrow or wide.
 Classification of Mining Methods

Classification of Deposits by Inclination

Table 2.1 Classification of Deposits by Inclination

Inclination to the Type of Deposit
horizontal ()
0o ≤  < 20o Flat

20o ≤  < 50o Inclined

50o ≤  <90o Steep

 Classification of Mining Methods

Table 2.2 shows the classification of deposits by

thickness.

Table 2.2 Classification of Deposits by Thickness

Thickness of Deposit Type of Deposit

T < 0.8 m Very thin or narrow

0.8 m  t < 2 m Thin or narrow

t2m Thick or wide

 Classification of Mining Methods
A primary geomechanical factor vital in selecting a
mining method is the rock strength which is measured
by a variety of indicators such as:
● Joint density (RQD)
● Number of joint sets
● Degree of alteration
● Permeability & compressive strength.

❖ A practical approach normally used is to consider the

compressive strength as a fair measure of the rock strength.
❖ Table 2.3 gives a classification of rock strength by
compressive strength.
 Classification of Mining Methods
Table 2.3 Shows the classification of deposits by thickness.

Table 2.3 Classification of Deposits by Rock Strength

Compressive Type of deposit
Strength by strength Examples of rocks
( MPa) measure
(compressive)
 < 100 Weak Friable sandstone,
mudstone & coal
100   < 140 Medium Shales, limestone & schist
  140 Competent Most igneous rocks
stronger metamorphic
rocks, hard limestone,
dolomite, quartz, basalt &
diabase
 Classification of Mining Methods
❖ Thus deposits may be classified as: weak, medium or
competent.
❖ Examples of weak, medium & competent rock are
given in Table 2.3.
❖ Table 2.4 shows the range of rock strength &
structural geology characteristics appropriate to the
principal methods of working.
❖ It is deliberately non-qualitative since the selection of
a method of working often needs the exercise of
engineering judgement.
❖ The rock strength & geological characteristics given do
not cover every possible deposit & therefore
modifications of the basic methods are often
developed for particular circumstances.
 Table 2.4 Selection criteria for underground
mining methods
Rock strength Geological characteristics
characteristics
Ore Waste Type of deposit Dip of Orebody

Natural Support
Room & pillar Medium to Medium to Thick or thin Flat to inclined
strong strong stratified beds

Sublevel stoping Medium to Strong 1 Narrow or wide Steep

strong veins
Artificially 2 Massive
Supported
Cut & fill Medium to Medium to 1 Narrow or wide Inclined to steep
strong strong veins
2 Massive

Shrinkage Medium to Medium Narrow or wide Inclined to steep

strong Weak to veins Steep
medium

Square set Weak Weak to 1 Narrow or wide Steep

medium veins
2 Massive
 Table 2.4 Selection criteria for underground
mining methods
Rock strength Geological characteristics
characteristics
Ore Waste Type of deposit Dip of
Orebody
Caving
Block caving Weak to Weak to 1 Wide vein Steep
medium medium 2 Massive

Sublevel caving Medium to Weak to 1 Wide vein Steep

strong medium 2 Massive

Longwall
Weak to Weak to Thin stratified
medium medium beds Flat to
Weak to inclined
medium
 Classification of Mining Methods

❖ A less popular but equally accepted classification

system is based on the nature of the stope room &
ground treatment for support, the two together
permitting a coding system to completely define
the method.
❖ Table 2.5 explains the classification & coding
system.
Table 2.5 Classification based on Nature of Stope
Room & Ground Treatment for Support

Ground treatment for support

Nature of Stoping Pillars Pillars Filling Filling Self

Room & & Self Filling
Filling Filling

Growing 111 112 113 114 115

Drift
Wandering 121* 122 123 124 125

Growing 211 212 213 214 215

Chamber
Wandering 221* 222 223 224 225
Principles of Selecting a Mining System

❖ Most deposits have geological & geotechnical

characteristics that are suitable for the application
of more than one mining method.
❖ Thus it is often necessary to compare alternative
applicable mining systems & select the one, which
is most efficient & economic.
 Principles of Selecting a Mining System

The following criteria can be used as the basis of

comparison:
❖ Development or preparatory efficiency (m3/1000 t).
❖ Stoping efficiency (t/employee-shift).
❖ Mining cost or stoping cost ($/t).
❖ Mining profit or stoping profit ($/t).
 Development Efficiency
❖ Development efficiency is defined as the amount of
secondary development openings (measured in m3)
needed to mine 1000 tonnes of ore.
❖ Secondary development may include all
development openings such as drives, cross-cuts,
stope raises & slots that are not in ore but
necessary for stoping
❖ They exclude permanent openings that may be
considered as primary such as shafts, adits, ramps,
main levels & ore passes.
 Development Efficiency

By definition, development efficiency (Ed) is calculated

as:

3
Amount of secondary development (m )
Ed =
1000 tonnes of ore mined
 Stoping Efficiency

❖ The stoping efficiency, Es, is the productivity of

the mining system.
❖ It is defined as tonnes of ore mined per employee-
shift.
❖ By definition, Es can be calculated as:

Tonnes of ore m ined

Es =
M an - Shifts required
 Mining Cost or Stoping Cost
❖ Mining cost or Stoping cost: Mining cost or stoping
cost is defined as the cost of mining in dollars per
tonne of ore mined.
❖ The cost of mining refers to the actual stoping cost
including secondary development.
❖ It excludes capital investment & overheads.
❖ Productivity range of some mining systems are
listed in Table 2.6.
 Table 2.6 Productivity Ranges of some Mining
Systems

Mining System Method Productivity

(Tons/manshift)
Room & Pillar 30 - 70
Sublevel Caving 20 - 50
Block Caving 15 - 50
Sublevel Stoping 15 - 50
Cut & Fill 10 - 40
Shrinkage 5 - 15
Square Set 1-5
 Mining Profit or Stoping Profit

– The mining profit is defined as the profit in dollars

per tonne of ore mined.
– The mining profit, Pm, may be calculated as:

1− L 
Pm =   (SGR ) - C m
 1- D 

where: L = projected ore loss;

D = projected dilution;
S = selling price of mineral ($/g);
G = ore grade (g/t);
R = mill recovery factor; &
Cm = cost per tonne of ore mined ($/t)
 Mining Profit or Stoping Profit

❖ The criteria for selecting a particular mining

system is that it has the maximum development
efficiency & stoping efficiency, minimum stoping
cost & maximum profit.
❖ Definitely, it may be difficult to select a mining
system that will satisfy all the criteria.
❖ An acceptable approach is to rank the alternative
mining systems by the criteria & select the best.
 Determination of Mine Life & Working
Regime

Mine Life

❖ The life of an underground mine is primarily

dictated by the mineable reserves, mining system &
corporate policy.
❖ Taylor gives an empirical formula for determining
the life of mine, L, with R mineral reserves in
million tonnes, as:

L = 6.5 (4 R ( m illion to nnes ) (1  0.2 ))

 Mine Life

❖ This empirical formula is probably based on

analysis of several successful underground mines.
❖ The figure 0.2 in the formula is to take care of
expected dilution or ore losses depending on the
mining system.
❖ Where dilution is expected the factor 0.2 is added
& where ore loss is expected it must be subtracted
❖ A rule of thumb, however, is that a full scale
underground mine must have at least 10 years
lifespan.
 Mine Life

❖ Within this period, capital investment could be paid

back & mine infrastructural facilities might have
been fully utilized.
❖ Again, a period of 10 years is enough to assure
mine personnel of some job security & hence entice
them to stay on & give their full attention to the
job.
❖ Corporate policy may however dictate the life of a
mine.
 Mine Life
❖ A company might want to quickly mine out the
deposit within a short period, e.g. 8 years, due to a
number of factors such as political instability,
growing hostile attitude of local inhabitants, the
need to pay back loan capital within a specified
period or the need to produce prescribed tonnage
of ore per year.
❖ No matter the approach used in determining the
life of a mine, it must be clearly understood that an
underground mine is less flexible than a surface
mine.
 Mine Life
❖ Gaining access to the orebody takes time, between
2 to 5 years.
❖ Secondary development needs to be far ahead of
mining to ensure that production target is met &
therefore closure cannot be abrupt. When it has
been decided to stop secondary development, an
underground mine may need 2 to 3 years to mine
all the ore that has been developed.
❖ Fig. 2.3 shows the cycle of development,
production & their relation to mine life.
❖ The mill may not be started until a third of its
capacity has been mined.
Fig. 2.3 Mine Life and Cycles
 Mine Life
➢ For these reasons allowances must be given when
determining the mine life of an underground mine
based on the ore reserves alone.
➢ For example, if the life is determined to be 10
years, based on the mineral reserves and mining
capacity, then at least some 2 years allowance
must be given for primary development before
production starts and at least 1 year allowance
must be given for mining the ore already developed
towards the end of the mine life.
➢ Thus this will bring the total life of the mine to 13
years.
 Working Regime
❖ The working regime of a mine refers to the number
of days the mine should work in a year in order to
achieve projected mine production.
❖ The working regime also specifies the number of
shifts per day & the hours per shift.
❖ Mining requires huge capital investment obtainable
as loan or equity.
❖ Invariably, to have control over the capital recovery
period, it is imperative to determine the working
regime at the evaluating stage of the mining
project.
 Working Regime
The information that will assist in determining the mine working
regime includes the following:
❖ Holidays in year
❖ Mineable reserves
❖ Mine life
❖ Yearly production rate
❖ Mining system
❖ Payback period
In Ghana, workable mining regime may be 250 to 300 days per
year, with either 2 shifts per day of 10 hours per shift or 3 shifts
per day of 8 hours per shift.
 Equipment Selection
❖ Selection of appropriate equipment for
underground mining, matching their capacity &
number to achieve production targets have been
two important tasks in mine planning.
❖ Obviously, unless the right type of equipment is
selected for specific mining operations, mining will
be difficult.
❖ Given the right type of equipment, the decision to
purchase more equipment each with limited
capacity or to purchase few equipment each with
high capacity is a matter very much dependent on
space availability & economics.
 Equipment Selection

❖ For underground mining, different equipment need

to be selected for various unit operations.

❖ Such equipment may be of following kind:

▪ Primary breaking (drilling & blasting)
equipment;
▪ Loading & hauling equipment;
▪ Ground support equipment; &
▪ Ancillary equipment.
 Equipment Selection
❖ Table 2.7 is a list of equipment groups. It is
suggested that the process of selection can be
broken down into following main stages:
❖ Kind of equipment, e.g. loading
❖ Size & number, e.g. 25-t  10
❖ Specific type, e.g. rubber tyred, diesel
❖ Equipment specifications in writing:
▪ Performance considerations
▪ Maintenance considerations
❖ Preferred manufacturer, e.g. Caterpillar
 Table 2.7 Underground Mining Equipment
Primary Loading & Ground Ancillary
Breaking Hauling Support
 Small drilling  Overshot loaders  Rock bolt  Fan
machines  Slushers drill  Water
 Blasting drill  LHDs  Shotcrete pumps
jumbos  Mine trucks machines  Air
 Raise climbers  Gathering arm  Concrete compressors
 Explosive loaders pumps  Mine hoists
loaders  Shuttle cars  Hydraulic  Service
 Tunneling  Rails haulage supports vehicle
machine systems
 Cutting  Belt conveyors
machine  Shaft machines
 Continuous
machines
 Longwall
machines
 Equipment Selection

❖ At the stage when equipment is to be selected, the

orebody characteristics, the mining method &
production would have been known.
❖ E.g., it would have been established that drilling &
blasting are required, room-&-pillar will be used &
say 1000 t of ore per shift is required.
❖ In this case, it is obvious that drilling & blasting
equipment are required & loading & hauling
equipment are also required.
 Drilling Equipment

❖ To ensure successful blasting, drill holes must be at

specific position in relation to the rock surface.
❖ The variations in the systems by which holes are
drilled are comparatively few as shown in Figs. 2.4
& 2.5 which are a good guide for selecting drilling
machine when the method of mining is known.
❖ The drilling performance is a guide in selecting
drilling equipment to match production target.
Fig. 2.4 Common
Drilling Methods,
Equipment and
Performance
 Fig. 2.5 Common
Longhole Drilling
Methods, Equipment
& Performance
 Loading & Hauling Equipment

❖ While drilling system is related to a specific mining

method, loading & hauling are not.
❖ The selection of equipment entails integration &
optimization of both loading & hauling operations,
mostly related to the transport distance & required
capacity.
❖ Fig. 2.6 illustrates common loading & transport
systems used in modern underground mining.
❖ It includes graphs from which an estimate of the
capacity of each system can be obtained.
 Fig. 2.6 Common
Loading Methods &
Performance
 Loading & Hauling Equipment
❖ The capacity is related to the size of the loader &
it is always quoted in solid cubic meters of rock.
❖

❖ This allows easy conversion to calculate the t/hr

capacity of material of a different density.
❖

❖ The stated capacities are intended as a guide for

estimating purpose.
❖ Loading & hauling are operations for which the
productivity can be calculated quite accurately
when the type & size of equipment, transport
distance & velocity are known.
 Long Term & Short Term Planning

❖ Planning is a scientific decision process involving

the selection of actions to be taken to achieve set
objectives such as achieving production targets.
❖ The outcome of planning is a schedule of work
showing the times to work, the type & amount of
work to do in the given time.
❖ It involves the material, human & financial
resources to be used as well as the rules,
regulations & code of ethics that apply.
❖ In underground mining, long term planning refers
to all planning for the future that will ensure the
successful operation of the mine through its life.
 Long Term & Short Term Planning
Long term planning takes care of the mine’s activities
in 2 - 20 years to come which include the following:

❖ Exploration programmes.
❖ Reserve estimation.
❖ Primary development.
❖ Setting production targets.
❖ Equipment & material acquisition.
❖ Personnel recruitment.
❖ Marketing of mineral produced.
 Long Term & Short Term Planning
❖ In contrast, short term planning takes care of the
mine’s activities on day to day, month to month &
year to year (up to 2 years).

Such activities include the following:

▪ Secondary development.
▪ Setting yearly, monthly, weekly & daily production
targets.
▪ Allocation of human, material & financial resources.
▪ Grade control.
 Chapter Assignment

Use Tables 2.2 and 2.4 to identify the appropriate

methods of working for the following mineral
deposits:

❖ A strong ironstone bed, 2 m thick, dipping at 5o &

overlain by medium strength shales.
❖ A strong steeply dipping gold bearing quartz vein
varying, in thickness from 3 m to 20 m & overlain
by medium strength rocks.
❖ A strong massive rock containing copper &
surrounded by strong waste rock.
 MN 471:PART II
UNDERGROUND MINE PLANNING AND
DESIGN

(CHAPTER 3)

SURFACE FACILITIES & PRIMARY

DEVELOPMENT LAYOUT
COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE
 Objectives & Expected Outcomes

The objectives of this chapter are:

❖To discuss the criteria & principles by which the

surface facilities of an underground mine are sited.
❖To present the selection & layout design of primary
& secondary openings of an underground mine.
❖To explain the principles for determining shaft
pillars.
❖To present the principles for determining mine
inter-level distance.
 Objectives & Expected Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the student is
expected to:

❖Be able to select & site surface facilities for an

underground mine.
❖Be able to work out & design the appropriate layout
of primary & secondary development openings.
❖Be able to determine shaft pillars & mine inter-level
distances.
 Siting of Surface Facilities
Surface facilities normally required by an underground
mine include the following:
❖Shaft station.
❖Treatment plant.
❖Workshop.
❖Mine office.
❖Power station.
❖Tailings dam or dump.
❖Hospital.
❖School.
 Siting of Surface Facilities

❖Road network.
❖Recreational area.

When required, other facilities like farms,

commercial areas & security offices may be part of
the surface facilities of an underground mine.
 Sitting of Surface Facilities
Sites of surface facilities depend on:
❖Location of the orebody
❖Physiographic features
❖Climate of the mine area.
▪ Basic principle is to site the facilities within the
boundaries of the mineral concession to avoid extra
cost of land lease & in such a way that they are
easily accessible.

▪ Actual locations of the facilities may differ from one

engineer to another, but common sense & certain
basic principles must be used as a guide in
selecting the locations or the sites.
 Siting of Surface Facilities
These principles include the following:

❖All areas of subsidence should be avoided.

❖Shaft(s) should be sunk in the footwall to ensure

stability & longer life.

❖Upcast shafts & tailings dumps/dams must be

located in such a way that the wind blows polluted air
from these facilities away from the mining area.

❖Workshops should be located near the intake shaft &

the treatment plant to provide quick access, service &
equipment maintenance.
 Siting of Surface Facilities

❖Mine offices may be centrally located for easy &

quick access to all departments.

❖Hospital may be centrally located for easy & quick

access to all departments.

❖Road network should be minimum but give

maximum access to the surface facilities.
 Siting of Surface Facilities
E.g. Fig. 3.1 is a simplified map showing the
physiographic features of a mining concession as well
as the projection of the orebody on the surface &
wind direction.

Based on this information, (scanty though) suppose

we are required to site the following surface facilities
considered necessary for an underground mine to
exploit the deposit:

1. Downcast Shaft 2. Upcast Shaft 3. Workshop

4. Treatment plant 5. Mine Office 6. School
7. Residential Area 8. Hospital 9. Mine Farms
Fig. 3.1 Relief of Mining Concession
(Tarkwa Deposit)
 Siting of Surface Facilities
❖We can apply the commonsense principle discussed
earlier in this chapter & site the surface facilities.
❖The result of such an exercise is shown in Fig. 3.2.
Some of the principles & reasons used in siting the
surface facilities are as follows:

▪ Subsidence area is avoided.

▪ The shafts are located in the footwall side for
stability & longer life.
▪ Upcast shaft is sited so that the wind blows the
noxious air from underground away from the
mine facilities.
 Sitting of Surface Facilities

❖ Treatment plant is near the upcast shaft.

❖ Workshop location provides quick & easy access
from the intake shaft & treatment plant.
❖ Mine office is centrally placed for easy access
from all departments.
❖ Residential area is far from mine activities &
near hilly areas for peace.
❖ Hospital is accessible from all facilities.
❖ Mine farms are along the rivers from where
there is fertile land.
Fig. 3.2 Siting of Surface Facilities
 Siting of Surface Facilities

Important note:
❖ We may not be lucky always to site all surface
facilities within the mine concession boundaries
for a number of reasons including rugged nature
of topography & environmental restrictions.
❖ In such situations, some facilities may have to be
constructed outside the mine boundaries.
❖ Facilities like workshop or concentrators may be
constructed underground.
Layout of Primary Development Openings
❖ The objective of primary or capital development
openings is to gain access to the orebodies & to
provide ventilation.

❖ Primary development openings include following:

➢ Shafts, Adits or Ramps.
➢ Drives.
➢ Cross-cuts.
➢ Raises.
Layout of Primary Development Openings
The selection of the type & the design of the layout of
primary development openings are dependent on
factors such as:

❖ Geological configuration of the deposit, i.e. the

orebody model showing its shape, size, location &
grade distribution.

❖ Geotechnical characteristics of the overburden,

orebody & host rock such as compressive strength
& RQD.
Layout of Primary Development Openings

❖Economic considerations, i.e., cost of construction &

distances over which ore & waste may be hauled.

❖The primary development opening from surface to

underground may be a Vertical Shaft, an Inclined
Shaft, an Adit or a Ramp depending on the
geological configuration of the orebody (see Figs.
3.3a, 3.3b, 3.3c & 3.3d).
Fig. 3.3 Opening of Deposit from Surface
 Layout of Primary Development Openings
Let us discuss the condition under which we would
choose any of the four methods of opening a deposit
from the surface. Discuss the advantages &
disadvantages of each of the four methods.

❖Figs. 3.4, 3.5 & 3.6 show typical design of the layout
of primary development openings.
❖Let’s discuss the strength & weaknesses of the
designs.
❖Fig. 3.7 shows the configuration of an orebody in
three perspective views.
❖Let’s try our hands on the design & layout of the
primary development to exploit the deposit .
Fig. 3.4 Layout Design of
Primary Development
Openings
Fig. 3.5 Schematic Layout
of an Idealised
Underground Mine
(after Hamrin, 1982)
 Fig. 3.6 Layout of
Primary Development
Openings showing
Shaft and Ramp
Fig. 3.7 The Tarkwa Orebody
 Shaft Pillar Determination
❖ The shaft pillar is a rock mass left around the
entire length of the shaft to ensure stability of the
shaft & should not be mined so long as the shaft is
in use.
❖ There are several formulae for calculating the size
of shaft pillar.

❖ The following four empirical formulae, summarized

by Young & Stock (1916) are applicable to flat or
bedded deposits including coal seams:
D
Rp = + 0.6 Dt
20
 Shaft Pillar Determination

R p = 20 + 0.01D 0.3t

R p = Dt
D
Rp =
9
where D = depth of shaft, t = thickness of deposit, Rp
is the radius of pillar & B is safety berm, all in meters
(see Fig. 3.8a).
Fig. 3.8a Shaft Pillar in Flat Deposits
 Mine Inter-level Distance Determination
The major factors that could influence the
Determination of mine inter-level distance are:

❖Economics.
❖Orebody configuration.
❖Ground condition.
❖Mining system.
❖Mining laws of the host country.
 Mine Inter-level Distance Determination
❖Large inter-level distance means fewer main levels
needed to be developed to serve the whole mine &
therefore the total cost of developing the deposit will
be lower.

❖On the other hand, the greater the distance between

the levels, the longer the vertical distance through
which all the ore being served by a level has to be
hoisted to the surface.

❖Ore passes are also longer & need to be properly

supported so that they do not collapse during the life
of the level.
 Mine Inter-level Distance Determination
❖The extra cost of hoisting the ore & supporting ore
passes means more cost to the mine.

❖It is therefore prudent to determine the

inter-level distance that gives the minimum
cost or maximum profit, assuming that the
orebody configuration, ground conditions, the
mining system & the mining laws of the host
country permit the distance that will be determined.

❖The following question & solution will illustrate how

to determine the minimum cost inter-level level
distance.
 Mine Inter-level Distance Determination
Illustrative Question:
❖A steeply dipping ore body has a width of 50 m, a
strike length of 2000 m & depth 100 m. The
average density is 3.5 t/m3.
❖It is proposed to mine this deposit at rate of 4.0 
106 t/yr.
❖It is estimated that the mining will require a capital
investment of $50 million and variable operating
cost of $25 million per 100 m ((50 + 0.25h) million
dollars) where h is the depth of deposit worked).
❖Interest rate is 15%.
❖Expected ore loss will be 20% during mining.
❖Recommend the mine inter-level distance.
❖More precisely, should the inter-level distance be
100 m, 150 m or 200 m (see Fig. 3.9a)
Fig. 3.9a Possible Inter-level Distance
 Mine Inter-level Distance Determination
Solution:

Amount of ore per level:

At 100 m:
50 m  2000 m  100 m  3.5 t/m3 = 35.0 million tonnes

At 150 m:
50 m  2000 m  150 m  3.5 t/m3 = 52.5 million tonnes

At 200 m:
50 m  2000 m  200 m  3.5 t/m3 = 70.0 million tonnes
Mine Inter-level Distance Determination

Lifetime of Ore (actual ore is 20% less):

35.0  10 6 t  0.8
At 100 m : = 7.0 years
6
4  10 t/a

52.5  10 6 t  0.8
At 150 m : = 10.5 years
4  10 6 t/a

70.0  10 6 t/  0.8
At 200 m : = 14.0 years
4  10 6 t /a
Mine Inter-level Distance Determination
Required Total Investment
(Variable is $25  106/100 m):

At 100 m:
$50  106 +1.0  $ 25  106 =$75.0 million

At 150 m:
$50  106 + 1.5  $25  106 = $87.50 million

At 200 m:
$50  106 + 2.0  $25  106 = $100.0 million
Mine Inter-level Distance Determination

Average Capital Cost

Recovery factor =i(1+i)n/[(1+i)n-1]
At 100 m:
$75.0  106  0.240 = $18.0 million
At 150 m:
$87.0  106  0.195 = $17.1 million
At 200 m:
$100  106  0.175 = $17.5 million
Mine Inter-level Distance Determination
On the basis of average capital cost per year, the
optimal mine inter-level distance seems to be about
150 m. The results are illustrated in Fig. 3.9b.

Some of the factors, which could militate against

the decision include:
❖Configuration of the orebody: if the remaining
orebody is at a distance of 180 m or 120 m below
one level the decision would have to be different.
❖Rock conditions: if around 150 m some intrusive
weak rock is intercepted the decision will change.
❖Mining system employed: The decision will hold
only so long as the mining system permits the
haulage level at that distance.
Fig. 3.9b Determination of Inter-Level Distance
Mine Inter-level Distance Determination
❖ Economically, it is best to keep 150 m between
haulage levels.
❖ Rock conditions around such intervals should be
checked to know if the stability of a haulage level
is guaranteed (or supporting cost can change the
decision).
❖ The configuration of the orebody must be
established to make sure the last haulage level
does not leave some ore behind which is too small
for another haulage level or that the haulage level
does not lie too far beneath the lower limit of the
orebody otherwise extra hoisting facilities could
mean great loss of money.
Mine Inter-level Distance Determination

❖The question of whether the mining system

employed will permit such interval should be solved
otherwise a sublevel could be too far from the
haulage level.

❖In all cases change of (150  25 m) would be

quite acceptable on economic basis but it is better
to be safer than to die with money.

❖The best is to make a compromise where this is

possible.
 MN 471: PART II
UNDERGROUND MINE PLANNING AND
DESIGN

(CHAPTER 4)

NATURALLY SUPPORTED MINING

SYSTEMS

COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE

 Objectives & Expected Outcomes
The objectives of this lecture are:
To explain the basis of naturally supported mining
systems and discuss their advantages and
disadvantages.
❖To present the design of a typical room-and-pillar
mining system as an example of naturally supported
mining system.
❖To explain the principles of designing room-and–pillar
mining systems.
❖To present the design of a typical sublevel open
stoping mining system as an example of naturally
supported mining system.
 Objectives & Expected Outcomes
At the end of the lecture, the student is expected
to:
❖ Understand the philosophy & techniques of naturally
supported mining systems.

❖ Be able to discern the conditions under which they

are applicable.

❖ Be able to design room-and-pillar mining systems.

❖ Be able to design sublevel stoping mining system.

Nature of Naturally Supported Mining Systems
❖Naturally supported mining systems aim to preserve
the structural integrity of the rock surrounding
excavations, i.e. stopes.

❖Caving of surrounding rock is prevented by natural

supports from unmined ore or waste left in the
stope, in the form of pillars & stope side walls (also
called ribs or abutments).

❖Main advantages of naturally supported mining

systems arise from the natural supports. They are:
▪ Cheap.
▪ Simple.
▪ Flexible.
Nature of Naturally Supported Mining Systems

❖Earliest miners typically opened out underground

chambers to the maximum dimensions which
experience proved to be compatible with safety.

❖This technique (often termed gathering) led to

irregular, open chambers & although still practiced in
some small mines, has been largely replaced by more
regular, planned layouts.
Nature of Naturally Supported Mining Systems

Main disadvantages of naturally supported mining

systems are:

❖There is low percentage extraction of ore owing to

the fact that some ore must be left as pillars.

❖Selectivity is poor because pillars must be left where

they are needed irrespective of ore grade.

❖The ground must be reasonably strong if major

collapses are to be avoided.
 Room-&-Pillar Mining Systems (RPMS)
Mining Method & Characteristics:
❖Room-&-pillar mining systems are a typical example of
naturally supported mining systems.

❖Method of mining consists of stoping part of the ore to

create rooms.

❖Remaining ore & waste material are left as pillars to

provide support.

❖Pillars may be circular or rectangular or as longitudinal

walls.

❖Arrangement of rooms & pillars can be regular or

irregular although the former is preferred in order to
simplify design, planning & mining activities.
 Room-&-Pillar Mining Systems (RPMS)
Mining Method & Characteristics:
❖Relative dimensions of the stopes (called rooms) &
the pillars are determined by the strength of the ore
& the weight of the overlying strata.

❖Material left as pillars varies from as little as 10% in

shallow deposits with competent rock to well over
50% in less competent, orebodies at great depth.

❖RPMS is normally applied to orebodies with flat or

near horizontal deposits but variations of the method
can allow for orebodies with inclination not exceeding
30o.

❖Successful RPMS implementation requires suitable

geomechanical conditions.
 Room-&-Pillar Mining Systems (RPMS)
Mining Method & Characteristics
❖These include competent orebody, stable hangingwall, &
usually low rock pressure & few or no cross jointing in
the immediate roof.

❖Fig. 4.1 is a plan and vertical section of a typical room-&-

pillar layout.

❖In deposits less than 7 m thick, the rooms are advanced

in single full face cycle operations which usually consist
of drilling & blasting, loading & hauling the broken ore,
making the stope safe & recommencing the cycle (see
Fig. 4.2a and 4.2b).

❖In thicker deposits, this full face advance method is

inconvenient & expensive, & it is usual to mine the upper
section of the orebody as in the full face method.
Fig 4.1 Plan and Vertical Section of a Tributary Area in an Array of Pillars and Rooms
 Fig. 4.2a Sequence of
Operations of Room and
Pillar Mining
Fig. 4.2b LHD Equipment Loading and Hauling Broken
Material in a Room-and-Pillar Excavation
 Room-&-Pillar Mining Systems (RPMS)
Mining Method & Characteristics
❖The lower section of the orebody is subsequently mined
by a similar cycle of operations (see Fig. 4.3). In very
thick deposits, the mining cycle may require a series of
benches.

❖If the roof or floor of the rock is weak, the method may
be applied in a modified form by leaving a layer of ore
adjacent to the floor or both as crown & sill pillars.

❖Maximum room height (i.e. pillar height) compatible with

safety can be up to 30 m in competent rock & as low as
2 m in weaker strata.

❖Very thick deposits exceeding this maximum height may

be mined in two or more levels with a horizontal pillar of
rock between levels.
Fig. 4.3 Room and Pillar Mining of an Orebody thicker than 7 m.
(The upper section is mined by full face advance and the lower
section is mined later)
 Room-&-Pillar Mining Systems (RPMS)
Major advantages of room-&-pillar mining systems are
their flexibility:
❖Production rate can readily be varied according to
demand.
❖Mechanization is easy.
❖The worked out areas act as access & haulageway
& thereby reduce the amount of secondary
development.
❖Ventilation can be adequate, easy & cheap.
 Room-&-Pillar Mining Systems (RPMS)
Major Disadvantages:

❖In weaker ground there may be a gradual deterioration in

roof & pillar & maintenance of these can be costly.

❖Percentage of ore extraction can be low because of the

need to leave pillars of ore behind for support.

▪ This percentage can, however, be greatly increased by

pillar robbing.

▪ Pillars of ore are extracted after the deposit has been

mined to its boundaries; the pillars can be mined in a
retreating sequence, beginning at the boundaries &
working back towards the initial access.
 Room-&-Pillar Mining Systems (RPMS)
❖RPMS has been applied successfully to bedded
deposits of sedimentary origin including coal &
copper-mineralised shales & industrial minerals such
as limestone, salt & potash.

❖Some gold deposits have also been mined with the

method.

❖Main objective in all cases is to extract or stope as

much ore as possible while maintaining stable rooms.

❖Geomechanical factors such as the strength of ore &

thickness of the deposit impose a limit on room
dimensions.
 Room-&-Pillar Mining Systems (RPMS)
❖Increasing the pillar size or number of pillars &
reducing the room width can compensate for poor
ground conditions.

❖This, however, means reducing the ore extraction

since more ore is left in the pillars.

❖On the other hand, small size pillars that are

theoretically stable may not always be safe in
practice due to local geologic conditions.

❖It is therefore necessary to combine theory &

practice in order to achieve optimum dimensions of
rooms & pillars.
 Design of RPMS
Design Approach & Limitations
❖ Assuming that rock is an elastic, transversely
isotropic material, a theoretical model can be
developed to calculate the total stresses & mining
induced displacements around excavations,
including surface deflections.

❖ Boundary element & finite element analyses are

two methods that can be used.

❖ There are programs for such analyses but apart

from being sophisticated & therefore expensive in
terms of computer units, their suitability come to
play only when the orebody has been exposed so
that immediate environmental stresses can be
measured over a period of time.
 Design of RPMS
❖ For an initial design, probably a more pragmatic
approach is to use the Tributary Area Theory (TAT)
for pillar design, & the Plate Theory (PT) for the
design of stable rooms.

❖ Approach is suggested because it provides a

satisfactory solution without incurring very high
costs in the analysis.
 Design of RPMS
Limitations of the TAT approach include the following:
❖The average axial pillar stress which is regarded as
representing the state of loading a pillar in a direction
parallel to the principal direction of confinement is not
simply related to the state of stress in pillar which
could be determined by proper stress analysis.
❖ The TAT focuses attention on pre-mining normal
stress component, ignoring the effect of other
components of the pre-mining stress
❖The effect of pillar location within the orebody is
ignored.

The PT also has a disadvantage: Generally, a rock mass

has very low tensile strength due to existence of joints,
cracks or other planes of weakness.
 Design of RPMS
❖ Common empirical approach, erring on the side of
safety, is to assume the tensile strength to be zero.

❖ The PT assumes that the rock strata in the

immediate hangingwall of the openings have a
finite tensile strength.

❖High FOS value employed due to difficulty in

assessing tensile strength: recommended FOS is
between 0 & 4.
 Design Procedure
The design procedure considers four possible modes
of failure:
❖Pillar failure.
❖Bearing failure in roof.
❖Bearing failure in floor.
❖Beam failure in roof.
 Design Procedure
❖The principle is to select a suitable value of FOS,
based on empirical knowledge or otherwise, for each
mode of failure to provide a basis for the design.

❖Normally, two FOS are to be identified namely the

pillar strength FOS & bearing capacity FOS. The
analysis is based on three design criteria:
▪ The strength of the proposed pillars & therefore
their ability to withstand the axial stress
imposed on them.
▪ The bearing capacity of immediate roof & floor.
▪ The ability of the roof span to support itself.
 Pillar Strength
A B
 Vs   W p H s 
Sp = Ss     (1)
V   H W s 
 p  p

where Sp = strength of pillar,

Ss = sample uniaxial compressive strength,
Vs = volume of sample,
Vp = volume pillar,
Wp = width of pillar,
Ws = width of sample,
Hp = height of pillar,
Hs = height of sample, A & B are empirical constants.

These empirical constants cannot be determined for an initial design; from

a study on oil shale pillar performances, the values suggested by Hardy &
Agapito (1977) are A = 0.118 and B = 0.933.
 Pillar Strength
An alternative relation for determining the strength
of pillars is given by the empirical formula in Eqn 2:

Sp = GW H p
T R
P (2 )
where G, T & R are constants.
For square pillars, Salamon & Munro (1967) suggest the
values of these constants to be 7.18, -0.66 & 0.46 respectively.
 Pillar Strength
● The constants given so far must not be taken
arbitrarily since different geomechanical
environments can have different constant values.

● It is advisable to determine these values for the

particular environment under consideration.

● However, they provide a good guide for initial pillar

design.

● A simpler expression is given by Benniawski as:

 W 
S p = S c  0 .6 4 + 0 .3 6  (3 )
 H 

where Sc is the strength of a cubical specimen of the rock.

 Pillar Stress
The average pillar stress for Square Pillar is derived,
using TAT to be:

2
 Wp + W o 
σ p = Pz   (4)
 Wp 
 

where: p = average pillar stress,

Pz = vertical normal component of pre-mining field stress
(Pz = h),
Wp = width of pillar,
Wo = width of room (see Fig. 4.4).
Fig. 4.4 Geometry of Tributary Area Analysis of Pillar
in Uniaxial Loading (after Brady & Brown)
The Areal Extraction Ratio (AER) can be defined as
the ratio of area mined to total area of orebody &
calculated as:

AER =
( W + W )- W
o p
2

p
2
 Wp 
= =1-  (5)
(W + W )
o p
2 W +W 
 p o 
For pillars which are not square in shape, the pillar
stress, p, may be calculated as:

Pz (W p + L p )( W o + L o )
p = (6)
Wp + Lp

Where;
Wp, is the widths of pillar
Lp is length of pillar
Wo is the width of room
Lo is the length of room
The Factor of Safety (FOS) is calculated as:

Sp
FOS = (7)
σp

It is recommended that 1< FOS< 2 based

on several investigations carried out on the
stability of pillars by Salamon (See Fig. 4.5).
Fig. 4.5 Histogram showing Frequencies of Intact Pillar
Performance and Pillar Failure (after Salamon & Munro, 1967)
 Bearing Capacity of Roof & Floor
❖The load applied by a pillar to the footwall &
hangingwall in a stratiform orebody can be
compared directly with a distributed load applied on
the surface of a half span.

❖A useful method of calculating the bearing capacity

was proposed by Brinch (1970).

❖This method expresses the bearing capacity in

terms of pressure or stress & assumes that the
average axial pillar stress is equivalently applied as a
uniformly distributed normal load to the adjacent
rock.
❖Schematic & conceptual representation of the
problem is illustrated in Fig. 4.6a and Fig 4.6b.
Fig. 4.6 Model of Yield of:
a. Country Rock under Pillar Load and
b. Load Geometry for Estimation of Bearing Capacity (After Brady
and Brown, 1985)
Fig. 4.6b Various Degree of Pillar
Failures in Room and Pillar Mining
 Bearing Capacity of Roof & Floor
❖ Under the above assumption, the bearing capacity is given by
Brady & Brown (1985) as:

qp =
1
2

y W p N y S y + 2 C co t  (N g S g - 1) (8 ) 
where N, Ng are strength factors & S & Sg
are shape factors & given by:
 = density of floor rock,
Wp = width of pillar N  = 1 .5 ( N g - 1 ) tan  ;

WL = length of pillar n tan   

Ng = e tan  45 +  ;
2

 2
 = angle of friction,
 Wp 
C = cohesion, S  = 1.0 - 0.4   ; and
 WL 
 Wp 
S g = 1.0 + sin    .
 WL 
 Bearing Capacity of Roof & Floor

The FOS against bearing capacity failure is:

qb
FOS = (9)
σp
 Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

Question: A near horizontal orebody with a dip of 15o is

planned to be worked with room-&-pillar mining system.
An initial layout is designed to have 6 m room spans & 4
m square pillars. The orebody is located at 150 m below
ground surface & it is 4 m thick. The unit weight of the
overburden is 20 kN/m3. Analysis of pillar failures in the
orebody indicates that the pillar strength (Sp) can be
defined by the formula:

S p = 15H -0.6
p W 0.4
p
where Sp is in MPa & pillar height (Hp) & pillar width (Wp) are in
m.
Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

Use the Tributary Area Theory (TAT) to determine the

Factor of Safety (FOS) against compressive failure of
pillars & so state whether the initial layout is
acceptable or not.

❖ Estimate the dimensions of room & pillars that

will ensure maximum ore extraction ratio, for a
selected FOS of 1.5, assuming pillars will not be
recovered.
❖ Hence present in three standard views the
design of the mining system to mine the
orebody.
 Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

Solution:
(a) Unit weight of overburden,  = 20 KN/m3

(b) Height of overburden, H= 150 m

(c) Pre-mining stress, Pz = H = (20 kN/m3)(150

m) = 3000 kPa = 3 Mpa

(d) Average axial pillar stress:

2
 Wo + Wp   6 + 4 
2

σp = pz   = 3 
 W   4  = 18.75 MPa
 p 
 Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

Pillar strength, Sp:

S p = 1 5 H p W p = 1 5 (4 )(4 ) = 1 5 (0 .4 4 )(1 .7 4 ) = 1 1 .3 6 M P a
− 0.6 0.4 − 0.6 0.4

Sp
11.36
FOS = = = 0.61
 p 18.75

FOS < 1: Therefore the initial layout

design is unacceptable.
Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

(b) The low FOS in the initial layout design

necessitates redesign to achieve the required
FOS of 1.5. The redesign options are:

i. To reduce the room span, thereby reduce the

pillar stress level.

ii. To increase the pillar width or

iii. To reduce the pillar height.

Options (ii) & (iii) are intended to increase the pillar

strength.
 Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

Options (i): Reducing room span. This implies

reducing average pillar stress, p to achieve
FOS = 1.5

Sp 11.36
FOS = = = 1.5
σp p

11.36
 p = = 7.57 MPa
1 .5
Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

Now, the reduced room span Wp can be found:

2
 Wo + Wp 
σp = pz   = 7.57
 W 
 p 

2
 Wo + 4 
3  = 7.57
 4 
1

 7.57 
(4 ) - 4
2

Wo =   = 2.35 m
 3 
Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS
Option (ii): Increasing pillar width, Wp, to increase pillar
strength, Sp, to achieve FOS = 1.5

Pillar strength, Sp:

− 0. 6 0. 4
15H p W p

-0.6 0.4
Sp 15H W
FOS = =
p p

δp  WO + W p 
2

p zz  
 W 
 p 
 Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

Given that FOS = 1.5, Hp = 4 m, Wo = 6 m & pzz

= 3 MPa
15Hp-0.6 W p0.4 (15) (4-0.6 )(Wp 0.4 )
FOS = Z
= 1.5  = 1.5
 Wo + W p 
2
 6 + Wp 
p zz   3 
 WP   W 
 p 

(15) (4 )(W ) =  6 + W 2
-0.6 0.4


p p

3(1.5 )  W
 p



( )
1 .45 W p2.4 = 36 + 12W p + W p2  1 .45 W p2.4 - 36 - 12W p − W p2 = 0
Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

F ( W p ) = 1 .4 5 W 2 .4 2
p - 36 - 12W p - W p

F(0) = -36

F(6) = (1.45)(73.716) - 36 - 72 – 36 = -37.111

F(7) = (1.45)(106.717) - 49 - 84 – 36 = -4.260

F(8) = (1.45)(147.033) - 64 - 96 – 36 = 17.198

Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

❖ Since the sign of F(Wp) changes from negative at

Wp = 7 to positive at Wp = 8, we can solve for the
root of F(Wp) by using Newton-Raphson iteration
method.

❖ This method uses the approximation:

F (W p ) = 0  F (W po ) + (W p - W po )F' (W po ) = 0

where Wpo is an approximation to the required root

Wp.
Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS
Thus an iteration formula can be constructed as
follows:
F (W po ) + (W p - W po )F' (W po ) = 0

- F (W po )
W p - W po =
F' (W po )

- F (W po )
δ=
F' (W po )
F (W p n )
W pn + 1 = W pn −
F' (W p n )
 Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS
For 1st iteration, n = 1, Wp = 7 m

F(Wp ) F(7 )
Wp2 = Wp - =7-
F' (Wp ) F' (7 )

F ( W p ) = 1 .4 5 W 2 .4 2
p - 36 - 12W p - W p

F' (Wp ) = 3.48 Wp - 2Wp - 12

1 .4

F (7 ) = (1.45 )(106.717 ) - 49 - 84 - 36 = -14.260

Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS
For 1st iteration, n = 1, Wp = 7 m

F ' ( 7 ) = ( 3 .4 8 )(1 5 . 2 4 5 ) - 1 4 - 1 2 = 2 7 .0 5 3

W p2 =7-
( - 14.260 )
= 7 + 0.527 = 7.527
27.053
 Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS
For 2nd iteration, n = 2, Wp = 7.527 m

F (W p 2 ) F (7.527 )
= W p2 - = 7.527 -
F' (W p 2 )
Wp3
F' (7.527 )

F ( 7 .5 2 7 ) = (1 .4 5 ) (1 2 7 . 0 2 6 ) - 5 6 0 6 5 6 - 9 0 .3 2 4 - 3 6 = 1 .2 0 8

F ' ( 7 .5 2 7 ) = ( 3 .4 8 ) (1 6 .8 7 6 ) - 1 5 .0 5 4 - 1 2 = 3 1 .6 7 5
1.208
W p3 = 7.527 - = 7.527 - 0.038 = 7.489
31.675
Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

For 3rd iteration, n = 32, Wp = 7.489 m

F (W p 3 ) F (7.489 )
= W p3 - = 7.489 -
F' (W p 3 )
W p4
F' (7.489 )

F ( 7 .4 8 9 ) = (1 .4 5 ) (1 2 5 .4 9 2 ) - 5 6 .0 8 5 - 8 9 .8 6 8 - 3 6 = - 0 .0 8 1

F ' ( 7 .4 8 9 ) = ( 3 .4 8 ) (1 6 .7 5 7 ) - 1 4 .9 7 8 - 1 2 = 6 1 .3 3 6

W p4 = 7 . 489 −
( − 0 . 081 )
= 7.489 - 0.002 = 7.491
31.336
Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS
❖ We note that |Wp4 – Wp3| = |3| = 0.002 is an
acceptable error.
❖ Therefore the root of the F (Wp) can be
approximated to Wp4 = 7.491  7.5 m.
❖ Option (iii): Reducing pillar height, Hp, to increase
pillar strength, Sp, to achieve FOS = 1.5

Sp Sp
FO S = = = 1.5
p 18.75
= S p = (1 .5 ) (1 8 .7 5 ) = 2 8 .1 3 M P a
 Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS
Now, the reduced pillar height can be found as:

S p = 15H -0.6
p W 0.4
p = 28.13 MPa
(15) (W ) (15) (4 )
0.4 0.4
= = = 0.93 m
0.6 p
Hp
28.13 28.13
10

H p = (0.93) = (0.93) 6 1.67

= 0.89 m
Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS
1. Summary of Options:
Option (i): Wo = 2.35 m; Wp = 4 m; Hp = 4 m

Option (ii): Wo = 6 m; Wp = 7.49 m; Hp = 4 m

Option (iii): Wo = 6 m; Wp = 4 m; Hp = 0.99 m

❖Option (iii) is unacceptable since it implies leaving ore

in the roof or floor over the entire mining area.

❖To select between (i) & (ii), we must find which of

them has maximum area extraction ratio (as criteria).
 Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS
For option (i):

 Wo   2.35 
AER =  =  = 0.37
W +W   2 .35 + 4 
 o p 

For option (ii):

 Wo   6 
AER =  =  = 0.44
W +W   6 + 7.49 
 o p 
Illustrative Example on Layout Design of RPMS

The better option is option (ii), i.e., increasing the

pillar width from 4 m to 7.49 m.

(b) (ii) The design of the room & pillar mining system
should show the following:
❖dimensions of the pillar & rooms.
❖method, layout & technique.
❖dip & strike sections plus the plan.
❖ventilation.
 RPMS at Gold Fields Ghana Limited,
Tarkwa, (GFL)
❖The deposits being mined with underground mining
technology by Gold Fields Ghana Limited are found in
the Tarkwaian rock formation.
❖Gold mineralization occurs in the conglomerates of the
Banket series.
❖Banket auriferous reefs are generally low in grade,
averaging 6 g/t. The conglomerates & the quartzitic
country rocks are hard, strong & competent, the
compressive strength being about 500 MPa.
❖In the Apinto area of the mine where RPMS is
employed, the reef dips gently at 0-30o with an
average of 15o.
❖Thickness of reef in area is about 2 m.
 RPMS at Gold Fields Ghana Limited,
Tarkwa, (GFL)
❖Fig. 4.7 shows the layout of the secondary
development of a mining block for the RPMS.
❖Reef drive (1) are developed in the ore at about 76 m
apart & raises (2) also at 76 m are developed to
intersect the drives.
❖Three of such raises define the width of a mining
block. From footwall drives (10), ore passes (4) are
developed into developed into the raises.
❖In this way, the ventilation is assured.
❖Fig. 4.8 gives a complete design of the RPMS at GFL.
❖Method of mining block consists of mining out the 2
m thick orebody, leaving pillars to support to support
the rooms resulting from mining.
Fig. 4.7 Development of Room & Pillar Mining System
at Tarkwa Gold Fields Ltd.
Fig. 4.8 Room & Pillar Mining System at Gold Fields (Gh) Ltd.
 RPMS at Gold Fields Ghana Limited,
Tarkwa, (GFL)

❖Rooms measure 15 m & the pillars measure 6 m

by 6 m.
❖Technique of mining consists of drilling with
jumbo drills & blasting with dynamite &
detonators.
❖Broken ore is loaded & hauled from the stopes
using LHDs which off load into the orepasses from
where the ore is subsequently loaded into trucks
which transport the ore into bins.
 A Computer Model for Layout Design of
RPMS
A standard interactive Fortran programme developed for the
analysis, using the concepts discussed above, requires the
following input data:
❖Height of sample
❖Diameter of sample
❖Uniaxial compressive strength
❖Density of sample
❖Depth of overburden cover
❖Initial room width
❖Maximum required pillar strength.
❖Pillar strength FOS
❖Angle of friction
❖Cohesion
❖Bearing capacity
 A Computer Model for Layout Design of
RPMS
The programme, a simplified flowchart of which is
shown in Fig. 4.9, has two main parts.
❖The first section attempts to calculate pillar
dimensions on the basis of the required pillars
strength FOS.
❖For this an iterative solution is necessary & the
Newton-Raphson method is employed.
❖On the basis of pillar dimensions, now available, the
bearing capacity FOS is calculated & compared with
the required bearing capacity FOS.
❖If the outcome is satisfactory, the extraction ratio is
calculated & the result is printed out.
 Fig. 4.9 A Simplified
Flowchart of the Room
and Pillar Layout
Design Model PILDESN
 A Computer Model for Layout Design of
RPMS

❖If the result is unsatisfactory, the second part of

the programme calculates pillar dimensions on the
basis of the required bearing capacity FOS, again
employing the Newton-Raphson iterative method.

❖The resulting pillar dimensions are used as basis

for calculating the pillar strength FOS.

❖If the outcome is satisfactory, the extraction ratio is

computed.
 Sublevel Open Stoping Mining Systems

❖In Sublevel Open Stoping mining systems, ore is

produced from a stope block in which extensive
development has been undertaken and stoping
activity in progress. Figures. 4.14 and 4.15a & 4.15b
shows a typical Longitudinal Open Stope, a section
through the stope and sequence respectively. Also, a
typical Transverse Open Stope, a section through
the stope and sequence respectively are shown in
Figures. 4.16 and 4.17a & 4.17b.
❖Stope pre-production development consists of an
extraction level, access raises & drives, drill drives,
slot raises & stope return airway.
Fig. 4.14 Diagramatic Representation of a Longitudinal
Open Stope when it is partially worked out
 Slot Raises
Reef Boundary
Reef Drive

60m

Footwall drive
5m pillar will be wrecked unless
Cablebolts
apparent ground deterioration 10m 50m stope
37L

Slot raise Current Stope

slot
slot
Mined pillar with
- blast holes
Hydraulic

cemented fill
Blastholes fill

blated ore

38L

Section Vertical Projection

Fig. 4.15a Section through a Typical Longitudinal Open

Stope when it is partially worked out

Fig. 4.15b Sequence of Stopes of a Typical Longitudinal Open Stoping Method

Fig. 4.16 Diagramatic Representation of a Transverse
Open Stope when it is partially worked out
 Fig. 4.17a Section through a Typical Transverse Open Stope
when it is partially worked out

L3 16 14 17
L2 10 7 18 6 8 12
L1 4 13 2 9 1 11 3 15 5
P1 S2 P3 S4 P5 S6 P7 S8 P9
Fig. 4.17b Sequence of Stopes of a Typical Transverse Open Stoping Method
 Sublevel Open Stoping Mining Systems

❖Ore is fragmented in the stope using ring-drilled or

long parallel blast holes, exploiting the free face
provided by the stope slot.
❖Broken ore rills down to the draw point for
extraction. Stope faces & side walls remain
unsupported during ore extraction while local &
near–field support for the country rock is developed
as pillars.
 Sublevel Open Stoping Mining Systems

Areas of Application
 Sublevel stoping mining systems are applied in
massive or steeply dipping orebodies.
 For an inclined orebody, resulting in inclined stope
walls, the inclination of the stope footwall must
exceed the angle of repose of the broken rock by
some suitable margin.
 This is required to promote free flow of fragmented
rock to the extraction horizon.
 Sublevel Stoping Mining Systems
❖Since open stoping requires unsupported, free-standing
stope boundary faces, the strength of orebody & country
rock must be sufficient to provide stable walls, faces &
crown for the excavation.
❖The orebody boundaries must be fairly regular, since
selective mining is precluded by the requirement for
regular stope outlines, which are associated with the use
of long blast holes.
❖Over drilling of blast holes, due to drilling inaccuracy,
leads to dilution.
❖Dilution from this source is, relatively, a more significant
problem in narrow orebodies.
❖The minimum orebody width for open stoping is about 6
m.
 Sublevel Stoping Mining Systems
❖Pillar recovery is common practice in open stoping.
❖Backfill material of various qualities may be placed in
the primary stope voids, & pillar mining performed by
exploiting the local ground control potential of the
adjacent fill.
❖Alternatively, pillars may be blasted into adjacent
stope voids, with the possibility of extensive collapse
of the local country rock.
❖Successful ore recovery would then require draw of
fragmented ore beneath less mobile, barren country
rock.
 Sublevel Open Stope Design
STABILITY GRAPH METHOD

Generally, the geotechnical parameters gathered from

scanline mapping includes:
❖Rock Quality Designation (RQD), (Deere et al., 1967)
❖Joint Sets (Jn) and
❖Joint Conditions- Joint Roughness (Jr) and Alteration
(Ja).
These parameters are used to compute the Modified
Rock Quality Index (Q’).
 Sublevel Open Stope Design
The Modified Rock Quality Index (Q’) in combination
with the Stress Factor (A), Critical Joint Orientation
with respect to the excavation surface (B) and Gravity
Adjustment Factor (Mode of Failure of the rock) (C)
are used to establish the Modified Stability Number, N’,
(Potvin) of the prevailing ground conditions within
which mining will take place. Uniaxial Compressive
Strength of the rocks (UCS) and Joint spacing are also
important geotechnical parameters used to determine
rock strength and quality.
 Sublevel Open Stope Design
Computation:
Modified Stability Number
= Q’ x A x B x C

Q’ is Rock Quality Index includes Joint Spacing & and

Roughness
= RQD/Jn X Jr * Ja

❖RQD = Rock Quality Designation (Deere et al., 1967)

❖Jn, Jr, Ja = Joint set Number, Joint Roughness and
Joint Alteration (Barton et al., 1974)
❖A depends on Stress and Rock Strength
❖B Joint orientation w.r.t. the exposed span
❖C Depends on the Dip of the exposed Span & Sliding
joints
 Sublevel Open Stope Design

Computation:

The Hydraulic Radius, HR, (or Shape factor) gives

the shape and size of an underground excavation. It
is the ratio of the Area and the Perimeter of the
exposed excavation surface. The Hydraulic Radii of
both the crown and the hangingwall of the stope are
calculated.
 Sublevel Open Stope Design
Hydraulic Radius
Stope stability is assessed by considering each face
independently. The wall or back dimensions are
consolidated into a single parameter called hydraulic
radius, HR, which is calculated as the face area divided by
the face perimeter. This parameter accounts for both size
and shape of the face allowing rectangular stopes to be
plotted along with square stopes.
For example:
O/B Width =8m Stope Strike Length = 50m

HR for Hangingwall =
Stope Height = 35m
35 * 50 / 2*(50+35) = 10.2 m

HR for Crown =
8 * 50 / 2*(50+8) = 3.4 m
 Sublevel Open Stope Design

Modified Stability Number

CURRENT
The Modified Stability Number (N’) of the prevailing
ground condition and the Hydraulic Radii (HR) of
stope wall surfaces are computed to establish stope
spans- Stable stopes (exhibit little or no ground
deterioration), Unstable stope (Transitional zone)
(exhibit limited wall failure and/or block fallout say
less than 30% of the face area, and Caved stopes
(experience unacceptable failure). See Figure 4.18
 Sublevel Open Stope Design

The classification of the rockmass and of the

excavation problem itself is accomplished in the
Modified Stability Graph Method through the use of
the Modified Stability Number, N’, as specified by
Potvin (1988), Potvin and Milne (1992) and Bawden
(1993).
Sublevel Open Stope Design

Fig. 4.18 Stability Graph

 MN 471: PART II
UNDERGROUND MINE PLANNING AND
DESIGN

(CHAPTER 5)

ARTIFICIALLY SUPPORTED MINING

SYSTEMS

COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE

 Objectives & Expected Outcomes
The objectives of this lecture are:
❖To explain the basis of artificially supported mining
systems and discuss their advantages and
disadvantages.
❖To present cut and fill mining systems as a typical
example of artificially supported mining systems.
❖To explain the principles of designing cut and fill
mining systems.
❖To present the design of a typical shrinkage mining
system.
 Objectives & Expected Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, the student is expected to:

❖Understand the philosophy and techniques of

artificially supported mining systems.

❖Be able to discern the conditions under which they

are applicable.

❖Be able to design cut and fill mining systems.

❖Be able to design shrinkage mining systems.

 Nature of Artificially Supported Mining
Systems
❖Artificially supported mining systems aim at
preventing the collapse of rocks surrounding a
stope by filling the stope with some artificial
material to provide the support.
❖Support material may be broken waste rock
obtainable from other parts of the mine during
development, timber, steel supports, rock bolts,
concrete, etc.
❖Another support material that is becoming widely
used is finely ground tailings from the processing
plant which can be piped hydraulically as a slurry
into the stope; compaction and sometimes addition
of cement increases the strength of this material.
 Areas of Application
❖Artificially supported mining systems are applicable
where the country rock is of weak to medium
strength and therefore cannot provide natural
support for the stope.

❖Ore material is moderately strong to strong.

❖Grade of the ore must be fairly high and the dip of

the deposit is moderate to fairly steep (> 45o).

❖Size of the deposit ranges from narrow to moderate

width [6 ft (2 m) to 100 ft 31 m]
 Main Advantages
Main advantages include:
Where waste filling is employed to provide the
support, waste disposal problems are solved to a
large extent.
There is a high percentage of ore extraction.
 Main Disadvantages
Main disadvantages include:

❖They can be costly and therefore justifiably applicable

only when the ore is of high grade.

❖The stoping cycle is made longer and complex by the

operations to provide the support.

❖They are associated with low productivity.

 Cut-and-Fill Mining System (CFMS)

Mining Method and Characteristics

❖CFMS was originally developed to mine steeply
dipping narrow veins but it is now also applied, in
modified form, to massive deposits.

❖Method of mining involves mining (cutting) the ore in

a series of horizontal or inclined slices normally
upward (overhead mining).
 Cut-and-Fill Mining System (CFMS)

❖When a slice has been completely mined out, part

of the resulting stope is filled with the artificial
material to provide the support for the sidewalls of
the stope and to serve as a floor from which the
next slice can be mined.

❖As mining progresses upwards, manways for

access and ore passes must be maintained within
the fill with timber cribs, steel or concrete.
 Stope Preparation
❖ A mining block is developed with cross-cuts from
the main level drive to intersect the orebody.
❖ Raises are then developed from the lower level
cross-cuts to hole in the cross-cuts on the upper
level, mostly within the orebody.
❖ Fig. 5.1 shows a design of block development
openings for machanised Cut and Fill Mining
System (CFMS) of a mine.
❖ The diagram shows the various developing and
mining steps in a typical mechanized CFMS.
Fig. 5.1 Block development of Cut & Fill Mining System at
AGC (Obuasi Mine)
 Stope Preparation
❖ Fig. 5.2 shows a typical layout design for the
inclined CFMS at Barnex Prestea Ltd at Prestea.
❖ Here there is an additional stope drive and two
short raises (box holes). The box holes define the
length of the mining block.
❖ Owing to access problems and limited space,
equipment is usually small.
❖ Drilling is done using hand-held machines or
simple rigs and loading of broken ore into passes
is achieved with slushers or light rubber-typed
loaders.
Fig. 5.2 Cut & Fill Mining System at Barnex
Prestea Ltd.
 Stope Preparation
❖ Filling material is obtained from the upper main
level.

❖ On the lower level, ore is loaded directly into

trucks for haulage to the bins. In inclined CFMS,
loading of broken ore is greatly facilitated by
gravity.
 Advantages

CFMS are the most commonly used artificially

supported mining systems because they are easily
mechanized. The other main advantages are:

❖ Their ability to follow irregularities of the orebody.

❖ Good grade control.
❖ Good ground control.
 Disadvantages

❖ High mining cost.

❖ Labour intensive when not mechanised.

❖ Low productivity, usually less than

10 t/employee-shift in unmechanized stopes.
 Design Considerations

❖ The design of artificially supported mining systems

is based on the geomechanics of the rocks
surrounding the stope.
❖ Of particular interest is the evolution of stresses in
the roof and sidewalls of the stope.
❖ The stress distribution can be readily determined
around a series of excavations with the geometry
illustrated in Fig. 5.3, using a plane strain analysis.
❖ The stope is taken to have a crown which is semi-
circular in cross section.
Fig. 5.3 Crown and Side Wall Stress around Cut & Fill Stope
 Design Considerations

Points of particular value in indicating the stope

boundary state of stress are point A, in the center
of the stope side wall, and point B, in the crown,
since they represent extreme values of the
boundary stress.
 Design Considerations
Engineering estimates of the boundary stress
concentration factors for the model shape in Fig. 5.3a
can be obtained from the equations:
A
= 1- K + 2q (5.1)
P
B 2H
K = -1 + K (5.2)
P ρB
where q = W/H, K is the ratio of horizontal and vertical stress,
A and B are boundary stresses at points A and B respectively
and the radius of curvature at B, B, is given as B = W/2.
 Design Considerations

❖ Equation 5.1 evaluates the stope sidewall

stresses, from the shape of the inscribed
ellipse while
❖ Equation 5.2 evaluates the stope crown
stress by considering that some local
curvature develops in the stop crown.
❖ This represents a lower bound estimate of crown
stresses. The inscribed ellipse would predict a
considerably higher state of stress in the stope
crown and would overestimate the real value.
 Design Considerations

❖ The results of calculating crown and sidewall

stresses, for a range of stope height/width ratios,
are given in Figs. 5.3a & 5.3b.

❖ Since the value of K existing naturally in a rock

mass, particularly for environments with
subvertical mineral veins, is frequently greater
than unity, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
 Design Considerations

❖First, low states of stress, which are frequently

tensile, are generated in the sidewalls of the stope.
❖Since a jointed or fractured rock mass will de-
stress and generally disintegrate in a notionally
tensile field, it is clear from the calculated sidewall
stresses why narrow orebodies are frequently
candidates for cut and fill mining systems.
 Design Considerations

❖The obvious function of emplaced fill is to prevent

spatially progressive disintegration, at low local
stresses, of the stope sidewall rock.

❖The main conclusion from Fig. 5.3 concerns the

geomechanical environment in which active cut and
fill mining occurs, i.e., around the stope crown.

❖At the usual stope height/width ratios at which

mining proceeds, crown stress concentration factors
exceeding 10 are to be expected.
 Design Considerations
The implication of this can be appreciated from the
following example.
❖Suppose mining is proceeding in a medium where
the vertical and horizontal field stresses are 14 MPa
and 21 MPa, respectively (this might be about 500
m below ground surface).

❖From Fig. 5.3c, at a stope height/width ratio of 10,

the stope crown stress would be 140 MPa.

❖Very few jointed rock mass could be expected to

have an in situ uniaxial compressive strength, Co, of
this magnitude and therefore local fracturing is likely
to occur in the stope crown.
 Design Considerations
❖It is also clear that, since the crown stress
concentration factor increases with H/W ratio, the
geomechanical state of active mining area must
deteriorate as stoping proceeds upwards.
❖The design principle then is to estimate the H/W ratio
that would at least not allow the stope crown stress to
be more than the compressive strength of the crown
rock.
❖For proper safety, a factor of safety of about 1.5
should be allowed.
❖Where this is not the case, there is the need to
provide support, in the form of reinforcement in the
crown of the stope.
 Design Considerations
❖When the development of induced fractures is
observed as incident of local instability in the stope
crown, rock bolting may be sufficient to secure loose
or potentially unstable rock.
❖The generation of penetrative fractures across and at
depth in the stope crown, & their interaction with the
rock structure, may create conditions under which
rock bolting cannot assure crown stability.
❖In this case other crown reinforcement in the form of
solid bars or clusters of prestressing tendons may be
required.
❖Stoping then advances into a reinforced medium.
 Shrinkage Mining Systems (SMS)

❖The layout of development openings and the

method of mining in SMS are similar to those of
cut and fill mining systems.
❖However, it is common to establish a series of
inter-connecting cone-shaped draw points from
the crosscuts, similar to those used in sublevel
stoping, and to begin mining at the top of those
draw points.
 Shrinkage Mining Systems (SMS)

❖Fig. 5.4 is a typical SMS practiced at Barnex

Prestea Ltd. in Ghana.
❖Fig. 5.4a shows the layout, stope preparation,
mining and withdrawal of ore from a shrinkage
stope.
❖Fig. 5.4b shows another view of a shrinkage stope
while being mined.
Fig. 5.4 Shrinkage Mining System at Barnex Prestea Ltd.
 Fig. 5.4a Layout,
Opening and
Withdrawal of Ore in a
Shrinkage Stope
Fig. 5.4b Another View of a Shrinkage Stope
during Production
 Shrinkage Mining Systems (SMS)
Areas of Application
❖Shrinkage stoping is applied in regularly shaped
tabular orebodies that dip more than 50o, and to
wide orebodies which can be mined by tranverse
shrinkage stopes separated by pillars.

❖Ore must be stronger than that required for sublevel

stoping because the workers generally work under an
unsupported back or roof extending the full width of
the stope.
 Shrinkage Mining Systems (SMS)
❖To minimize dilution of the ore when the ore is
drawn empty, the walls must be sufficiently strong
not to slough excessively, but may be weaker than
that for sublevel stoping.
❖Because of the long time that broken ore may
remain in a stope, the ore must not be of a type
that is subject to spontaneous combustion or tend
to oxidize when exposed to air and moisture
because this will cause problems at the treatment
plant.
❖As well, the ore must not cake or be compacted
such that withdrawal will be a problem.
 Shrinkage Mining Systems (SMS)
❖The principal difference between SMS and cut and
fill mining systems is that in SMS, the broken ore is
left in the stope to support the sidewalls and to
form a working platform as the stope progresses
upwards.

❖Manways must still be maintained for access and

ventilation.

❖When ore is blasted, there is an apparent swell in

volume owing to the presence of voids in broken
material.
 Shrinkage Mining Systems (SMS)
❖This means that after blasting, some broken ore
(30 - 35%) must be drawn off to maintain
adequate working space between the roof of the
stope and the working floor.

❖When the stope reaches the upper level, the

remaining broken ore is drawn.
 Shrinkage Mining Systems (SMS)
❖Ostensibly, SMS offer all the benefits of cut and fill
with the added advantage that the cost and
inconvenience of fill placement are avoided.

Despite this, the use of SMS is decreasing because of

four important disadvantages:
❖Leaving broken ore in the stope means tying up
revenue until stoping is complete.

❖It is often difficult to draw ore off evenly to provide

a good working floor, and the broken ore can
bridge, or “hang-up” delaying operations and
creating a safety hazard.
 Shrinkage Mining Systems (SMS)
❖In weak-walled deposits significant dilution of ore
may occur by waste rock slabbing off from the
sidewalls.

❖When all the ore has been drawn off a large void is
left which may cause major subsidence or
adversely affect the stability of adjacent stopes.

❖The void may be, and often is, filled with waste to
avoid these problems but this adds to the cost of
the method.
 Shrinkage Mining Systems (SMS)
Peculiar constraints in applicability of SMS:
❖ Broken ore must be completely inert, with no
tendency for oxidation, hydrolysis, dissolution or
development of cementitious material.
❖ It must also be strong & resistant to crushing &
degradation during draw.
❖ This is to ensure that once the ore is blasted, it will
remain mobile & amenable to free granular flow
during its residence time in the stope.
❖ Chemical & physical degradation of ore,
recementing & binding of ore are all promoted by
mine casual water (introduced by drilling for
example), which may percolate through the broken
ore mass.
 MN 471: PART II
UNDERGROUND MINE PLANNING AND
DESIGN

(CHAPTER 6)

VAING MINING SYSTEMS

COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE

 Objectives & Expected Outcomes

The objectives of this lecture are:

❖To explain the basis of caving mining systems and

discuss their advantages and disadvantages;
❖To present sublevel mining systems as a typical
example of caving mining systems.
❖To explain the principles of designing sublevel
caving system;
❖To discuss the design of a typical block caving
mining system.
 Objectives & Expected Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the student is expected to:

❖Understand the philosophy and techniques of caving

mining systems;

❖Be able to design sublevel caving mining systems;

❖Be able to understand the design of block caving

mining systems.
 Nature of Caving Mining Systems
❖Orebody and surrounding rock are induced to cave and
fall into excavated areas.
❖Condition of application: weak to medium strong
orebody and country rock that are susceptible to caving.
❖Caving action may be due to gravity alone or may be
induced by mining technique.
Advantages:
▪ They can be mechanized and therefore have high
productivity;
▪ Miners work in safe conditions.

❖Disadvantages:
▪ They do disrupt the overlying strata, causing
ground subsidence;
▪ They can be associated with high dilution.
 Sublevel Caving Mining Systems (SCMS)

❖Aims at inducing caving of country rock by stoping

the orebody from sublevels (top to bottom).
❖Thus, country rock must be of weak to medium
strength.
❖For easy flow of the broken ore and caved material,
the orebody must be steeply dipping or massive.
❖Figures 6.1a and 6.1b show an isometric view of a
typical SCMS, and layout of development and
blasthole design respectively.
❖Figure 6.1c shows a schematic diagram of SCMS
 Sublevel Caving Mining Systems (SCMS)

Figs. 6.1a & 6.1b An Isometric View of a Typical Sublevel

Caving System, Layout of Development and Blastholes
 Sublevel Caving Mining Systems (SCMS)

Fig. 6.1c A Schematic Diagram of a Typical Sublevel Caving System

 Sublevel Caving Mining Systems (SCMS)

❖A mining block is developed with a raise (ore pass)

that connects a lower and an upper main levels
outside the orebody, and a series of production
sublevels in the orebody which serve for both drilling
and ore tramming to the ore pass. Figure 6.2 shows
SLCM at Obuasi Mine.

❖Sublevels may be transverse or longitudinal in

relation to the general strike of the orebody.
 Mining Sequence

❖Stoping of a sublevel starts with development of a

slot to provide free space for blasting.

❖Drill holes with fan-shaped geometry are then

drilled using a rig.

❖The broken ore is trammed with LHDs into the

ore pass.
 Advantages
❖Men work in relatively safe conditions under
cover;

❖High production rates can be achieved at high

productivity, using mechanized equipment.
 Disadvantages

❖Ventilation of the large number of dead-end

headings is difficult;

❖If caving does not quickly follow the removal of

broken ore, unsafe conditions can ensue;

❖The development efficiency and hence the cost

can be very high;

❖Dilution can be high so the ore must be of

sufficient grade to accept some dilution (up to
20%).
 Gravity Flow of Broken Ore

❖The design of the layout is greatly influenced by

the geomechanics involving the gravity flow of
blasted ore and caved waste.

❖The concept of flow ellipsoid (Fig. 6.3a):

▪ Broken ore is considered to be contained in
a bin or bunker;
▪ when the bottom outlet is opened, the
material will begin to flow out by gravity.
 Gravity Flow of Broken Ore
❖After a given time, all discharged material will have
originated from within an approximately ellipsoidal
zone known as the ellipsoid of motion.
❖Material between the ellipsoid of motion and a
corresponding limit ellipsoid will have loosened and
displaced, but will have reached the discharge point.
❖The material outside the limit ellipsoid will remain
stationary.
❖As draw proceeds, an originally horizontal line drawn
through the broken material in the bunker will deflect
downwards in the form of an inverted cone.
❖The shape of this draw cone indicates how the
largest displacements occur in a central flow channel.
Gravity Flow of Broken Ore
❖The shape of a given ellipsoid of motion can be
described by its eccentricity, , which is calculated as:

( )
1
1 2
ε= a n − b 2n 2 (6.1)
an

❖Where an and bn are the major and minor semi-axes

of the ellipsoid.
▪ In practice, , varies between 0.9 and 0.98

❖If En is the volume of material discharged from an

ellipsoid of motion of known height hn, then the
corresponding value of the minor semi-axis of the
ellipsoid can be calculated as:
 1
 En  2
b n =   6.2
 2.094h n 
Or as:

( )
1
hn 6.3
bn = 1 − ε2 2
2

❖For a given ellipsoid of motion of volume En there

will be a corresponding limit ellipsoid of volume Eg,
beyond which the material remains stationary.

❖The material contained between the boundaries of

the two ellipsoids will loosen and displace,
❖but will not report to the discharge point. This
loosening is described by a factor calculated as:

Eg
β= (6.4)
Eg − En

❖The value  varies between 1.066 and 1.100. For

most broken ores,  tends towards the lower end
of this range which gives:

E g  15E n (6.5)
❖Assuming that the limit ellipsoid has the same
eccentricity as the ellipsoid of motion, Equations
(6.2), (6.3) and (6.5) can be used to calculate its
height as:
h g = 2.5h n (6.6)

❖As material is progressively discharged, the size of

the ellipsoid of motion, and of the corresponding
limit ellipsoid, continues to grow.
❖A dimension required in the design of sublevel
caving layout is the radius of the limit ellipsoid, r, at
the height hn (see Fig. 6.3a). This is calculated as:
  (
r = h n (h g - h n ) 1 − ε )
1
2 2 (6.7)

 The Reality: In SCMS, the boundary conditions are

often such that the ellipsoid of motion and the
corresponding limit ellipsoid are not fully
developed.

 Fig. 6.4 shows a cross section of draw patterns

observed in model studies of longitudinal sublevel
caving for Granduc Mine Canada by Sarin (1981).
Fig. 6.4 Influence of Orebody Width and Dip on the Draw
Patterns observed in Model Studies of Longitudinal
Sublevel Caving
❖ In this case, the narrowness and dip of the
orebody inhibit the development of fully
ellipsoidal motion.
❖ In a vertical section through the longitudinal axis
of a production level in the general case, the
ellipsoid of motion is truncated by the wall of the
unblasted ore (see Fig. 6.5).
❖ In addition, the centre line of the ellipsoid is
deviated away from the wall by an angle, , which
varies with the ring gradient, , and with angle of
friction developed between the broken and
unbroken ore.
❖ For an approximately vertical wall,  is typically
about 5o.
❖ The flow pattern in the wall of the slice is shown
in Fig. 6.6. If it is assumed that the flow may be
described by Equations (6.1) to (6.7) and that hn 
2S, where S is the slice height, then the semi-
width of flow, r, can be found from Equation (6.7)
as:

 
r = S 6(1 - ε 2 )
1
2 6.8

Where  is the unknown eccentricity, dependent on

the height of flow and the particle size.
❖Fig. 6.7 is a chart for making a preliminary estimate
of the eccentricity for broken ore.
❖ Using this as a starting point, the semi-width of
flow, r, and other geometric parameters, may be
estimated.

❖ A more exact determination of the flow

parameters for a particular case can only be
obtained from large-scale tests, when mining has
started.
Fig. 6.7 Eccentricity as a Function of the Height of the
Ellipsoid of Flow (after Janelid and Kvapil, 1966)
 Design of Sublevel Caving Layout
Parameters that must be determined in the design of
sublevel caving layout are described by the following
symbols and nomenclature Janelid and Kvapil (1966).
 Design of Sublevel Caving Layout
❖ NB: With staggered arrangement (Fig. 6.8),
hn = 2S
❖ To reduce ore loss, it is necessary that:
V  bn =
hn
2
(
1- ε 2 )
or
V  S(1 - 2) 6.9

❖ Value of V greatly in excess of those given by the

right-hand side of Equation (6.9) will lead to high
dilution.
❖ If V is fixed by operational considerations, Equation
(6.9) can be used to establish the slice height, S.
 Design of Sublevel Caving Layout

❖ To minimize dilution, the width of the slice,

A, should be less than or at most equal to
the width of flow, i.e:

A  2r 6.10

❖ Where r may be estimated from Equation

(6.8), so that:

A  4.9S (1 - ε )
1
2 2
6.11
 Illustrative Example
❖ Question: A 20 m thick auriferous orebody
dipping steeply at angle of 70o is to be exploited
by underground mining technology using a SCMS
with a trial inter-sublevel distance of 10 m.

❖ a. Using Janelid and Kvapil chart for estimating the

eccentricity of the ellipsoid of flow (Fig. 6.7), and
assuming that the loosening factor for the broken ore
 = 1.08, calculate possible values of the major and
minor semi-axes and volumes of the flow and limit
ellipsoids?
❖ b. What values of ring burden and slice width are
required to minimize dilution and ore loss during
stoping operation?
 Illustrative Example
❖ c. Present in three standard views a possible design of
a mining block for such SCMS.
❖ d. Work out the number of men required for mining in
a block of the mining system you have designed.
❖ e. If the efficiency of the mining system is assumed to
be 50 t/employee-shift, estimate the number of blocks
to be developed prior to mining to ensure continuous
production rate of 5000 t per day of 2 shifts.
 Solution
•Trial height of ellipsoid of flow, hn = 10 m
From Fig. 6.7, corresponding value of the eccentricity,
ε = 0.95
( ) ( )
1 1
hn 2 10
The semi-minor axis, bn = 1− ε 2 = 1 − 0.95 2 2
2 2
= 1.56 m
The semi-major axis, an, can be found from:

( )
1
1 2 2 2
ε= a n - bn
an
1
 b2  2 bn
an =  n  = =
1.56
= 5.0 m
 1- ε 2 
( )
1 1
1 − ε 2 2 (1 - 0.95 )2
 
 Solution
The volume of ellipsoid of flow, En, can be found from:

1
 En 2
bn =  

 2.094h n
1
 En = bn (2.094hn ) = (1.56 )2 (2.094 )(10) = 50.96 m
2 3

The volume of limit ellipsoid, Eg, can be found from:

Eg
β=
E g - En
βEn 1.08 (50.96 ) 3
 Eg = = = 687.96 m
β -1 1.08 - 1.00
 Solution
b) The ring burden, V, to minimize dilution and loss is given by:

V  bn = 1.56

V = 2 m is a pratical value

The slice width to minimize dilution and ore loss is given by:
A  2r
Where r is the radius of the limit ellipsoid at hn:

( ) ( )
1  hn  2 2
1
2 2 =   6 1 - ε
r = s 6 1- ε  2 

 ( )
1
 10  2 2 = 3.82 m
=  6 1 - 0.95
 2 

 A  2(3.82)  7.64 m
A = 7.6 m is a practical value.
 Solution
Hence A  2(3.82)
A 7.64 m
A = 7.6 m is thus a practical value.

C. The design of the layout of sublevels may be

transverse or longitudinal. In this particular case,
the longitudinal is more appropriate since the
orebody is not too wide.
A typical design of the layout is shown in Fig. 6.2
which is in fact the case at the Obuasi Mine of AGC
in Ghana. The design shows the dip direction, strike
section and plan pertaining to the orebody:
 Solution

The design also shows:

• The method of the mining system;
• The layout of the mining system;
• The technique of the mining system.

The design also shows:

• Dimension.
• Ventilation.
 Solution

(c)Number of men required to work in a block per shift must

be estimated according to the labour requirements of the
system. With reference to Fig. 6.2, for example, the number
of men required may be as follows:

1 LHD operator + 1 helper

1 Sublevel ring driver + 1 helper
1 jumbo driller for development + 1 helper
1 Blast man + 1 helper
1 Supervisor + 1 ‘chop boy’

Total number of men required = 10 men

 Solution
•This means in a block, the tonnage of ore
produced, Tb, is:
Tb = (50 t/man − shift )(10 men ) = 500 t/shift

• Tonnage produced per day per block

= (500 t/sh )(2 sh/day ) = 1000 t/day
• The number of blocks that should be
worked in a day, Nb, is:
Nb =
(5 000 t/day) =5
(1 000 t/day)
 Block Caving Mining System (BCMS)

❖Involves undercutting block of ore to induce natural

caving of the ore and country rock.
❖Drawing of the caved ore at the bottom of ore
column causes the caving action to continue
upward until all of the ore above the undercut level
is broken into sizes suitable for handling.
❖Figs. 6.11a and b show the design of a typical
BCMS.
Block Caving Mining System (BCMS)
Block Caving Mining System (BCMS)
 Block Caving Mining System (BCMS)
❖In the layout of the development openings, main
haulage ways from the shaft are interconnected by
cross-cuts to ensure good ventilation and to provide
adequate access to orebody and thus enhance
loading operations.

❖One or more sublevels are required for grizzly or

slusher operations.

❖To provide ore-drawing facilities, chutes,

drawpoints, or trenches are prepared in the orebody
to serve as orepasses,
 Block Caving Mining System (BCMS)

❖ and then driven to the slusher or grizzly sublevels

above, if any, and to the undercut sublevel.

❖The most critical development operation is the

undercutting, which is carried out with the intention
of initiating caving.
 TECHNIQUES OF BCMS

❖Drilling (undercut): This is carried out using

pneumatic or hydraulic drill rigs which may be
percussive or rotary-percussive, the hole diameter
being 50 - 80 mm;

❖Blasting (undercut): This is carried out with ANFO,

or slurries and bulk charging by pneumatic loader
or pumps. Firing may be electric or detonating
force;

❖Secondary blasting (on sublevels or in haulage

drive): This may be carried out by dynamite bomb
or drill and blast;
 TECHNIQUES OF BCMS

❖Loading: This is carried out by gravity flow to

chute at draw points or by LHDs, FELs or slushers;

❖Haulage (on main levels): This is carried out by

LHDs, FELs, rail, trucks, belt conveyor or slushers.
❖Conditions of applicability: when the orebody and
country rock are of weak or moderate strength and
cavable. The deposit may be massive, thick or
tabular.

Advantages:
i. They can be easily mechanized;
ii. They have high productivity and low cost.

Disadvantages:
i. They need good ground control;
ii. They can have high dilution.
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

❖The major objective in BCMS is to achieve induced

caving.

❖To achieve this objective the areas and volume of

the ore removed at the bottom of the block during
undercutting, and the w/h ratio of the resulting
cross section must be sufficiently large to induce
caving in the mass of the orebody above which
caving will then continue progressively on its own.
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

❖Steady drawing of the caved ore from the bottom of

the block provides space for more broken ore to
accumulate and cause the caving action to continue
upward until all the ore in the original block has
caved and been drawn.

❖For successful ore caving and drawing in BCMS, the

following need to be determined and controlled:
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
i. Cavability of the orebody;
ii. Dimension of openings;
iii. Positioning of drawing points;
iv. Extraction rate.

❖ Subsequently, computerized draw-control programs

have been developed to regulate ore production at
some mines.
❖Such programs include economic analysis because of
large investment and tonnages associated with BCMS.
❖Caving mechanics provide the basics for understanding
and controlling the operating factors as it does in
SCMS.
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Determining the cavability of the orebody
is the first major task.
This can be achieved through studying the
fracture pattern in the orebody, either from
diamond drill cores or from the
development openings in the orebody.
After determining the cavability of the
orebody, the dimensions and drawpoints
spacing must be determined so that
drawing of the caved ore can be controlled.
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
❖The basis for determining the dimensions and
spacing of the drawpoints is the gravity-flow
ellipsoid concept that was dealt with during the
discussion on SCMS.

❖The extraction or drawing rate needs to be

controlled to avoid excessive dilution.
▪ Depending on the cavability of the ore, the
practical draw rate in BCMS varies from 0.2 m
to 12 m per day, with mine production rates
varying between 5 000 t/day and 6 000 t/day.
 MN 471: PART II
UNDERGROUND MINE PLANNING AND
DESIGN

(CHAPTER 7)

GROUND SUPPORT AND MINE BACKFILL

SYSTEMS

COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE

 Objectives & Expected Outcomes

The objectives of this lecture are:

❖To explain the basis of ground support and mine

backfill systems and discuss their advantages and
disadvantages;
❖To explain the principles of designing ground
support and backfill systems;
❖To present typical ground support and backfill
systems used in modern day underground mining;
❖To discuss the design of a typical ground support
and backfill systems.
 Objectives & Expected Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the student is expected to:

❖Understand the philosophy and techniques of

ground support and mine backfill systems;

❖Be able to design ground support and backfill for

underground mining systems;

❖Be able to understand the design of ground support

and backfill for underground mining systems.
 MN 471: PART II
UNDERGROUND MINE PLANNING AND
DESIGN

(CHAPTER 7A)

GROUND SUPPORT SYSTEMS

COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE

 Ground Support System
❖Rockmass condition generally comprises of weak,
medium and strong rocks making it anisotropic.
❖A primary effect of constructing an excavation in
rock is the resulting displacement of surrounding
rock and the potential for structurally defined rock
blocks to slide into the excavation.
❖Maximum displacement is most likely to occur at the
weakest part of the rockmass, along natural
discontinuities, exhibiting a shearing or sliding
mechanism.
❖The impact of reinforcement on individual
discontinuities is complex. It is influenced by the
discontinuity characteristics, the properties of the
reinforcement system and loading conditions.
 Ground Support System
❖An important objective of ground support is to resist
rock mass deformation resulting from mining
activities and changes in stress conditions.

❖The design of an effective ground support system

requires an appreciation of potential failure or
instability mechanisms. These can be the result of;
▪ Relatively high stress-to-strength ratios, inducing
failure of intact rock or rockmass.
▪ Structural instability driven by gravity and is a
function of the geological structure.
▪ The combination of stress and structurally driven
failure modes.
▪ Other factors, such as mining induced seismicity, can
aggravate existing conditions, and trigger failure.
 Rockmass Condition
Rock masses are divided into isotropic and anisotropic
materials.

According to Martin et al. (1999)

❖ The isotropic category is subdivided according to
competency into massive, moderately fractured (jointed) and
heavily fractured (jointed) categories. A block size scale is
provided as a rough guide to assist in categorising the rock
mass competency.

❖ Anisotropic rock masses are subdivided according to the

relative angle of the foliation compared to the excavation
surface (parallel or perpendicular) and subdivided again
according to the spacing between the foliation planes. These
are the two main parameters controlling the failure
mechanisms. Anisotropy implies that rock properties vary
with direction.
 Rockmass Behaviour and
Failure Mechanisms
Rock mass instability is an ever-present threat to both
the safety of people and equipment in the mine.
Mining geomechanics environments are distinguished
as ‘normal’, ‘high stress’ and ‘large deformations

The failure mechanisms associated with these

environments generally are:
❖ Discrete gravity-driven wedge failure

❖Stress-driven rock failure exhibiting progressive

fracturing and accumulated damage (spalling and
crushing) or sudden violent failure (rockburst)
 Rockmass Behaviour and
Failure Mechanisms
❖Stress-driven large deformations defined by a weak
rock mass or the presence of discontinuities
(squeezing ground).

Identifying the behaviour and potential failure

mechanisms of the rock mass around underground
excavations is critical to the selection and design of
appropriate support systems. It is therefore essential
that the rock mass deformation process is
understood.
Yves Potvin & John Hadjigeorgiou (ACG, 2020)
 Rockmass Behaviour and
Failure Mechanisms
Mechanism of Rock Failures in an Underground
Excavation include;

❖Wedge Failures
❖Block Failures
❖Slab Failures (or Slabbing)
❖ Sliding
❖Graphite related failures
❖Stress related failures
 Rockmass Behaviour and
Failure Mechanisms
Geological Features

+ +
Key Block
+ +
++
+ +
++ Bedding/joint
Planes

+ +
++
+ +
+
Shear
 Rockmass Behaviour and
Failure Mechanisms
Geological Features

+ +
Key Block
+ + Weak side of
Shear
++
+ +
++ Bedding/joint
Planes
+ +
++
+ +
+
Shear
 Rockmass Behaviour and
Failure Mechanisms
Geological Features

+ +
Key Block
+ + Weak side of

++ Shear

+ + Bedding
++ Planes
+ +
++
+ +
+
Shear
 Rockmass Behaviour and
Failure Mechanisms
Over-break of Excavation Walls
Key blocks and
weak side of
graphite have fallen

+ + out & tunnel profile

now looks like this.

+ + If support is not

++ installed then the

+ + tunnel will continue to

scale out

++ Bedding
+ + Planes

++
+ +
+
Fall of Ground - Induced by removal of “Key Block”
Concept of Underground Development
and Ground Support
 Types of Underground Support Systems
Ground support elements are divided into two broad
categories: reinforcement applied internally to the rock
mass and surface support applied externally.

The application of both surface support and

reinforcement to stabilise an excavation in rock
constitutes the ground support system.

It is convenient to distinguish between support and

reinforcement, as put forward by Windsor and
Thompson (1993): “Support is the application of a
reactive force at the face of the excavation.”
 Types of Underground Support Systems
And… “Reinforcement is considered to be an
improvement of the overall rock mass properties from
within the rock mass and will therefore include all
devices installed in boreholes.”

Note:
Reinforcement and surface support elements interact
to form an integrated ground support system.
Independently, they each have a role to play based on
their mode of interaction with the rock mass.
 Underground Support Systems

Design Methods
❖Observational Design
❖Analytical Design Technique
❖Empirical Techniques
❖Computer (Numerical) Modelling
 Surface Support Element
Surface support is generally installed on the surface of
excavations (roofs and walls) to catch rock material
that may detach from the boundary, hence
maintaining its integrity and limiting deformation or
‘bulking’ of the surface.

The timbering is a form of surface support. In modern

mining, mesh and shotcrete have replaced timbering.

Surface support links reinforcement elements together

at the rock surface to resist surface deformation and
contain rock fragments from falling or ejecting.
 Types of Surface Support Element
❖ Timber Sett
❖Timber Prop
❖Steel Sett
❖Camloc Prop
❖Concrete Pillars
❖Welded Mesh
❖Shotcrete; Plain shotcrete, Steel reinforced shotcrete
and Fibre reinforced shotcreteConcrete Pillars
 Surface Support Element
Steel mesh was the principal means of surface support
in underground mines until the 1990s when the use of
shotcrete became more widespread.
It is intended to retain smaller pieces of loose rock
between the reinforcement. Mesh is installed in the
roof of mine drives to prevent fallout of smaller rock
between the rockbolts.
Given that reinforcement patterns generally vary from
about 1 × 1 m to 1.5 × 1.5 m, the maximum weight of
a rock prism that can detach from between bolts is
about 20 kN. Therefore, mesh commonly used in
underground mines has a load-bearing scope capable
of holding that weight. In this context, mesh acts as
passive support.
 Surface Support Element
Welded Mesh
 Surface Support Element
Welded Mesh
❖ Area of Application
Welded mesh is useful for supporting small pieces of broken
rock. It is used traditionally as reinforcement for shotcrete, but
is rapidly being replaced by steel fibre reinforced shotcrete.
Mesh like straps, is held in place with additional faceplates or
washers and nuts on rockbolts or using separate pins.
❖ Advantages:
Mesh is economical and quickly installed. It is easy to attach
roof reinforcement with extra faceplates and nuts. It is easily
repaired
❖Disadvantages:
Mesh cannot carry excessive load of broken rock without failure.
It is easily damaged by flyrock from nearby blasts.
 Surface Support Element
Shotcrete
The introduction of shotcrete in underground mines
has extended the capacity of surface support to
provide a more active and immediate reaction to rock
movement and to preserve the self-supporting
capability and confinement of the rock mass.

The application of shotcrete in mining is different.

First, the vertical walls allow bending in the layer.
Second, the liner thickness is relatively rarely extended
to the floor. In fact, in many instances, the lower wall
is not covered. Therefore, the shotcrete support
reaction in mining relies on adhesion to the rock
 Surface Support Element
Shotcrete
surface to prevent rock mass deformation and
interlocking rock mass joints, and on the transmission
of the load from the surface to the reinforcement.
 Surface Support Element
Shotcrete
❖ Area of Application
The system has rapid support for loosened rock and changing
stress conditions. It is as durable as concrete in most
applications for roadways or as roof support. It is not
recommended for drawpoints.
❖ Advantages:
The system is very adaptable to the tunneling environment.
New technology has made mix design easier
❖Disadvantages:
Final product is highly dependent on the operators and
especially on the nozzleman (for dry shotcrete)
High cost of operation
 Reinforcement Support Element
Reinforcement elements penetrate the rock mass,
resist internal rock movement and preserve the
integrity of the rock mass as a structural material.

Essentially, rockbolts were designed to support larger

wedges or rock blocks
The behaviour of rock reinforcement elements can be
quite complex. For practical purposes, it is usual to test
a reinforcement element by subjecting it to an axial
tensile force and recording the displacement to
produce a force–displacement (or load–displacement)
graph (Figure 3.1).
Reinforcement Support Element

Fig .. Typical Load versus Displacement Behaviour of a

Rockbolt Pull Test (after ASTM D4435 -13)
 Reinforcement Support Element
In this context, ‘working capacity’ is the load on the
reinforcement element at which significantly increasing
displacement begins and ‘ultimate capacity’ is the
maximum load sustained by the element.
 Reinforcement Support Element
Reinforcement elements in underground mines can be
subdivided into Short (near fields ) and Long (far
fields) bolts .

❖Short bolts (e.g., rockbolts) generally aim at

stabilising a shallow zone within 2–3 m of the
excavation surface.

❖Long bolts (e.g., cable bolts) are designed for deeper

reinforcement, from about 3–15 m and beyond,
depending on the application. The use of multiple
connectable bolt segments to form a longer rockbolt
fall under the deep reinforcement category.
 Reinforcement Element
Since rock reinforcement is installed internally, it is
intimately coupled to the rock mass.
The behaviour of the reinforcement and, more
specifically, its deformation characteristics when
subjected to load, must therefore match the
deformation in the rock mass. Otherwise decoupling
will occur, triggering failure of the rock reinforcement
bond or, if the bond is strong enough, failure of the
reinforcement element itself.
Consequently, it is important to understand the
behaviour of rock reinforcement in the context of its
interaction with the rock mass.
Reinforcement Support Element

Fig .. Load-displacement curves obtained from Laboratory Pull Test on

a Variety of Commonly Used Rockbolts (Based on Stillborg 1994 and
Compiled by Hoek et al. 1995)
 Reinforcement Support Element
Drilling and Installing of Rockbolts
 Types of Reinforcement Support Element
❖ Mechanical Rockbolts
❖Split Sets
❖Cement Grouted Gewi/Rebars
❖Resin Bolts
❖Cable Bolts
 Reinforcement Support Element
Split Set
 Reinforcement Support Element
Split Sets
Background
As the split set tube is forced into a drillhole, the spring action
of the compressed tube applies a radial force against the rock
and generates a frictional resistance to sliding of the rock on
the steel. This frictional resistance increases as the outer
surface of the tube rusts.

❖Area of Application
▪ Split sets (friction anchor) are generally used in
medium to strong rockmass condition
▪ Used for relatively light support duties in the mining
industry, particularly where short term support is
required.
 Reinforcement Support Element
Split Set

❖Advantages
Simple and quick to install and claim to be cheaper than a dowel
of similar capacity. Useful in moving and bursting ground

❖Disadvantages
▪ It cannot be tensioned and hence I activated by
movement in the rock in the same way as a grouted
dowel.
▪ Its support action is similar to that of an untensioned
dowel and hence it must be installed close to the face
▪ The drillhole diameter is critical and most failures during
installation occur because the hole is either too small or
too large.
▪ Rusting of split set in some applications occur rapidly
hence affecting its long term efficacy.
 Reinforcement Support Element
Resin Bolts Resin Capsule
 Reinforcement Support Element
❖Area of Application
Increasingly used in critical applications in which
cost is less important than speed and reliability

❖Advantages
▪ It is very convenient and simple to use
▪ Very high strength anchors can be formed in
rock of poor quality and, by choosing
appropriate setting times, a ‘one shot’
installation produces a fully grouted tensioned
rockbolt system
 Reinforcement Support Element
❖Disadvantages
▪ Effective resin mixing requires careful adherence to
recommendations provided by manufacturers.
▪ Resins are expensive and many have limited shelf-
life, particularly in hot climates
FROM PLANT
 Reinforcement Support Element
Cable Bolts

Accessories
Reinforcement Support Element
 Reinforcement Support Element
Cable Bolts

❖Area of Application
Cable bolts can be used to support, reinforce or retain
the rock mass around most excavations including:
▪ Wide drifts and intersections for reinforcing large
blocks of rocks.
▪ Open stope crowns for controlling caving and
providing safe working area to the current and the
up-dip stope.
▪ Open stope walls for controlling dilution and
avoiding loss of adjacent accesses, if any.
 Reinforcement Support Element
Cable Bolts

▪ Backs and hanging walls of Cut and fill stopes

▪ Draw points
▪ Permanent large excavations like workshops, pump
chambers etc.
 Reinforcement Support Element
Cable Bolts
❖Application
The system is gaining increasing use in mining
applications

❖Advantages:
▪ This system is expensive
▪ If properly installed, it provides competent and
durable reinforcement
▪ It can be installed to any length in narrow areas.
▪ The system gives very high bolt loads in various
rock conditions, as well as high corrosion resistance
in permanent installations
 Reinforcement Support Element
Cable Bolts

❖Disadvantages
▪ Tensioning of the cable bolt is possible only if a
special installation procedure is adopted
▪ The use of standard cement in the grout requires
several days curing before the cable can be loaded
 Ground Support System
General
In poor ground conditions, especially where stress
exceeds rock mass strength, the concept of larger and
smaller wedges is no longer the primary concern for
designers because in these situations the rock mass
often deforms significantly as a volume of material
instead of as discrete block failure.

Reinforcement and surface support must then work

together as a system to contain the volumetric
deformation. Combinations of surface support
elements, such as shotcrete and mesh or mesh and
straps, are often used in these situations.
 Ground Support System

General
This approach takes advantage of the strength and
yielding properties of different support elements.
However, success depends on the connection between
the reinforcement and surface support being strong
enough to transfer and share the load as a fully
integrated support system.
 MN 471: PART II
UNDERGROUND MINE PLANNING AND
DESIGN

(CHAPTER 7B)

MINE BACKFILL SYSTEMS

COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE

 Mine Backfill System
❖Underground mining is the means of extracting ores
from deep (below ground surface) which results in
the creation of mine voids
❖The adjoining rock surrounding the mine void
created will experience ground disturbances leading
to rock failures when not backfilled
❖The introduction of a backfill material will provide
both local and regional ground stability
❖The backfill when emplaced serves as ground
support to the immediate rockmass and aslo as a
platform for other mining operations (drilling,
charging etc.)
 Mine Backfill System
Why Backfill
❖Waste disposal
❖Provides long term regional ground stability
❖Underground mining creates voids which needs to
be backfilled to prevent ground subsidence and for
other safety regions
❖Limit excavation exposures
❖Provides an option for disposing of waste materials
in underground rather than on surface
❖Serves as platform for mining up-dip
❖To extend the life of the mine
❖To lower the cost of mine closure (Environmental)
 Mine Backfill System
Types of Backfill
❖Waste Rock (usually from mine development ends)
▪ Rock fill (RF)
▪ Cemented Rock Fill (CRF)
❖Classified Aggregate
▪ Raw Classified Aggregated Fill
▪ Cemented Classified Aggregate Fill
❖Hydraulic Fill
▪ Raw Hydraulic Fill
▪ Cemented Hydraulic Fill
❖Paste Fill
▪ Paste Fill
▪ Cemented Paste Fill
❖ Composite Fills
 Mine Backfill System
Basic Mine Backfill Material

❖Waste rock or Aggregate

❖Mine Mill Tailings
❖Binder (e.g., Cement, Pozzolans, Slag+Cement
etc.)
❖Water
 Mine Backfill System
Concept of Mine Backfill
 Mine Backfill System
Waste Rock
▪ Rock fill (RF)
▪ Cemented Rock Fill (CRF)

Sources:
▪ Waste rock from underground development ends
▪ Waste rock from open pit operations
 Mine Backfill System
Rock Fill
❖ Advantages

❖ Disadvantages
 Mine Backfill System

Cemented Rock Fill

❖ Advantages
▪ This type of fill can be used effectively if there is mining next to or under the stope being
filled.
▪ Where underground waste rock is used it cuts down on the size of the waste stockpile on
the surface.
▪ Ore contamination is prevented when used in an adjoining or above stope.
▪ Provide regional stability to a surrounding rock mass
▪ Retain unconsolidated waste rock in the back half of a stope in longitudinal benching
▪ Enable resilience to slot-firing activities within close proximity.

❖ Disadvantages
▪ There is waiting time once the stope void is filled if firing of adjoining or below stope is to be
carried out
▪ High cost due to the use of binder (e.g., cement)
▪ Difficult to fill the stope completely due to the natural angle of the rock once tipped, but
better than when no binder is applied.
 Mine Backfill System
Classified Aggregate
▪ Raw Classified Aggregated Fill
▪ Cemented Classified Aggregate Fill
 Mine Backfill System
Classified Aggregate
Sources
▪ Waste rock from underground development ends
▪ Waste rock from open pit operations
▪ Quarried rocks and coarse gravels
 Mine Backfill System
Classified Aggregate Fill
❖ Advantages

❖ Disadvantages
 Mine Backfill System
Hydraulic Fill
▪ Raw Hydraulic Fill
▪ Cemented Hydraulic Fill

Sources
▪ Mill tailings

Hydraulic fill being poured

into an open stope
 Mine Backfill System
Raw Hydraulic Fill
❖ Advantages

❖ Disadvantages
 Mine Backfill System
Cemented Hydraulic Fill
❖ Advantages

❖ Disadvantages

▪ High cost due to the use of binder (e.g., cement)

▪ Good drainage system is required within the stope
▪ Creates a lot of water underground that needs to be pumped out of the mine
▪ Potential high risk bulkhead failures due to pressure due to water within the backfill mass
during filling
 Mine Backfill System
Paste Fill
▪ Paste Fill
▪ Cemented Paste Fill
 Mine Backfill System
Paste Fill

Photo of a Bulkhead/Barricade Below

Stope being Backfilled
Schematic Drawing of a Stope and Access
Drive, and the Stope Backfilling Process
 Mine Backfill System
Paste Fill
Sources
▪ Mill tailings
 Mine Backfill System
Paste Fill
❖ Advantages

❖ Disadvantages
 Mine Backfill System
Composite Fills: Hydraulic Fill & Aggregate
❖ Advantages

❖ Disadvantages
 Mine Backfill System
Composite Fills: Paste Fill & Rock Fill
❖ Advantages

❖ Disadvantages
 UNDERGROUND MINING SYSTEMS
-MINING METHOD PRACTICAL DISCUSSION

UMDP-MN 471
Orebody
PLAN OF OREBODY SHOWING THE LETERAL EXTENSION
SECTION THROUGH OREBODY SHOWING THE LITHOLOGY
SECTION THROUGH A MINING BLOCK SHOWING THE LITHOLOGY AND LEVELS
SECTION THROUGH OREBODY SHOWING THE GRADE MODEL
Stoping Methods
Examples of Naturally Supported Stopes
 Longitudinal Open Stoping
Slot Raises
Reef Boundary
Reef Drive

60m

Footwall drive
5m pillar will be wrecked unless
Cablebolts
apparent ground deterioration 10m 50m stope
37L

Slot raise Current Stope

slot
slot
Mined pillar with
- blast holes
Hydraulic

cemented fill
Blastholes fill

blated ore

38L

Section Vertical Projection

Transverse Open Stoping

L3 16 14 17
L2 10 7 18 6 8 12
L1 4 13 2 9 1 11 3 15 5
P1 S2 P3 S4 P5 S6 P7 S8 P9
Sublevel Stoping
Room and Pillar

Concept of a tributary area in an array

of pillars and rooms
Room and Pillar
Examples of Artificially Supported Stopes
Shrinkage Stoping
Overhand Cut & Fill- Mechanisation
Underhand Cut & Fill- Mechanisation
Rill Cut & Fill Stope
Examples of Caving Stopes
Sublevel Caving
Sublevel Caving
Block Caving
SLC draw
using the
staggered
pattern
SLC draw
using the
square
pattern
Supported and Unsupported Underground Mining Methods
Examples of Equipment Used in Stoping
Underground Equipment- Scooptram (LHD)
 UNDERGROUND MINING SYSTEMS
-LONGHOLE OPEN STOPING MINING METHOD PRACTICAL DISCUSSION

UMDP-MN 471
Orebody
PLAN OF OREBODY SHOWING THE LETERAL EXTENSION
SECTION THROUGH OREBODY SHOWING THE LITHOLOGY
SECTION THROUGH A MINING BLOCK SHOWING THE LITHOLOGY AND LEVELS
SECTION THROUGH OREBODY SHOWING THE GRADE MODEL
Longhole Open Stope Designs
 Longitudinal Open Stoping
Slot Raises
Reef Boundary
Reef Drive

60m

Footwall drive
5m pillar will be wrecked unless
Cablebolts
apparent ground deterioration 10m 50m stope
37L

Slot raise Current Stope

slot
slot
Mined pillar with
- blast holes
Hydraulic

cemented fill
Blastholes fill

blated ore

38L

Section Vertical Projection

Transverse Open Stoping

L3 16 14 17
L2 10 7 18 6 8 12
L1 4 13 2 9 1 11 3 15 5
P1 S2 P3 S4 P5 S6 P7 S8 P9
 Open Stope Design
STABILITY GRAPH METHOD

Generally, the geotechnical parameters gathered from scanline mapping includes:

Rock Quality Designation (RQD),

Joint Sets (Jn) and Joint Conditions.

These parameters are used to compute the Modified Rock Quality Index (Q’). The Modified Rock Quality Index
(Q’) in combination with the Stress Factor (A), Critical Joint Orientation with respect to the excavation surface
(B) and Gravity Adjustment Factor (Mode of Failure of the rock) (C) are used to establish the Modified Stability
Number, N’, (Potvin) of the prevailing ground conditions within which mining will take place. Uniaxial
Compressive Strength of the rocks (UCS) and Joint spacing are also important geotechnical parameters used to
determine rock strength and quality.
 Open Stope Design
STABILITY GRAPH METHOD
Computation:
Modified Stability Number
= Q’ x A x B x C

Q’ is Rock Quality Index includes Joint Spacing & and Roughness

= RQD/Jn X Jr * Ja

• RQD = Rock Quality Designation (Deere et al., 1967)

• Jn, Jr, Ja = Joint set Number, Joint Roughness and Joint Alteration (Barton et al., 1974)
• A depends on Stress and Rock Strength
• B Joint orientation w.r.t. the exposed span
• C Depends on the Dip of the exposed Span & Sliding joints

The Hydraulic Radius, HR, (or Shape factor) gives the shape and size of an underground
excavation. It is the ratio of the Area and the Perimeter of the exposed excavation surface.
The Hydraulic Radii of both the crown and the hangingwall of the stope are calculated.
 Open Stope Design
Hydraulic Radius
Stope stability is assessed by considering each face independently. The wall or back dimensions are consolidated into a single parameter called
hydraulic radius, HR, which is calculated as the face area divided by the face perimeter. This parameter accounts for both size and shape of the
face allowing rectangular stopes to be plotted along with square stopes.
For example:

O/B Width =8m Stope Strike Length = 50m

Stope Height = 35m

HR for Hangingwall = 35 * 50 / 2*(50+35) = 10.2 m
HR for Crown = 8 * 50 / 2*(50+8) = 3.4 m
 Open Stope Design
Modified Stability Number
The Modified Stability Number (N’) of the prevailing ground condition and the Hydraulic Radii (HR) of stope wall surfaces
are computed to establish stope spans- Stable stopes (exhibit little or no ground deterioration), Unstable stope (exhibit
limited wall failure and/or block fallout say less than 30% of the face area, and Caved stopes (experience unacceptable
failure).

The classification of the rockmass and of the excavation problem itself is accomplished in the Modified Stability Graph
Method through the use of the Modified Stability Number, N’, as specified by Potvin (1988), Potvin and Milne (1992) and
Bawden (1993).
 Open Stope Design

Stability Graph
 Open Stope Design

Joint Sets and RQD RQD

RQD = Sum of Core ≥ 10

cm/Total Run of Core
 Open Stope Design
Sigma 1 Plot for the Determination of Sigma 1
 Open Stope Design
Rock Stress Factor A
Joint Orientation Factor, B

Figure C3 Rock Stress Factor A (Potvin, 1988) for Stability Graph Analysis

Gravity Adjustment Factor, C

Production Ring Design Design

Section
Plan
 MN 471:PART I
SURFACE MINE PLANNING AND DESIGN

(CHAPTER 1)

INTRODUCTION

COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE

COURSE AIMS, OBJECTIVES &
EXPECTED OUTCOMES
 Course Aims & Objectives

The aims of the course are:

❖To prepare the student to become a good mining engineer

by exposing him or her to engineering techniques used in
designing and planning a surface mine, with emphasis on
mining methods, pit optimization methods, production
planning, and haul road and waste dump design.

❖To equip the student with engineering skills by which he

or she can design a surface mine and plan the mining
operations so that the mining will be safe and
economically gainful.
 Course Aims & Objectives
The objectives of the course are:
❖To introduce the student to the various surface mining
methods and their conditions of applicability.

❖To introduce the student to basic engineering concepts

of, and techniques for, surface mine planning & design.

❖To encourage the student to employ engineering

concepts to design technically and economically feasible
surface mines.
 Expected Course Outcome
At the end of the course, the student is
expected to:

❖Be able to analyse problems associated with surface

mining systems and solve them soundly by the
application of engineering techniques.

❖Be able to design surface mining systems and plan the

mining operations so that mining will be safe and
economically gainful in his or her professional life.
 Course Schedule
The schedule for the first part of the course has
been summarised in Table 1.1.

Tale 1.1 Course Schedule

WEEK WEEK ENDING CHAPTER
7 26-Feb 2021 1&2
8 05- Mar 2021 3&4
9 12- Mar 2021 5&6
10 19- Mar 2021 7
11 19-Mar 2021 Catch Up
12 26-Mar 2021 Revision
 Course Assessment
Student Assessment:
Two forms of student assessment are designed for
the course, namely:

❖Continuous assessment &

❖Examination.
➢ Continuous assessment: 40% of the total
mark for semester
➢ End of Semester Exams: 60% of the total
mark for semester
 Course Assessment
Lecturer’s Assessment:

❖At the end of the course, each student will be

required to evaluate the course & Lecturer’s
performance by answering a questionnaire
specially prepared to obtain the views & opinions
of the student about the course & the Lecturer.

❖Students are encouraged to be sincere & frank in

their answers so that the answers can be used as
a good basis for improvement.
 CHAPTER 1 – INTRODCUTION:

OBJECTIVES & EXPECTED OUTCOMES

Chapter Objectives & Expected Outcomes
The objectives of this chapter are:
❖The objectives of this Chapter are:
❖To discuss the course objectives and expected
outcomes.
❖To outline the course schedule.
❖To outline the course assessment procedures.
❖To define and discuss course terminology and basic
concepts.
❖To present the classification of exploitation methods in
mining.
❖To discuss the advantages and disadvantages of surface
mining.
❖To outline the major factors affecting surface mining.
Chapter Objectives & Expected Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the student is
expected to:
❖Understand the basic concepts and terminology
used in surface mine planning and design.

❖Know the various surface mining methods and

their conditions of applicability.

❖Know the factors that affect surface mining, and

the extent to which the former affects the latter.
 Surface Mining Terminology
❖ORE: Material which is excavated and possibly
processed before being sold to produce revenue at a
profit to the operation.
❖WASTE: Material that has no economic value and which
must be excavated to release the ore.
❖OVERBURDEN: The non-economical material (or waste)
above flat tabular deposits (e.g. coal).
❖ GRADE: The classification of ore according to its purity
or content of the desired metal or mineral.
❖STRIPPING RATIO (S/R): The ratio of the amount of
"waste or overburden material (S/R) that has to be
moved to release “one unit of ore or mineral”.
 Surface Mining Terminology
• DILUTION: Waste that becomes part of the ore as it is
mined. It dilutes the ore grade.
• LOSSES: Ore that is lost into the waste during the
excavation of the waste material.
• MINING RECOVERY: The percentage of the in-situ ore that
is recovered in the mining process.
• BANK VOLUME: The volume occupied by the solid
undisturbed material.
• LOOSE VOLUME: The larger volume (due to the creation
of voids) occupied by the material when it has been
disturbed by mining.
• SWELL FACTOR: The ratio of the loose volume to the
solid or bank volume.
 Nature and Morphology of Ore Deposits
Definitions of Orebody Dimensions
❖STRIKE: The longest direction across an orebody when
viewed in plan.
❖ AXIS: The longest dimension of an orebody.
❖ DIP: The angle of inclination between the horizontal and
the ore body, measured in a vertical plane that is
perpendicular to the strike.
❖ PLUNGE: The vertical angle between the horizontal and
the axis of the orebody.
Nature and Morphology of Ore Deposits
Definitions of Orebody Dimensions
❖PITCH: The angle between the strike direction and the
long axis of the orebody.
❖BREADTH: The maximum dimension measured at right
angles to the plunge line.
❖PLUNGE LENGTH: The maximum distance along the
plunge axis.
❖WIDTH OR THICKNESS: The maximum dimension of
the deposit measured at right angles to the breadth.
 Geological Terminology
Prior to considering the extraction process, it is important to
understand the geological terminology used to describe the
orebody. Ore deposits broadly fall into three categories:
❖Igneous: Deposits of primary origin which are deposited
by magmatic processes (for example iron, copper,
chromium, nickel).
❖ Sedimentary: Deposits of secondary origin which result
from the deposition of eroded and possibly upgraded
primary ones (for example alluvial deposits, phosphates,
copper, iron, kaolin, coal),
❖Metamorphic: Deposits of either igneous or sedimentary
origin which have undergone alteration due to pressure
and/or heat (for example: iron. copper, asbestos).
Geological Terminology
 Geological Terminology
• Anticline: An upfold of rocks opening downwards.
• Syncline: A downfold of rocks opening upwards.
• Bedding Plane: The plane of separation between
individual layers of sedimentary rock.
• Cap Rock: A solid or unconsolidated material overlying a
deposit of ore.
• Dip: The dip of a rock surface is the angle and direction at
which the surface slopes beneath the horizontal.
• Dyke: A wall-like mass of igneous rock that fills a fissure in
pre-existing rocks.
• Economic Ore Limits: The extent or portion of a mineral
deposit that may be mined at a profit.
 Definition of UMDP
❖Fault: A fracture in the rocks along which displacement of
one side relative to the other has taken place parallel to
the fracture. Faulting maybe caused by compression,
tension or torsion and is likely to be associated with
mineralization.
❖Groundwater: Water which occurs within the rock mass
below the water table.
❖Host Rocks: The rock formations in which ore deposits
occur. The rock may be particularly favorable to
mineralization or ore deposition due to its structure, its
position or its chemical properties.
❖Mineralization: The processes taking place in the earth's
crust resulting in local concentrations of accumulation of
useful minerals.
Geological Terminology

Fig. 1.2 Diagram

illustrating terms used
in the description of
orebodies
 Geological Terminology
❖ Orebody: A mass of rock or mineral rock material
which is of such a grade and in such a quantity
that it may be worked profitably.
❖ Pitch or Plunge: The angle between the long axis
of an orebody and its horizontal projection
measured in a vertical plane (see Fig. 1.2).
❖ Strike: The direction or bearing along which an
orebody runs perpendicular to the maximum dip.
❖ Unconformity: A break in the stratigraphic
sequence in which younger beds repose on older
beds which do not immediately precede them in
the geological succession.
 Definition of Surface Mine Planning &
Design
Surface mine design is a 2-D or 3-D technical
drawing or artwork, based on engineering, economic
and safety considerations, showing the detailed
framework of a surface mine or part of it.

In 2-D form, the design is presented as sections and

plans while in the 3-D form it is presented as solid
object.
 Definition of Surface Mine Planning &
Design
On the other hand, is a scientific decision-making process
involving the selection of actions to be taken to achieve set
objectives such as achieving production targets, making
maximum profit, providing social benefits, causing less
accidents and causing little or no damage to the
environment.
The outcome of planning is a schedule of work showing
the times to work, the amount of work or tonnage to be
produced in a given time, the material, human and
financial resources to be used as well as the rules,
regulations and code of ethics that apply.
 Exploitation Methods
Exploitation is the fourth and final stage of mining.
It is associated with the actual recovery in quantity
of the mineral from the earth’s crust.

While some amount of exploration and

development work continues throughout the life of
a mine, the emphasis in the exploitation stage is
now on production. Usually enough development is
done prior to exploitation to ensure that
production continues uninterrupted throughout the
life of the mine.
 Exploitation Methods
Exploitation methods may be classified into two broad
categories as:
❖Traditional methods.
❖Novel or Innovative methods.
 Traditional Methods of Exploitation
Traditional methods of exploitation are classified into
two broad categories namely:

❖Surface mining

❖Underground mining
Exploitation Methods
 Surface Mining Methods
Surface mining methods may be subdivided into:

❖ Methods that employ mechanical extraction

techniques. (These account for > 70% of surface
mineral extraction in the US).

❖ Methods that employ aqueous extraction

techniques. (These account for < 10% of surface
mineral extraction in the US).
 Surface Mining –Mechanical Extraction
Techniques

These methods employ mechanical extraction

methods in a dry environment to free the minerals
from the earth’s crust. Mechanical extraction methods
may be by:

❖ Open cast/Strip mining or Stripping

❖ Open pit mining
❖ Quarrying
❖ Auger mining
Surface Mining –Mechanical Extraction
Techniques

Open Cast/Strip Mining/Stripping - This is the

best-known surface mining method employed in
mining near-surface or shallow or slightly inclined
deposits such as coal seams, gold beds and other
thin layers of mineral. The depth of the pit is
virtually the same throughout the life of the
mine. The face of the mine advances very rapidly
laterally but not longitudinally.
Surface Mining –Mechanical Extraction
Techniques
Open Pit Mining – This is employed in mining deposits
that are thicker or more deeply buried or that dip steeply
or sharply downwards. e. g. open pit mining is being
done at Ghana Bauxite Company at Awaso; Ghana
Manganese Company, Nsuta; the Sansu Open pit mine at
Obuasi, etc. The pit is usually developed into several
benches and the dimensions of the pit increase both
laterally and longitudinally. The depth of pit increases
with time as more and more benches are opened up.
Surface Mining –Mechanical Extraction
Techniques

• The terms “opencast” and “open pit” are often

used interchangeably. To avoid confusion,
“open cast” is used for shallower surface
stripping while “open pit” is used for mining
deeper deposits in surface mining.
• In both open pit and open cast metal mining,
the rock is usually ground to powder and
treated for the mineral or metal and the tailings
discarded.
Surface Mining –Mechanical Extraction
Techniques

Quarrying – where valuable rock or stone is cut

or broken into blocks or crushed to suitable
dimensions and sold out with or without
treatment. The stone or broken rock is neither
ground into powder form nor are any chemicals
added to them at the treatment stage.
Surface Mining –Mechanical Extraction
Techniques

Auger Mining – This is employed in recovering

coal by boring into a coal seam at the base of
strata exposed by excavation. This method is
limited to horizontal or slightly pitched seams
that have been exposed by geologic erosion.
 Surface Mining – Aqueous Extration
Techniques
Aqueous extraction methods are those that rely
mainly on water and other liquid solvents to recover
the minerals from the earth’s crust (e.g. jetting,
slurrying, dissolving or melting).

Placer Mining
In-situ techniques
Aqueous extraction Solution Mining
Solvent leaching
 Surface Mining – Aqueous Extration
Techniques

Placer mining – dredging, hydraulicking, etc., which

are applicable to heavy minerals from shallow and
unconsolidated deposits usually along river beds,
beaches, etc.
Solution Mining
In-situ techniques in salt wells, uranium dissolution
and the Frasch process for the extraction of sulphur.
Solvent leaching of mineral values from heaps or
dumps or an insoluble matrix or host rock, e.g. heap
leaching of gold and silver ores.
 Surface Mining – Aqueous Extration
Techniques
❖Placer Mining – panning of gold, diamonds, tin and other
heavy minerals from river beds, etc. This may be by:
❖ Dredging: scooping up of loose placer deposits such as
gold, tin, etc. laid down by running water in river beds or
on the sea bed by dredges (bucket ladder or suction head
dredges) which are usually mounted on pontoons.
❖ Hydraulicking or Hydraulic Mining – This utilises a high-
pressure stream of water directed against an exposed
bank of unconsolidated rock/soil, thereby undercutting it
and causing it to collapse.
 Solution Mining- Technique
This includes both in-situ techniques and surface mining
techniques (solvent leaching of mineral values from heaps,
dumps or insoluble matrix of host rock).

Employed in mining soluble minerals such as salt (e.g.

common salt or potash), sulphur that can be dissolved or
melted by hot water or other solvent and the pregnant
solution (the solution that contains the dissolved mineral)
pumped up to the surface for concentration or treatment
at the Treatment Plant. This may be done in several ways
such as:
 Solution Mining- Technique
• Bottom injection: - Water is pumped down an inner
tube and the dissolved solution (e.g. brine) pumped up
through the outer tube.
• Top injection: - Reverses the direction of flow – The
water or solvent is pumped down through the outer
tube and the bearing solution pumped up through the
inner tube.
• The Frasch Process: An example of such mineral is
sulphur. Super-heated steam is injected into the
mineral-bearing formation to generate a sulphur
solution that can be recovered. Injection wells are not
being used to extract sulfur at this time.
 Solution Mining- Technique
❖In-situ Leaching: - Applied on low grade uranium or
copper deposits.
▪ Multiple Well System – Where a series of bore holes
are drilled into the ore zone, the solvent is pumped
down some of the boreholes which serve as injection
wells while the pregnant solution is recovered
(pumped up) through production wells.
▪ Flooding and leaching of a mine- (mainly done after a
mine has been worked out) – Applicable to copper
mines to dissolve the remaining mineral.

❖Breaking of the ore in-situ (by atomic bombing) and using

the leaching process
 Solution Mining- Technique
• Heap leaching of low grade oxidised or laterised ores.
Heap leaching is actually a recovery method and not a
mining method. It is used in recovering low grade
copper, gold or silver ores. The broken ore is usually
heaped on an impermeable pad, and dilute cyanide
solution (for Au bearing ores) or sulphuric acid (in the
case of Cu bearing ores), etc., is sprayed continuously
on the heap (pile) for a long time (up to 60 days in
some cases).
 Solution Mining- Technique
As the solvent percolates through the heap (pile), it
dissolves the mineral of interest. The mineral is collected
on coming to the impermeable pad layer and is drained to
a solution pond or dam where it is clarified and pumped
to the treatment plant where the mineral of interest is
recovered. AngloGold Ashanti (Iduapriem Mine) as well as
Gold Fields Ghana Ltd., Tarkwa Mine, employ the heap
leaching technique to recover gold from some of their
ores.
 Solution Mining-Technique

Disadvantage of Solution Mining and Leaching techniques:

❖The solvent trends to flow directly from the injection
wells to the production wells without dissolving the
minerals in the ore  Low recoveries.
❖Possible contamination of surface and ground water
sources by the solvent (if there is any overflow from the
dams or there are cracks in the matrix of the rock
underground).
❖Partial recovery ( 60%) of the contained minerals is
possible.
Classification of Surface Mining Methods
Surface mines can be subdivided into various classes
and subclasses as shown in Table 1.2.
Class Subclass Method

Mechanical Open Pit Mining

- Strip Mining
Quarrying
Auger Mining

Placer Mining Dredging

Aqueous Hydraulic Mining

Solution Mining Surface Techniques

In Situ Leaching Techniques
Classification of Surface Mining Methods
Acceptance/ Class Subclass Method Commodities

Relative Cost,
Locale

%
Traditional

Mechanical - Open pit mining Metal, non-metal 10

Quarrying Non-metal
Open cast mining Coal, Non-metal
Auger mining Coal
Surface

Aqueous Placer Hydraulicking Metal, non-metal

Dredging Metal, non-metal

Solution In situ techniques Metal, non-metal

Surface techniques Metal
Classification of Surface Mining Methods

Relative
Acceptance/ Class Subclass Method Commodities

Cost, %
Locale

Traditional
Unsupported - Room & pillar mining Coal, Non-metal
Stope & pillar mining Metal, non-metal
Sublevel stoping Metal, non-metal
Vertical crater retreat mining Metal, non-metal

Supported - Shrinkage stoping Metal

Underground

Cut & fill stoping Metal

Resuing method Metal
Stull stoping Metal
Square set stoping Metal

Caving - Longwall mining Coal, Non-metal

Sublevel caving Metal
Block caving Metal
Classification of Surface Mining Methods

Relative
Acceptance/ Class Subclass Method Commodities

Cost, %
Locale

Traditional
Novel - - Rapid excavation
Automation, robotics
Hydraulic mining
Methane drainage
Underground gasification
Underground retorting
Marine mining
Nuclear mining
Extraterrestrial mining

Source: Hartman 1766

Classification of Surface Mining Methods
Summary and Comparison of Direct
Mining Costs
 Pros and Cons of Surface Mining
Pros
❖Equipment size gives efficiency.
❖ Energy demand: equipment more efficient, no
ventilation, no water pumping (or little), no lights.
Surface uses 5 - 10 kW/t, underground uses 20 -
50 kW/t.
❖ Accident rates: underground rates much higher -
ventilation, roof control, cramped operations.
❖ Mine development time: Typically, 3 to 5 years for
underground; 1 to 2 years for surface (largely
infrastructure and lead time on equipment).
 Pros and Cons of Surface Mining
Pros
❖ Recovery of the resource: surface yields 65 to
70%; underground yields 60 to 60%.
❖Human factors:

▪ less skilled work force.

▪ less 'danger money', easier to recruit.
❖Surface mines invest in equipment rather than
shafts (easier to sell trucks than shafts!).
 Pros and Cons of Surface Mining
Cons
❖ Environmental factors - Size, waste, impact, air,
water, noise, vibration, reclamation.

❖ 2) Selectivity may not be as good.

❖ 3) Depth limitations.

❖ 4) Some minerals cannot be worked on the

surface.
 Major Factors Affecting Surface Mining
❖Ore grade and tonnage.
❖Topography.
❖Physical size, shape and structure of the deposit.
❖Capital expenditures.
❖Economic factors of operating costs.
❖Profit.
❖Pit limits, cut off grade and stripping ratios.
❖Mining equipment.
❖Rate of production.
❖Available technology
Major Factors Affecting Surface Mining

❖Socio-political stability of host country

❖Access.
❖Mine design (bench heights, road grades, etc.).
❖Geotechnical aspects.
❖Hydrological conditions.
❖Available power.
❖Location.
❖Waste rock disposal.
❖Climate and altitude.
❖Support infrastructure.
❖Environmental restrictions.
 MN 471:PART I
SURFACE MINE PLANNING AND DESIGN

(CHAPTER 2)

SURFACE MINING CLASSIFICATIONS-

STRIP/OPEN CAST MINING

COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE

SURFACE MINING CLASSIFICATION: STRIP/OPEN CAST
MINING
 Classifications
Surface mining operations are generally classified into those
that employ mechanical extraction techniques in a dry
environment to extract the ore (i.e. mechanical extraction)
and those that employ solutions or solvents to dissolve the
mineral of interest (i.e. solution mining).
Mechanical extraction techniques include open pit mining,
open cast mining and quarrying. Solution mining
techniques are subdivided into placer mining and solution
mining. Placer mining techniques include dredging and
hydraulicking while solution mining techniques involve
those that use in-situ techniques and surface mining
techniques to recover the mineral of interest (i.e. solvent
leaching of mineral values from heaps, dumps or insoluble
matrix of host rock).
 Strip Mining Operations
❖Strip mining is a method used primarily for the mining of
relatively flat tabular deposits. The working pit is usually
several kilometers in length. The major difference
between an open pit and a strip mine is that the
overburden in a strip mine is usually placed back in the
pit and normally directly into the previously mined cut,
whereas in an open pit it usually has to be taken to an
out of pit dump.
 Strip Mining Operations
❖The principal operation and the area of highest
percentage cost in a strip mine is the overburden removal
element. The method used for removal of the
overburden normally identifies the type of strip mining
being carried out. In the majority of cases overburden
removal is done by either draglines or bucket wheel
excavators; but it can also be handled by shovel-truck
systems; scrapers; or, less frequently, the large stripping
shovel or dredge.

❖The choice of system is influenced by: surface

topography, shape of deposit, production requirements
and the depth and nature of the overburden.
 Strip Mining Methods
• Unlike the open pit mines where basically there is only
one general shape or form (pit) for the mining layout and
where 99% of the mines use the shovel-truck method, in
strip mining the shape or format of the “strip” can take
several forms, each of which gives its name to the
method.
 Strip Mining and Open Cast Mining
• This is the most common form and concerns the use of
draglines to side cast the overburden into the previously
mined cut. The major difference between a strip mine
and an open pit or quarry is that the strip mine is usually
developed immediately to the full depth of its mining
face and then progresses horizontally as the resource is
recovered. This process, after the initial cut is made,
allows the waste or overburden material to be placed in
the previously mined out cut as it is excavated (see Fig.
2.1).
Strip Mining and Open Cast Mining

Fig. 2.1 Open Cast Mining of Flat-lying Seams (Anon., 1975)

 Strip Mining and Open Cast Mining
The other key difference relates to the fact that strip
mines, as their name implies, are generally of considerable
length but of very limited width.
They tend to disturb large areas of land but these can be
reclaimed earlier and more quickly and economically than
is possible with open pit mining.
 Continuous Mining

• This system uses the Bucket Wheel Excavator (BWE)

around the pit or across the pit conveyor system to
dispose of the waste into the mined out cut.

• This system is also used in conjunction with a dragline

sidecasting the waste materials. Where, in mines with
deep overburden cover, the dragline handles the
overburden immediately above the seam with the BWE
system dealing with the higher levels of overburden. Fig.
2.2 shows different directions of mining using a BWE.
 Continuous Mining

Fig. 2.2 Different Directions of Working Using A BWE

 Contour Mining
In this method, a dragline is used to mine a seam or seams
in terrain that is severe and such that only a few cuts can
be taken before the strip ratios become unacceptable. The
dragline follows the outcrop of the seam and immediate
contour of the terrain, casting the overburden sideways
and continuing with mining until the economics become
unacceptable. This is basically a strip mine with a
continuous pit length (see Fig. 2.3).
 Contour Mining

3 Different Directions of Working Using A BWE

Fig. 2.2
Factors Affecting the Success of Strip
Mining
Strip mines are generally operated over greater lengths
and not to such great depths as open pit mines while
working a more regular or tabular deposit. They are
therefore likely to be less complex and generally easier to
design and plan.

In addition to the geological data and surface topography

which are critical to the establishment of pit size, layout,
production rate and equipment selection and sizing, there
are other data that have to be supplied from a properly
designed exploration program that are equally essential to
the successful operation of a strip mine.
Factors Affecting the Success of Strip
Mining

Pit wall and spoil pile stability are the two most
important factors which govern the safety and
economy of operations.
As with the open pit method, these are largely
controlled by the geotechnical and hydrogeological
characteristics of the overburden and inter burden
materials.
 Geomechanical Parameters
Strip mining operations are most likely to involve the
excavation and handling of both unconsolidated and
consolidated materials. Soil is normally homogeneous and
its behaviour is determined by the characteristics of the
material, whereas, rock is rarely homogeneous so its
behaviour is mostly governed by the orientation and nature
of the joint and bedding discontinuities in the rock.

Pit wall and spoil pile stability are more of a short/medium

term concern in strip mines since neither structure is
exposed for the life of the mine as in open pit mining.
 Geomechanical Parameters
The best time to gather geotechnical data is at the
exploration drilling stage. Cuttings and cores should be
collected with minimum disturbance (> 60 mm dia.) and
holes visually logged and oriented, and a full suite of
geophysical logs taken.

A program of testing for material properties for both soils

and rock should then be undertaken to measure such
properties as slaking and classification tests, Atterberg
limits, shear and compressive strengths, point load strength
and drillability.
 Hydrogeological Parameters
Groundwater present in either or both of the soil and rock
masses adjacent to a strip mine can have serious effects on
the stability of the pit walls and spoil piles as it reduces the
shear strength and exerts water pressure in the joints in the
highwall and planes of weakness in the spoil piles thereby
reducing the stability.
It also enables the freeze/thaw cycle to act in northern
climates, it increases the material weight and can cause
erosion and weathering in such materials as till, shale and
clay.
 Hydrogeological Parameters
If the groundwater flows into the pit, it causes silting and
control problems as well as increasing the operating costs
due to the need to pump the water out of the pit. It can
severely reduce the angle of repose for the spoil pile and
reduce the effective reach of draglines and stackers, even to
the extent of reducing the ability of the machines to
maintain their designed output.
The most important effect of groundwater is the reduction
in stability that it causes due to pressure and reduction of
friction in joints, discontinuities and within the
unconsolidated materials. This can be extremely critical
when it is recognised that the dragline normally works
 Hydrogeological Parameters
perched at the top of the highwall or even on the spoil pile,
and that both the BWE and stacking units are vulnerable to
damage or loss during wall or spoil pile failures in the
continuous mining systems.
Data has to be collected at the exploration stage from drill
core and cuttings or grab samples and from tests in the drill
holes. Samples of the different materials in the expected
mined section should be tested for permeability and
porosity, and piezometers should be installed in the
exploration drill holes to measure the water levels and
pressure present.
 Hydrogeological Parameters
Pump tests, where the water level in a drill hole is lowered
and the time to recover to the original level is measured,
are also very important ways of establishing the potential
groundwater flow.

Geological data will also be of use in determining the

sources of water and the location of aquifers and
aquicludes.

The parameters and criteria that are provided by the

geotechnical and hydrogeological investigations will dictate
the dimensions and slopes of the pit walls and spoil piles at
each stage in the life of the strip mine.
 Hydrogeological Parameters
These limits will vary, not only from year to year, but also in
location along the pit as the soil and rock materials vary.

The establishment of the maximum safe parameters for the

pit walls and waste dumps is essential to the economic
success of the mine. Highwall slopes that are too steep will
fail with potentially disastrous consequences to safety and
cost including the possible loss of the dragline; highwall
slopes that are too shallow will result in increases in the
amount of overburden/waste that has to be removed to
uncover the required amount of ore and a reduction in the
operating range of the dragline or BWE with dramatic cost
 Hydrogeological Parameters
implications for both operating and capital costs and for
production rates.

In addition to such common elements as strip ratio, cut

plans, mine plans and facilities, there are several other
aspects of surface mining that, while less critical for strip
mining than for open pit mining, are still of considerable
importance.
 Haul Road and Pit Access

Although most overburden or waste material is placed in

dumps within the pit without the need for truck haulage,
most strip mines use trucks to haul the mineral to the
stockyard or processing plant. The normal access for these
vehicles to the seam is through the spoil pile. While these
are temporary roads in the sense that they are always being
extended and reclaimed, they have to be built to good
standards to permit the mineral haulers to maintain the
maximum speed of travel and hence productivity.
 Haul Road and Pit Access

The need to route the mineral haul through the spoil pile
also presents a serious planning constraint for the strip
mine planner. Essentially, the presence of the haul road
reduces the space available for the dragline or stacker to
deposit the overburden, thus requiring a greater operating
range and stacking height than would be the normal
operations need.

The presence of a haul road through the spoil pile also

exposes the spoil pile to the elements for a longer period
and also delay the reclamation of the spoil (see Fig. 2.4).
 Haul Road and Pit Access

Fig. 2.4 Plan of a Typical Strip Coal Mine Showing Layout of Haul Roads
 Production Scheduling

The scheduling of the production for a strip mine is

simplified by the fact that most mines work with a single
cut, but it has to be recognized, that unlike the open pit,
there is virtually no flexibility in changing the working
locations of the equipment, especially in the short term.

The ability to maximize the profit or Net Present Value of

the deposit is largely dependent on the correct assessment
of the mine stability and on the ability to schedule the
equipment movements and match production rates.
 Production Scheduling
The mine schedule will determine the life of the mine, the
cashflows, the operating costs and capital requirements
including investment needs and the expected revenue.

The effective scheduling of a strip mine operation also

seeks to minimize preproduction costs; ensure the correct
balance between waste removal and ore mining to try and
smooth stripping ratio variations although there is limited
flexibility in this area; ensure adequate working room in
the pit, make sure that there is always ore exposed to mine
and if necessary blend; ensure that reclamation can be
effected in a timely manner and at the lowest cost, and
that production is maximized.
 Equipment Selection and Scheduling
The vast majority of equipment used in a strip mine for
overburden removal is large and of very high capacity. Such
equipment is generally of limited mobility and thus extra
care has to be made in its selection to ensure that it is
capable of dealing with the full range of conditions that are
likely to be encountered in the operating life of the mine.

This is particularly crucial since the dragline and BWE's

depend on their reach and lifting capacity to function
effectively.
 Waste (Spoil) Dumps
Unlike the majority of open pit mines, the waste or
overburden material from the mining cut is dumped in the
adjacent mined out cut. While this has the advantage that
suitable and stable external sites do not have to be found
for the waste, the working areas in the pit are more at risk
from potential failures of the adjacent spoil piles with
consequent loss of equipment and mineral.

Great care has to be exercised in the planning of a strip

mine to ensure that there will always be room in the
mined-out cuts for the next volume of overburden
material. This becomes particularly difficult when the cuts
in the strip mine are not straight but are advancing on an
outside curve from it.
 Waste (Spoil) Dumps

This results in the volume in the highwall cut being

substantially greater than the swelled volume available in
the mined out cut.

Reclamation of waste dumps is much easier and can be

carried much earlier than the reclamation of the typical
open pit mine waste dumps. In fact in many cases the
dragline or BWE/stacker can place the spoil so that a
minimum of dozer leveling is all that is necessary to
prepare the spoil piles for the final addition of subsoil and
topsoil.
 Typical Strip Mining System
❖The exploitation phase of the mining of a strip mine is
generally divided into the following unit operations:
❖Clearing of trees, shrubs and vegetation.
❖Removal of topsoil and suitable sub-soil, initially to
stockpile, but later for direct placement onto leveled spoil
piles.
❖Removal of overburden and placing in in-pit spoil dumps.
This may occasionally include drilling and pre-blasting.
❖Loading of mineral and hauling to process plant or
stockpile. This also may require occasional drilling and
pre-blasting before loading.
❖Preparation of spoil piles for reclamation.
❖Reclamation of spoil piles.
 MN 471:PART I
SURFACE MINE PLANNING AND DESIGN

(CHAPTER 3)

SURFACE MINING CLASSIFICATIONS-

OPEN PIT MINING

COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE

SURFACE MINING CLASSIFICATION: OPEN PIT MINING
 Open Pit
An excavation made from the ground surface to extract ore
and which is open to the surface and remains so for the life
of the mine. The objective of an open pit is to extract the
ore at the lowest possible cost and to derive the maximum
profit for the company.

The planning of an open pit can thus be said to be an

exercise in economics but strongly influenced by the
geology and mining technology and equipment. It is an
iterative and complex process governed by the need for
high productivities, the ability to mine lower grade ores and
the need to meet ever more stringent environmental
constraints.
 Open Pit
Generally, it is accepted that surface mining is better than
underground mining in the percentage recovery of the ore,
grade control, economy, flexibility, and safety. However
there is a limit to which open pit mining can be applied, and
that is governed by the economics of the amount of waste
that has to be removed to enable the ore to be mined.
When these limits are reached, the mine may be converted
to an underground mine or abandoned. These economic
limits will be dictated by safety, equipment capabilities and
strip ratios.
 Open Pit
The design of an open pit is normally conducted in a series
of steps which range from the exploration stage, through
the conceptual or alternative stage to the design and finally
the evaluation stage.
The factors involved in this design include those that the
mining engineer can control - (equipment selection, mining
ratios, production rates) and those over which he has no
control (orebody geometry, ore dispersion, allowable
slopes; topography and location).
 Open Pit Terminology
❖ BENCH: A ledge that forms a single level of operation above
which waste and ore are mined back to a bench face. The
waste or ore is removed in successive layers each of which
is a bench.
Several benches may be in operation simultaneously in
different parts and at different elevations in the mine.
❖ BENCH FACE: The exposed face between two bench levels
which forms the actual working face for the mining
operation.
❖ BENCH HEIGHT: Vertical distance between highest point of
the bench face (CREST) and the bottom or TOE of the bench
face. Represents the distance between two benches and is
dictated by equipment and regulatory considerations
 Open Pit Terminology
❖BENCH WIDTH: Determine by the equipment needed for
mining operations and whether it is also to be used as a
haul road
❖BENCH SLOPE: Angle in degrees to horizontal of line
joining crest and toe of bench face.
❖BERM: A horizontal ledge left for safety and stability
reasons within the final or inactive wall slope of the pit.
❖BERM INTERVAL: The vertical distance between berms,
defined by geotechnical considerations.
❖ BERM SLOPE: Angle in degrees to horizontal of line
joining crest and toe of berm face. Related to final
pitwall angle and berm widths.
 Open Pit Terminology
❖BERM WIDTH: Established as part of the safety and
geotechnical considerations.
❖OVERALL PIT SLOPE: The final angle of the pit wall from
the toe of the lowest bench to the crest of the highest
bench as determined for long term stability.
❖PIT LIMITS: The vertical and lateral extent to which the
mining may be economically carried out including the
removal of waste to access the economical ore.
❖FOOTWALL: The wall rock or ore limit on the lower side
of an orebody, or the floor of a bedded deposit.
❖HANGING WALL: The ore limit or wall rock on the upper
side of the orebody or bedded deposit.
 Open Pit Terminology
❖HAUL ROAD: A road maintained in the walls of the pit to
access the working benches from the surface. May be
straight or spiral/zig-zag in deeper pits
❖SPIRAL ROAD: Road constructed around the pit walls in a
spiral fashion to provide a uniform grade and minimal
abrupt changes in direction. Usually gives longest route
from pit but access to all benches.
❖SWITCHBACK: Road constructed usually in the footwall
to handle steep gradient in pit wall. Changes direction
frequently, but bends determined by turning radius of
truck. Bends usually made as wide as possible.
❖HAUL ROAD WIDTH: Determined by truck size, and
number of lanes of traffic.
 Open Pit Terminology
❖HAUL ROAD GRADE: Incline of the road in degrees from
the horizontal or as percentage rise. Usually set between
8 and 12%.
❖OPERATING BENCH: The benches in a pit which are
actively in use to mine ore or waste.
❖DROP CUT: A descending cut for getting access to the
next lower working bench
❖WASTE SLOPE: The maximum angle of the dumped
waste material at which it will stand without sliding.
Depends on material, method of dumping and
topography. Also known as ANGLE OF REPOSE.
Section through Open Pit Mine in an
Idealised Tabular Orebody

Figure 3.1 shows a section through an Open Pit Mine in an Idealised

Tabular Orebody
Fig. 3.2 Photograph of an Open Pit of a Mine
Section through Open Pit Mine

Fig. 3.3 Common Open Pit Nomenclature

Section through Open Pit Mine

Fig. 3.4 Open Pit Plan

showing the Haul Road
Location
Factors Affecting the Success of Strip Mining
Open pit mines are generally excavated to greater depths
than strip mines and are therefore more complex and
critical to design and layout. In addition to the geological
data and surface topography which are critical to the
establishment of pit size, layout, production rate and the
process flowsheet, there are other data that have to be
supplied from a properly designed exploration program that
are essential to the successful operation of an open pit
mine.

These include the two factors that most affect pit wall
stability, the maker or breaker of open pit mining, namely
geotechnical parameters and hydrogeological parameters.
 Geotechnical Parameters
Unlike soil, rock is rarely homogeneous so its behaviour
and mostly governed by the orientation and nature of the
joint and bedding discontinuities in the rock. The best time
to gather geotechnical data is at the exploration drilling
stage. Cores should be collected with minimum
disturbance (> 60 mm diameter) and holes visually logged
and oriented and a full suite of geophysical logs taken.

A program of testing for material properties should then be

undertaken to measure such properties as shear and
compressive strengths, point load strength, drillability, and
slaking and classification tests.
 Hydrogeological Parameters
Groundwater present in the rock mass surrounding an open
pit can have serious effects on the stability of the pit walls
as it reduces the shear strength and exerts water pressure
in the joints thereby reducing the stability.

It also enables the freeze/thaw cycle to act in northern

climates, it increases the rock weight and can cause erosion
and weathering in such rocks as shale and clay. If the
groundwater flows into the pit, it causes silting and control
problems as well as increasing the operating costs due to
the need to pump the water out of the pit.
 Hydrogeological Parameters
Data has to be collected at the exploration stage from drill
core and from tests in the drill holes.

Cores of the different rocks in the expected mined section

should be tested for permeability and porosity, and
piezometers should be installed in the exploration drillholes
to measure the water levels and pressure present.

Pump tests, where the water level in a drill hole is lowered

and the time to recover to the original level is measured,
are also very important ways of establishing the potential
groundwater flow.
 Hydrogeological Parameters
The most important effect of groundwater is the reduction
in stability that it causes due to pressure and reduction of
friction in joints and discontinuities.
Geological data will also be of use in determining the
sources of water and the location of aquifers and
aquicludes.

The parameters and criteria that are provided by the

geotechnical and hydrogeological investigations will dictate
the dimensions and slopes of the pit walls throughout the
life of an open pit. These limits will vary, not only from year
to year, but also in location around the pit as the rock
materials vary.
 Hydrogeological Parameters
The establishment of the maximum safe parameters for the
pit walls and waste dumps is essential to the economic
success of the mine. Slopes that are too steep will fail with
potentially disastrous consequences to safety and cost,
slopes that are too shallow will result in increases in the
amount of overburden/waste that has to be removed to
uncover the required amount of ore with dramatic cost
implications for both operating and capital costs.

In addition to such common elements as strip ratio, bench

plans, mine plans and facilities, there are several other
aspects of surface mining that are more critical for open pit
mining than for strip mining.
 Haul Road and Pit Access
Since almost all open pit mines operate using the
shovel/truck mining method with a fleet of often large
numbers of trucks, there is a key requirement for haul
roads to access the working benches of the pit and to
provide routes for the waste and ore to be transported to
their respective destinations.

Today’s high-capacity trucks represent a major capital

investment and a considerable proportion of the operating
cost. If haul roads are not properly designed and located,
these large trucks can represent a major safety risk and an
uneconomic item of equipment with high operating and
maintenance costs.
 Haul Road and Pit Access
Haul roads in open pit have two problems to contend with:
location and grade (slope/gradient).

The main concern for location, after obviously ensuring that

they will be in stable sections of the pit walls, is whether
they are placed in ore or in waste rock.

In the former case, valuable ore is sterilized but waste

removal costs are minimized, while in the second case
additional waste has to be removed to maintain the
maximum ore recovery.
 Haul Road and Pit Access
The major objectives of haul roads are to provide safe and
efficient/economic transport by maintaining safe and ready
access to the mining operation, by minimizing ore and
waste transport costs; and by being designed for long life,
low maintenance operation through effective layout and
road geometry and the use of the correct construction
materials.
 Production Scheduling
The scheduling of the production for an open pit mine is
complicated by the fact that most mines work with
multiple benches and may have both ore and waste to
simultaneously excavate from a large number of working
faces. The ability to maximize the profit or Net Present
Value of an orebody is largely dependent on the mining
schedule.

The mine schedule will determine the life of the mine, the
cashflows, the operating costs and capital requirements
including investment needs and the expected revenue.
 Production Scheduling
The effective scheduling of an open pit operation will seek
to:
❖minimize preproduction costs;
❖ensure the correct balance between waste removal and
ore mining to try and smooth stripping ratio variations;
❖ ensure adequate working room/faces in the pit, make
sure that there is always ore exposed to mine and if
necessary blend;
❖ensure that reclamation can be effected in a timely
manner and at the lowest cost, and
❖that production is maximized.
 Equipment Selection and Scheduling
Open pit mines, as mentioned above, work from a
multitude of operating faces on different benches.

Major mining equipment for both ore and waste removal

has to be flexible enough to be capable of rapid
redeployment in the mine to suit the demand of the
mining schedule.

Special attention has to be paid to the selection of the

mining equipment and its scheduling in order to ensure
maximum productivity and utilization in the mine.
 Waste (Spoil) Dumps
Unlike the majority of strip mines, the waste material from
an open pit has to be dumped in locations external to the
pit.

Not only do suitable and stable sites have to be found for

the waste, but they have to be also located within a
reasonable hauling distance from the pit.

Reclamation of these external waste dumps is also more

complex than the reclamation of the typical strip mine
waste piles.
Fig. 3.5 Example of Pit Slopes Varying in a Deposit
Fig. 3.6 Pit Designed with 45o Pit Slope.
Fig. 3.6 Pit Designed with A 45o Inter-ramp Slope and Road System
 Fig. 3.8 Haul Road
Geometry Considerations

(a) Haul Road outside Orebody (b) Haul Road in Orebody

Fig. 3.9 Plan View Showing Inter-ramp
Slope Angles Used in Palabora Pit
Slope Design
Fig. 3.10 Curves of Traveling Time Versus Location of Ramp
for Various Rolling Resistances
 Typical Open Pit Mining Sequence
The exploitation phase of the mining of an open pit is
usually divided into several unit operations:
1. Clearing of trees, shrub and other vegetation.
2. Removal of topsoil and sub-soil suitable for use in
reclamation and stockpiling for future reclamation use.
3a. Drilling and blasting of waste.
3b. Loading of waste and hauling to external dumps.
4a. Drilling and blasting of ore.
4b. Loading of ore and hauling to process plant or stockpile.
5. Preparation of Waste dumps for reclamation.
6. Reclamation of waste dumps with placement of sub-soil
and topsoil.
 MN 471:PART I
SURFACE MINE PLANNING AND DESIGN

(CHAPTER 4)

SURFACE MINING CLASSIFICATIONS-

STRIPPING RATIO
COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE
SURFACE MINING CLASSIFICATION: STRIPPING RATIO,
GRADE AND TONNAGE
 Mining Stripping Ratios
DIMENSIONAL CONVENTIONS
T = tonne = 2206 lbs
T = long ton = 2240 lbs
ST = short ton = 2000 lbs
m = meter
M = Million
mm = millimeter NOT MILLION
m3 = cubic meter
cm = centimeter NOT cubic meter
bcm = bank cubic meter
l cm = loose cubic meter
 Definitions
❖Stripping Ratio (S/R): The ratio of waste or overburden
material that has to be moved to release a unit of ore or
mineral.
The relationship may vary as ratios of volume: volume, or
mass: mass, or thickness: thickness.
Different mining companies use different units for their
stripping ratios.

• LORNEX t (waste): t (ore)

• SMOKY RIVER COAL yd3 (waste):t (coal)
• SUNCOR yd3 (waste):st (oil sand)
• SYNCRUDE m3 (waste):t (oil sand)
• HIGHVALE m3 (waste):t (coal)
• GEOLOGISTS m (waste):m (ore)
 Definitions
❖In-Situ or Resource S/R: The stripping ratio based on the
in-situ ore with no dilution or losses
❖Rom or Recoverable S/R: The stripping ratio based on
the as mined ore which includes allowances for dilution
and losses.
❖Product S/R: The stripping ratio based on the saleable
product after processing of the ore; e.g. washed coal;
copper metal; gold etc.
❖Incremental S/R: The ratio of the next or incremental
amount of waste that has to be mined to release the
next block of ore (to that ore).
 Definitions
❖ Stripping Ratio: The stripping ratio represents the uneconomic
material that must be removed to uncover one unit of ore. Fig. 4.1
is an idealized open pit orebody, dipping at an angle .

Fig. 4.1 An Idealised Open Pit Orebody

 Definitions
The ratio of the total volume of waste removed during the
life of the mine to the total volume of ore mined in the
same period. This is also the ratio that is derived from the
ultimate pit limits.
The ratio of the volume of waste to the ore volume is
defined as the overall stripping ratio, R:

Volume of waste removed to depth d

R=
Volume of ore recovered to depth d

ABD
=
BCED
 Definitions
While the overall stripping ratio has a volume relationship,
calculated in cubic yards/cubic yards (cubic meters/cubic
meters), it is commonly expressed in units of tons/tons. In
mining certain mineral commodities, the stripping ratio is
expressed in units of cubic yards/ton (cubic meters/tonne)
[1].

The overall stripping ratio may also be defined as the total

volume of waste to the total volume of ore mined during
the life of the mine.
 Definitions
❖Cut-Off Stripping Ratio or Break-Even Stripping Ratio
The stripping ratio at which the costs of mining a tonne of
ore and associated waste is equal to net revenue from that
tonne of ore. The cut-off stripping ratio is the same as the
break-even stripping ratio.
This is the stripping ratio at which the net value of the last
increment of ore is just sufficient to pay for the cost of
removing the waste to release the ore. This is widely used
to obtain pit limits. First the pit slope is determined from
geotechnical and other considerations and then calculating
the stripping ratio. The cut-off or break-even stripping ratio
is the one for which the costs of mining ore and waste are
matched by the revenue from the block of ore.
 Definitions
The Break-even Stripping Ratio (BESR) is given by equation
(2):
Break-even Stripping Ratio =
Recoverable value per tonne ore (R o ) - Production cost per tonne ore(Co )
(2)
Stripping cost per tonne waste

Or Break-even Stripping Ratio is also that at which:

Ro - Co = Cw
▪ Ro = revenue from a tonne of ore
▪ Co = production cost per tonne of ore (including all costs to the
point of sale, but excluding stripping cost)
▪ Cw = cost of waste removal per tonne of ore
This ratio is applied only at the surface or of the FINAL pit.
 Definitions
The controlling factors in the choice between open pit
mining and underground mining are mining cost, ore
recovery and dilution. In an open pit mining operation,
mining cost include the cost of removing the waste
overburden and waste in the slopes of the pit. The ratio of
the waste to the ore is therefore the controlling factor in
the comparative cost of mining an orebody by open pit vrs.
underground method.

With fluctuating commodity prices, increasing mining

costs and the introduction of more sophisticated mining
techniques, the overall stripping ratio can change over the
total life of any mine.
 Definitions
Example: Assume an underground mining cost of
$2.00/ton of ore for a particular orebody. Assume open
pit mining costs $0.30/ton for ore and $0.35/ton for waste
removal. The indicated stripping ratio for an open pit mine
operation that results in a break-even cost differential
between the two mining methods is determined as
follow:
2.00 - $0.30
=
$0.35

Undergroun d mining cost/ton ore - Open pit mining cost/ton ore

BESR =
Open pit stripping cost/ton waste
 Definitions
Only that part of the orebody where the stripping ratio
does not exceed 4.86 tons waste: 1 ton ore should be
mined by open pit methods.
For this reason it is necessary to update the long-term plan
of the mining project at regular intervals. Having
determined the final pit limits and overall stripping ratio,
the mining plan may be executed in a number of ways.

❖Dilution: Waste that becomes part of the ore as the

waste/ore interface is mined. This waste dilutes the grade
of the ore and the dilution may occur at top or
hangingwall contact and at the bottom or footwall
contact between the ore and the waste.
 Definitions
❖Losses: Ore that is lost into the waste as the ore/waste
interface is mined.
❖Mining Recovery: The percentage of the in-situ ore that is
recovered in the mining process taking into account all
losses.
 Strippoing Ratio Methods
Commodity prices fluctuate, often on a daily basis and
mining costs are always changing usually upwards, so the
overall mine plan and the overall strip ratio will also
change over the life of the mine. Fig. 4.2 is a section of an
orebody with waste Cover.

Fig. 4.2 Section of an Orebody with Caste Cover

 Stripping Ratio Methods
These changes mean that there is a constant need to
update the long-range mine plans and examine if changes
have to be made to the way the mine is worked.
There are three ways that a mine can be worked in relation
to the overall stripping ratios. These are:

❖Declining Stripping Ratio Method

❖Increasing Stripping Ratio Method (see Figs. 4.4a and
4.4b)
❖Constant Stripping Ratio Method (see Figs. 4.5a and 4.5b)
 Stripping Ratio Methods
❖Declining Stripping Ratio Method (see Figs. 4.3a and 4.3b)
Each bench is mined in sequence so that all the ore and
waste on a specific bench are mined out to the pit limits.

Fig. 4.3a Declining Fig. 4.3b Declining Stripping

Stripping Ratio Method Ratio Method
 Stripping Ratio Methods
The advantages are:
❖Excellent working space on bench
❖Good accessibility to ore on lower benches
❖All equipment working on the same level.
❖Reduced contamination of ore from blasting waste
❖Less equipment needed at end of mine life

The disadvantages are:

❖Operating costs at maximum in initial years
❖Reduced initial cash flow
 Stripping Ratio Methods
❖Increasing Stripping Ratio Method (see Figs. 4.4a and
4.4b). In this method the stripping is performed as needed
to uncover the ore.
Only sufficient waste is mined on each bench to give
adequate working room for equipment. This method is
often used where mining economics are likely to change at
short notice.

Fig. 4.4a Increasing Stripping Ratio Fig. 4.4b Increasing Stripping Ratio
Method Method
 Stripping Ratio Methods
The advantages are:
❖Maximum profit in initial years
❖Reduced investment risk

Method is popular where the mining economics or cut-off

stripping ratio is likely to change on very short notice.

❖The disadvantage of the method is the impracticality of

operating a large number of stacked, narrow benches
simultaneously to meet production needs.
 Stripping Ratio Methods
❖Constant Stripping Ratio Method (see Figs. 4.5a and 4.5b)
This method attempts to coordinate the waste removal so
that the annual strip ratio is equal to the overall strip ratio
for the ultimate pit.

Fig. 4.5a Constant Stripping Fig. 4.5b Constant

Ratio Method Stripping Ratio Method

 Stripping Ratio Methods
This method attempts to remove the waste at a rate
approximated by the overall stripping ratio (Fig. 4.5a). The
working slope of he waste starts very shallow but increases
as the mining depth increases until the working slope
equalised the overall pit slope.
The method combines the advantage of the increasing and
declining stripping ratio methods and removes the extreme
conditions under the said methods. Equipment fleet and
labour requirements are constant throughout the life of the
mine.
In reality, the best stripping sequence for a large orebody is
one in which the rate is low during the initial stages and
towards the end of the mine life. The advantages include:
 Stripping Ratio Methods
The advantages are:
❖Equipment & manpower remain relatively constant
❖Compromise method gives good cash flow over project
life
❖A good profit can be generated initially to increase cash
flow.
❖The labour and equipment fleet may be increased to
maximum capacity over a period of time.
❖The labour and equipment requirements decrease
gradually toward the end of the mine’s life.
❖Distinct mining and stripping areas can be operated
simultaneously, allowing for flexibility in planning.
 Stripping Ratio Methods
The disadvantages are:
❖Requires very careful-planning
❖Does not maximize profit as some waste removal may be
done earlier than necessary.
 Stripping Ratio Methods
Fig. 4.6 shows a section of a pit showing different phases in
mining. In actual practice, many mines with large ore
bodies try and plan for a low stripping ratio at the start of
the project, accepting an increasing strip ratio in mid-life
(when debt has been paid off) and targeting a low strip
ratio at the end of the mine life.

Fig. 4.6 Section of a Pit showing different Phases in Mining

 Stripping Ratio Methods
This method allows for better equipment and manpower
planning; gives good early cash when needed to pay off
debt; and usually permits more flexibility in mine planning
(see Fig. 4.7).

Fig. 4.7 Phased Mining Stripping Sequence

 Reference
1. Fourir, G. A. and Dohm Jr., G. C. (1992), “Open Pit
Planning and Design”, in Ch. 13.1 of SME Mining
Engineering Handbook”, H. L. Hartman, (sen. Editor),
Soc. of Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc.,
Littleton, Colorado, pp. 1274 – 1297.

2. Pfleider, E. P., “Glossary of Surface Mining Terms” in

Surface Mining, AIME, The Maple Press Co., York,
Pennsylvania, pp. xvii – xxi.
 MN 471:PART I
SURFACE MINE PLANNING AND DESIGN

(CHAPTER 5)

SURFACE MINING CLASSIFICATIONS-

INTRODUCTION TO MINE PRODUCTION
PLANNING
COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE
SURFACE MINING CLASSIFICATION: INTRODUCTION
TO MINE PRODUCTION PLANNING
 MINE PLANNING AND OBJECTIVES
MINE PLANNING
The planning of a surface mine (open or strip) is an exercise
in economics constrained by certain geological and mining
engineering aspects.

OBJECTIVES
• To cost targets for capital and operating expenditures, and
unit costs
• To determine production requirements (tonnage) by
period of time
• To determine grade or quality requirements for both mine
and process plant
• To ensure flexibility to meet changing circumstances
 TARGETS

To define:
• what is to be mined.
• the sequence in which it is to be mined.
• how it is to be mined
in order to maximise pit value, cash flow and Internal Rate
of Return (IRR) and minimise the payback period.
 SECONDARY OBJECTIVES
1. Feasible and practical production schedule (take into
consideration all constraints).
2. Compatibility with future periods (end-of-period
conditions must permit achievement of main objectives
in future periods).
3. Sufficiently exposed ore at the beginning of the period.
4. Defer waste stripping as long as possible.
5. Minimise the volume of pre-production stripping
(minimise amount of waste stripped and maximise the
ore exposed - trade-off).
6. Enough operating room to maintain the operational
viability.
 SECONDARY OBJECTIVES
7. Logical and easily achievable start-up schedules.
8. Minimise shovel moves
▪ minimise number of benches advanced per period.
▪ maximise amount of contiguous material removed per period.
▪ do not leave material on benches, so the shovel does not need
to return for it.
9. Maximise utilization of capacities of mining equipment.
10. Build up equipment capacities gradually, avoiding
extreme variations between periods. Keep fleet expansions
to minimum to:
▪ take advantage of technical improvements
▪ avoid excess capital being tied up.
11. Incorporate "WHAT IF" contingency.
 SECONDARY OBJECTIVES

PLANNING TARGETS
❖Production
❖Costs - (Capital, Operating)
❖Quality/Grade
MAIN FACTORS
❖ Mining sequence (no. of moves, manpower/equipment
requirements).
❖Haul Routes (Distances, existing infrastructure).
❖Drainage.
❖Power Distribution.
❖Cut-off Grade or Quality.
 SECONDARY OBJECTIVES

PLAN FLEXIBILITIES
❖Ample Reserves.
❖Additional Faces/Pits for emergencies/contingencies.
❖Blending Capability (High Grade Reserve).
❖Spare Equipment.
❖Weather Contingency (Alternate Routes or Pits/faces).
 DRAGLINE/TRUCK - SHOVEL

Dragline: Relatively "Steady State” Geometry i.e. Strip

Ratio Goes Up Gradually.

Truck-Shovel: Economics determines mining on a shorter-

term basis i. e. Incremental cost is the driving force.

General Comment: Economics should determine method

of mining. (Not location of orebody or What “Everybody”
else is doing).
 RANGE OF MINE PLANS
❖LONG RANGE
▪ Life of mine
▪ 25-year plan
▪ 5-year plan
❖SHORT RANGE
▪ Annual plan
Production Scheduling
▪ daily schedule
▪ weekly schedule
▪ monthly schedule
 LIFE OF MINE PLAN
Shows how the resources will be used over the expected life
of the mine. Prepared every five years or so (may be
combined with the 25-year plan depending on mine life).
a) 25-Year Plan
Based on 5 yearly increments; presents strategic plan for
mine. Prepared every three to five years depending on
economic and technical circumstances.
b) 5-Year Plan
Business plan defining the capital and operating expenses;
major equipment and facility needs or changes; often
updated every year on a rolling basis, but never less
frequently than 2-3 years.
 LIFE OF MINE PLAN
c) Annual Plan
Basis for the budget and operations for the financial year.
Covers from 14 to 18 months to provide overlap and
continuity.

d) Monthly Plan
Operational scheduling, especially to identify scheduled
maintenance and major equipment moves. Updated weekly.

e) Weekly Plan
To allocate resources (equipment and manpower); identify
work locations; set production targets.
 WHO DOES THE PLANNING
THE MINING ENGINEER
but he also coordinates the input from almost every other
department in the mining company.
Typical departmental responsibilities in implementing a
mine plan include the following:

1. Administrative
(a) Size of workforce
(b) Cost of the work outlined in the mine plan
(c) Order parts and supplies and establish delivery schedules
(d) Holiday schedules
(e) Order new equipment
 WHO DOES THE PLANNING
2. Engineering
(a) Mine plans and layout
(b) Geotechnical
(c) Equipment selection
(d) Design of haul roads, waste dumps, dewatering layouts
and power distribution
(e) Set up exploration program
(f) Feasibility studies
(g) Surveying and ore grading
(h) Blast designs
(i) New technology
 WHO DOES THE PLANNING
3. Operating
(a) Mine the ore and waste materials
(b) Construction of haul roads
(c) Installation of dewatering equipment
(d) Schedule work force
(e) Training of work force
(f) Site preparation of new benches or mining areas

4. Maintenance
(a) Set up equipment schedules for service, major repair and
overhaul that will give the required equipment availability
(b) Schedule work force and maintenance equipment
(c) Establish programs to modify and upgrade equipment
 MAJOR ELEMENTS IN A YEARLY MINE PLAN
1. The production in ore and waste for each shovel and drill
is blocked out in periods equivalent to three months in
duration.
2. Ore grade, weight, recovery, mineral recovery, physical
and chemical properties are shown for each block.
3. All the major construction items to be undertaken during
the upcoming year are shown such as roads, opening of
new mining areas, new pole lines and major dewatering
changes.
4. Major waste dumps to be used are indicated with their
corresponding capacity.
5. Average haul distances and cycle times are computed
for the ore and waste operations.
OTHER ITEMS CALCULATED IN A YEARLY MINE PLAN
1. Work force required.
2. Equipment required.
3. Major supplies required including:
▪ (a) Shovel teeth, adapters, cables, lubricants, power and
maintenance parts.
▪ (b) Drill bits, stems, stabilizers, lubricants, power and
maintenance parts.
▪ (c) Truck tyres, fuel, lubricants and maintenance parts.
▪ (d) Tractor cutting edges, tracks, tyres, fuel, lubricants and
maintenance parts.
▪ (e) Dewatering pumps, pipe, couplings, starters and
maintenance parts.
▪ (f) Explosive quantities by type
▪ (g) Supplies for auxiliary equipment.
INFORMATION INCLUDED IN A MONTHLY MINE PLAN
1. Shovel, drill and blast sequence are indicated.
2. Ore grading is done by using an entire blast as the
smallest unit of volume for calculation purposes.
3. Immediate construction items such as road construction,
power distribution and dewatering layouts are indicated.
4. Haulage unit requirements are shown based on average
haul times and cycle times in ore and waste.
5. Major maintenance other than routine work is
highlighted such as a major re-pair or overhaul of a shovel
and concave and mantle change on the crusher, etc.
6. Any major deviation from the yearly mining plan is
shown and cost estimates are adjusted by exception.
INFORMATION INCLUDED IN A WEEKLY MINE PLAN
1. The ore that must be blasted to achieve or maintain the
proper blend to the processing plants or to ensure a
shovel does not deplete its broken reserve.

2. Coordinate the maintenance schedule with the

operating requirements. Maintenance time duration on
shovels, drills, loading pockets, conveyors, trains,
crushers and plant are established to effect minimum
interference on production.

3. Number of trucks required on a daily basis.

 INFORMATION INCLUDED IN A DAILY MINE PLAN
1. Shovels scheduled to operate by shift in ore and waste.
2. The approximate truck allocation by shovel to achieve a given
tonnage or yardage.
3. The drills scheduled to operate by shift in ore and waste.
4. Shovel and drill priority for reasons of sparing equipment and
maintenance.
5. The portion of the blast each shovel is to dig to achieve overall ore
blending.
6. Equipment required by maintenance for service and repair.
7. Areas to be blasted and the equipment required to be moved.
8. Miscellaneous information such as areas having priority on
secondary drills, special jobs for loaders and tractors, road
maintenance priority, service on crushers or any other ore life line
equipment.
Table 1 Typical Layers and Activities in Mine Production
Planning

LAYER ACTIVITIES
Life of Reserve development sequence, Production rates, Strip
mine ratio, Tonnage/grade (per year)
Annual Manpower/equipment deployment, Production tonnage
& grades, Bench development/blending (per week)
TACTICAL STRATEGIC

Monthly Drill/blast/load/haul sequences, Ramp/road access

plans, Waste & ore tonnage/grade (per week)
Weekly Equipment moves, Maintenance schedules, Waste &
ore tonnages/grades (per day)
Daily Operating instructions, Detailed bench plans (per shift)
Real Time Equipment/manpower moves, Dispatching,
Maintenance
 SOME OF THE FACTORS CONSIDERED AND
DELINEATED IN A COMPLETE MINE PLAN

1. Shovel mining sequence, (moves, ore and waste

schedule), production, number of operating units required.
2. Drill sequence, footage requirements by hole size, blast
site development as required, number of operating units
required.
3. Haulage routes, haul distances, road construction,
production, capability and number of units required.
4. Stripping requirements to uncover the ore.
5. Explosive requirements based on rock types, the type
and quantity of explosive required.
 SOME OF THE FACTORS CONSIDERED AND
DELINEATED IN A COMPLETE MINE PLAN

6. Dewatering requirements, indicate location of new wells

or sumps, increase in head and volume.
7. Power distribution, ensure sufficient power will be
available in the proposed mining areas.
8. Waste dumps location, capacity, design to best
accommodate the stripping operation.
9. Coordinate and sequence all these items to insure
adequate lead time for installation as required.
10. Schedule ore sequence to fulfill the beneficiation plant
needs on the shortest time interval defined.
11. Define the cut-off grade.
 MN 471:PART I
SURFACE MINE PLANNING AND DESIGN

(CHAPTER 6)

SURFACE MINING CLASSIFICATIONS-

HAUL ROAD DESIGN
COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE
SURFACE MINING CLASSIFICATION:
HAUL ROAD DESIGN
 HAUL ROAD DESIGN

Haul Road Design

Design should ensure:
minimum costs
safe operations
minimum congestion
that the road is built in stable area of mine - aim for
long life roads.
 DIAGRAMATIC STRIP MINE LAYOUT

Strip Mines (Figure 2A-1)

 STRIP MINE LAYOUT

Characterised by T-junctions with roads generally

through waste dumps.
Eliminates some spoil room.
Roads should be cut through placed spoil rather than
try and dump spoil to form cut through.
Coal haul usually by bottom dump trucks which need
lower gradients than rear dump trucks (< 6o).
 DIAGRAMATIC TERRACE MINE LAYOUT
Terrace Mines (Figure 2A-2)
 TERRACE MINE LAYOUT
Since many of these are BWE/Conveyor mines,
haul road needs are usually limited to service
vehicles.

In shovel truck terrace mines, roads have to

switchback from terrace to terrace requiring major
road construction, but of a mostly temporary
nature.
 DIAGRAMATIC OPEN PIT LAYOUT

Open Pit Mines (Figure 2A-3)

 OPEN PIT TYPICAL LAYOUT

Pit usually in the form of a benched inverted cone.

In pit access road may be a clockwise or anti-clockwise
spiral, switchback or zig-zag.

Main factors deciding layout are:

 availability of permanent locations, e.g. footwall
using switchbacks.
 large pits may preclude use of spiral ramps.
 areas of instability should be avoided.
 pit wall slopes: may be too steep to allow
switchbacks, hence use spiral layouts.
 TYPICAL LAYOUTS

 grades of 8 – 10% normal, but up to 12% possible

with trolley assist haulage.
 haul roads flatten the effective or overall pit slope,
thus increasing stripping costs.
 haul road may be located either in ore or in waste;
economics, geotechnics and safety decide.

.
HAUL ROAD GEOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS
Open Pit Mines (Figure 2A-4)
 HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY
Affected by the following factors:
 Number of Lanes
• single lane unidirectional
• two lane directional

Safe Distance between Trucks

• driver reaction time gradient
• road surface

Road Width (Figures 2A-5, 2A-6)

• - taken as a factor of vehicle width
 HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY
Superelevation on Curves (Figure 2A-7)
• established for design travel speeds
• needs to allow for slower speeds and poor road
conditions, e.g. snow and ice.
• should be uniformly introduced in the tangent to the
curve

Gradients
– maximum gradients may be limited by law normal
limit is 8% as optimum
• long steep gradients should include flatter sections for
safety and drainage reasons
HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY
 HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY
Sight Distances (Figures 2A-8, 2A-9)
• must be sufficient that vehicles can stop when traveling
at operational speeds.
• separate criteria for vertical curves and horizontal curves
similarly for crossing public roads or rail tracks or where
vision is restricted.

Runaway Precautions (Figures 2A-10, 2A-11, 2A-12)

• Necessary on steep gradients in the event of brake failure
• Escape lanes - entrance curves, road width;
superelevation, arresting materials.
• Centerline or median berms of fine material
•
HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY
HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY

Figure 2A-10 Stopping Distance

HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY

Figure 2A-12 Stopping Distance

 HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY

Figure 2A-11 Effect of Grade Reduction on Stopping Distances

 HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY
Cross Slopes
• desirable where heavy rain.
• normally all in one direction, inwards on benches, Drains
and Culverts.
• not in weak materials unless in flumes or lined.
• drain inwards on benches.
• cuts and embankments drain to both sides.
• drain slopes to specific criteria.
• big enough to handle predicted run-offs.
• design should include culverts.
HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY
HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY
 HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY

Table 2A-1 Haul Road Section Based on CBR Chart

Layer Typical Material CBR Total Fill Cover Layer Thickness*

(%) (in) (in)
Surface course Crushed rock 95 - 8
Base course Pitrun sand & gravel 60 8 7
Sub-base Till, Mine spoil 25 15 36
Subgrade Firm clay 4 51 -

* For wheel load of 100,000 lb

 HAUL ROAD GEOMETRY
Table 2A-2 Presumptive Bearing Capacity of various Materials

Material Bearing Capacity (psi)

Hard, sound rock 800+
Medium hard rock 400 – 600
Hardpan overlying rock 130 – 180
Dense gravel; very dense sand & gravel 120 – 160
Soft rock 100 – 120
Medium dense to dense sand and gravel 80 – 100
Hard, dry unconsolidated clay 60 – 80
Loose, coarse to medium sand, medium dense fine sand 30 – 60
Compact sand-clay soils 30 – 40
Loose fine sand, medium dense sand-silt soils 15 – 30
Firm or stiff clay 10 – 20
Loose saturated sand, medium soft clay 5 – 10
Muskeg, peats, marsh soils 0–5
Loose to medium dense mine spoil 5 - 75
 MN 471:PART I
SURFACE MINE PLANNING AND DESIGN

(CHAPTER 7)

WASTE DISPOSAL- PLANNING AND

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ASPECT
COMPILED BY: MR J. B. BAIDOE
 WASTE DISPOSAL:
PLANNING AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ASPECTS
 DUMP DESIGN

A waste dump is a place where the low grade and/or

barren material that has to be removed from the pit to
expose higher grade material is disposed of.
In some instances, the material has to be removed for
other indirect reasons, such as pit wall stabilization and for
haul road construction.

The first step in designing a dump is the selecting of a site

that will be suitable to handle the volume of waste rock to
be removed during the mine’s life.
Site selection will depend on a number of factors such as:
 DUMP DESIGN

• Pit location and size through time;

• Topography;
• Waste rock volumes by time and source;
• Property boundaries;
• Existing drainage routes;
• Reclamation requirements;
• Foundation conditions;
• Material handling equipment.
 DUMP DESIGN
All of these parameters will be considered during the site
selecting process. Once a site or a number of alternative
locations have been selected, the designing of the dumps
can commence, using the same points utilized defining the
best potential dump locations.

The objective of dump planning is to design a series of

waste disposal phases that will minimise the horizontal and
vertical distances between the source and the disposal area.
Since material handling costs are usually the largest single
component of the mining cost, well-designed dumps play a
very important and critical role, affecting the expense of the
total operation.
 DUMP DESIGN
The pit mining sequence and production schedule will be
completed prior to dump design with the object of
maximising the return on the investment. Therefore, two of
the most important parameters affecting dump design have
been set before any of effort commences:
 the pit location and size through time and
 the waste production schedule and source locations.

These two parameters define where the dumps can start,

how fast they will advance, and the ultimate volume that
the disposal area must contain. The location where dumping
can commence may not necessarily be outside of the pit
limits.
 DUMP DESIGN
In some instances, internal dumping may be the most
economical and practical method of establishing haul roads
to the disposal area or to later pit phases.

Also, as an alternative, it may be wiser to dump short and

re-handle the material in the future if the economic benefits
of this can be demonstrated. This can affect the pit in the
sense that later phases adjacent to the dumps could have
higher ratios than the original design. Therefore, these areas
should be examined in more detail and the haulage cost
savings gained by dumping short compared to the potential
ore reserve
 DUMP DESIGN
The pit mining sequence will define the rate and source of
the waste rock.
Generally, waste material from the upper portions of the pit
should be hauled to dumps located at higher elevations and
lower waste dumped in lower locations. This is common
sense if haulage costs are to be minimised. Although this is
the ideal objective, topography, property boundaries,
drainage routes, dump stability, environmental
consideration and other constraints may make this objective
difficult or impossible to achieve.

Topography will limit the available areas and usually defines

the type or shape of the waste dump.
 DUMP DESIGN
More common dump configurations are valley fills
(complete or partial,) hillside wedges, fan and terraced
dumps and combinations of these. If the pit mining
sequence permits back filling an area that has been
depleted while another adjacent area is still active, then this
alternative can be preferable instead of extending dumps
over virgin areas, depending on haulage and reclamation
costs.
Dump areas can also be limited by existing drainage routes
and property boundaries. In both of these cases, economic
comparison should be completed to weigh the relative costs
and potential savings that would result from removing the
constraint, e.g., drainage diversion or property purchase.
 DUMP DESIGN
Before commencing a dump design, two additional
parameters must be determined. The material swell factor
and angle of repose are very important factors in
determining the dump volume needed and the overall
dump slopes.
In-situ material, when mined, will swell from 10 to 60%,
depending on the type of material and fracture frequency.
In hard rock operations, the swell factor is commonly from
30% to 45%, meaning that one in-situ unit will swell to a
volume of 1.30 to 1.45 units.
Loose density tests should be performed to determine the
anticipated swell. These figures will first be used to size
loading equipment buckets and haul truck box sizes.
 DUMP DESIGN
The second use is to quantify the volume of dumping room
that will be necessary to dispose of the material from the
mine.

Loose material will compact to some degree after

placement on the dump. This will depend on the type of
material, size distribution, moisture content, disposal
method, and the height of the dump. Common compaction
numbers will range from 5% to 15%.

Crushed and conveyed waste will not have a compaction

factor as great as that of waste placed in low lifts by 154-t
(170-st) haul trucks.
 DUMP DESIGN
A second parameter that must be determined is the angle of
repose of the loose dump material. Dry run-off-mine rock
will usually stand between 34o to 37o.

The lower the dump height, the more rapid the

advancement and the more irregular the rock pieces, the
higher the angle.
For design purposes, a conservative slope of 1.5:1 (34o) is
recommended in order to safely project the anticipated toe
position. Measurements of existing waste dump slopes will
also give a good indication of the expected long-dump face
angle.
 DUMP DESIGN
The dump configuration will also be affected by the haulage
methods and by stability and reclamation considerations.
The three methods of material handling in order of
frequency of use are: truck, conveyor, and rail.
Truck haulage is used in more instances because of its
flexibility and lower capital cost.
In particular cases, conveyors are more economical to use
for waste disposal with their lower operating costs and
where large tonnages have to be transported over either
large horizontal or vertical distances. As in-pit mobile
crusher development progresses, the tonnages handled by
conveying systems will increase substantially.
 DUMP DESIGN
Rail haulage is an alternative for many future operations.
Stability considerations will affect the design of the dumps
either by lowering the ultimate height or reducing the
overall slope. The slope can be reduced either by building
the dump in lifts or by dozing. Sometimes, a combination of
these two methods is necessary for reclamation purposes.

The important phases of a dump may vary to a large extent

from the planned final dump configuration. For stability
reasons, lower lifts or toe dumps may have to be established
during the earlier stages. As the mine life progresses, the
additional lifts can be placed above the lower dump but
these must have a design criteria.
 DUMP DESIGN
By this, it is meant that the berm left on a lower dump,
subject to future design width to facilitate future
reclamation, overall slope reduction for reasons of stability,
or leaving sufficient width for an access haul road to a future
disposal area.

Mining operations are conducted in many different

topographic and climatic conditions. These conditions will
require changing the techniques used to safely start and
maintain a dump. A high wedge-type dump may be safe in a
dry climate if it progresses over a rocky and competent base.
The same dump would most likely fail if it progresses over
wet hillside soils or permafrost. For this reason, geotechnical
studies are very important in predicting the stability of both
 DUMP DESIGN
intermediate and final dump phases. Pertaining to the same
situation, dump stability monitoring is also very important in
cases where failure is very likely. The degree of monitoring
will depend on the consequences and risk of failure.
Continual monitoring will reduce the risk of injury and
equipment damage. Failure is acceptable if it can be
minimised and it will not affect downstream facilities,
equipment, and personnel.
Some northern operations even use failures as a method of
material transport and reclamation, since the failures
shorten haul distances and lower the overall dump slope to
facilitate reclamation.
 DUMP DESIGN
Particular emphasis should be placed on drainage in
designing both intermediate and final dump phases. Dumps
constructed using haul trucks have nearly an impermeable
surface so that rainfall or melting snow will pond on the top
of the dump or cascade over the face if care is not exercised
in the dump design and construction. Dumps should,
therefore, be built at a slightly adverse gradient for three
reasons:
• Carry run-off water away from the crest;
• A positive gradient means that haul trucks will have to
power dump crest rather than rolling back. As a safety
feature, this will also reduce the chance of parked
equipment accidentally rolling toward and over the crest;
 DUMP DESIGN
• Most mining operations set a speed limit below what a
loaded haul truck is capable of achieving. For this reason,
a 1 to 2% uphill gradient will not show haulage, but will
increase dump capacity and shorten haul distances.

Waste dumps that progress over or fill up drainage routes

must also have special design considerations. If run-of-mine
rock is end-dumped from the tip head, then given sufficient
dump height, gravity will segregate the larger and smaller
fragments. The larger material will roll to the bottom of the
dump and will normally form a very permeable base. The
finer material gathering in the upper portions of the dump
will assist heavy haulage traffic.
 DUMP DESIGN
Waste dumps built with this natural segregation are free
draining and offer little chance of saturation unless the base
material weathers rapidly and will have reducing
permeabilities through time.

The high base permeability will allow the dumps to progress

over small drainage routes and not block the flow. For larger
streams, the shifting stresses placed on the base of the
dump as it advances can jeopardize any drainage structure,
such as a culvert. Therefore, a diversion tunnel is preferable
where long-term drainage is critical.
 DUMP DESIGN
In the case where dump failures occur, a number of
corrective procedures can be implemented. These may be
as simple as re-routing surface drainage or allowing the rate
of advance, or as expensive as modifying the profile and
allowing use of the dump to continue and to place more
material at or on the toe of the failure.
If haulage access to the toe of the dump is not feasible due
to elevation differences, then dozers may have be
employed to push material down the slope onto the toe.
This may be helpful if reclamation regulations require a 2:1
slope for topsoil and revegetation placement.
 DUMP DESIGN
As a new dump is started in a virgin area, small failures can
be anticipated if the dump commences as a wedge type on
relatively steep terrain. For this reason, it is better to
advance a new dump slowly and not count on all the waste
being disposed of at one tip point.

In order to enhance the stability of the initial dump, lower

benches may have to be notched into the hillside to key the
base of the dump into the slope. It may also be necessary to
clear off vegetation, such as tress and brush, and, in some
instances, to remove soils and other unconsolidated
materials that would not provide a stable dump base if the
risk or magnitude of failure was unacceptable.
 DUMP DESIGN
Another component of dump design deals with operation
considerations. If a side hill or contour dump is under
construction and a tracked dozer is assigned to the dump,
the tracked dozer can be used to establish a pioneer road in
advance of the dump. This road, established at a slightly
lower elevation than the dump crest, can be used to collect
drainage, act as a level control, give additional dump width,
and serve such purposes as a small vehicle and lighting plant
parking site.
Care must be exercised so the cutting of the pioneer road
does not undercut the hillside.
Access to the dumps should be aligned to provide good
visibility of the congested area around the dump head.
 DUMP DESIGN
In many instances, the access road will have to be wider
than normal to allow it to be used for other purposes such
as a park-up area for mine equipment at the end of a shift, a
pullout area for fueling, a truck weighing station, and for
dump lighting.

A general rule of thumb is that haul roads should normally

be five times the width of the trucks using them. This width
would include ditches and berms and allows sufficient room
for road maintenance vehicles to work safely while trucks
are using the road. Preferably, graders may be able to blade
the roads while the haul trucks are using another route, but
this is not always possible.
 DUMP DESIGN
A permanent lighting system can be installed along the
route because of the relative long life of most dump access
roads and for safety reasons.
The dump width at the tip head should be sufficient to allow
for a moderately sized turning circle of haul trucks. For large
trucks, this should be between 61 and 91 m (200 to 300 ft).
The length of the active dumping face depends on the
number of truck fleets hauling to the area.
Commonly, a distance of 30 m (100 ft) should be allowed
per loading unit truck fleet operating to that tip head. High
berms should always be maintained along the total dump
crest length, except at the tip head where the berm height
should be equal to the radius of a haul truck’s tire.
 DUMP DESIGN
A tracked dozer at the dumping point is preferred over
rubber-tired dozer for a number of reasons, including:

1. Greater traction that allows it to push more material

when the ground is wet or icy;
2. The tracks crush larger rock fragments, thereby reducing
truck tire damage that occurs at the dumping area;
3. A tracked dozer with a winch can free stuck equipment
readily;
4. A tracked dozer can push material farther over the bank
in safety, since traction is spread over a larger area and
not at just four points.
 DUMP DESIGN
In most instances, dump material will not have the same
supportive strength as the same material in-situ, especially
in wet climates. Rolling resistances may increase with traffic
to a point of impossibility. Additional thinner lifts of more
competent rock may have to be placed on the dump surface
to maintain haul roads.

The operating differences between intermediate and final

dump configurations can be quite large. For example, the
material handling methods may change from truck haulage
to crushing and conveying as distances increase.
Since the prime objective of dump design is economics,
initial dump should have the shortest haul distance.
 DUMP DESIGN
As the mine progresses, haul distances will become longer
and vertical haulage more excessive. Reducing the rate of
future material handling cost increases using well-thought-
out alternative methods and designs is the objective of good
dump planning.

Accomplishing this task may mean leaving lower routes

open as a future access to potential dump area if the future
discounted saving balances today’s cost sacrifice.

In rugged terrain, this may mean that lower lifts at the base
of a high jump will have to be established early, since later
access may be impossible or too costly to construct.
 DUMP DESIGN
Several dumping points of various haulage distances should
be available on a daily basis to that when the operation is
short of trucks, closer jump points can be utilized to
maintain production and when truck availabilities are high,
longer hauls can be used.

Climatic conditions coupled with mine locations outside of

the United States also will have some bearing on the dump
design and operation. Less stringent safety and
environmental regulations will allow more operations.
Politics may also intervene and demand short-term
economic saving that will be costly for the operation in the
long run.
 DUMP DESIGN
In comparisons of one design to another, a method should
be used that first establishes a base case. The other designs
can be completed and the economic and other advantages
and disadvantages weighted.
If a choice exists as to the elevations of the dump, then the
preferable order of haulage gradients is level, downhill and +
8% uphill last. If haulage costs are equated to level, -8%
downhill, then the cost differential for a unit of distance is
approximately 1.0, 1.46, and 2.38 for a 154-t (170-st) haul
truck.
This means that waste dumps should be designed level from
the start point and only after the dump has progressed a
certain horizontal distance will an upper lift become more
economic.
 DUMP DESIGN
As an example, only when the horizontal haul distance
exceeds 457 m (1500 ft) will it be more dumped from an
elevation 15 m (50 ft) and start another lift closer to the pit
(see Fig 1.).

If a sump were mistakenly designed so that all the volume

was dumped from an elevation 15m (50 ft) higher than
necessary, and if 90.7 Mt (100 million st) could have been
dumped at the lower elevation first, then the direct cost
increase would be approximately $0.019/t ($0.017 per st) or
a total of $1,7700,000. Additional capital and replacement
costs would also be incurred due to the increase in the
number of haul units required.
 DUMP DESIGN
Therefore, it is very important to recognise the best
economic dumping plan and material handling method and
to weigh the cost and effect of constraints such as stability,
reclamation, drainage, and property boundaries.

Waste dump planning is usually not as critical or as detailed

as mine design. This is due to the fact that the mine is the
source of the ore and revenues. However, good waste dump
design can be critical in minimising costs and increasing the
value of the ore produced. Improper waste dump planning
can mean the difference between profit and loss and often
should receive more attention and detail.
 STABILITY OF MINE WASTE DUMPS
The overall stability of mine waste dumps is dependent on
factors such as:
1. Topography of the dump site;
2. Method of construction;
3. Geotechnical parameters of the mine waste;
4. Geotechnical parameters of the foundation materials;
5. External forces acting on the dump;
6. Rate of advance of the dump face.

All of these factors combine in various ways during the life

of a mine waste dump to aid in the stability of the dump or
to contribute to its instability.
 STABILITY OF MINE WASTE DUMPS
The various technical analyses used to assess the stability of
dumps are well documented in literature (Intercrop and
Fang, 1975; anon., 1977) and will not be covered in this
section. The factors affecting stability mentioned earlier will
instead be discussed.
The choice of dump sites and their topography usually is
limited to within an economic distance from the mine and,
since rearranging of site topography is rare, the topography
usually becomes a fixed condition. The crucial aspect of
topography is the existing slope of the natural ground upon
which the dump is to be constructed. Analyses show that
factors of safety begin to drop significantly above a ground
surface inclination of 20o, regardless of the strength
parameters of either the waste or foundation material.
 STABILITY OF MINE WASTE DUMPS
Mine waste dumps are usually constructed by one of two
common methods: in lifts or layers or by end-dumping. End-
dumping is a controlled failure process where the waste
material is deposited forming a slope at or close to its angle
of repose and the factor of safety is accordingly close to
one. Since the front face is always advancing during the life
of the dump, the slopes are not stability by flattening with
conventional earth-moving equipment until closure of the
dump.

Monitoring of the live dump face is recommended to

anticipate and deal with slope failures. The mine waste
dump constructed using end-dumping techniques are
sometimes referred to as “be constructed“.
 STABILITY OF MINE WASTE DUMPS
Significantly to their overall stability: however, they require
a relatively gently sloping topography and usually entail a
longer haul distance in the early years of the mine. Layered
dumps are preferred where weak foundation conditions
exist, since the load application can be controlled to allow
for strength gains by consolidation and pore pressure
dissipation.
The geotechnical properties of the mine waste and the
foundation material are major factors in determining the
overall stability of a mine waste dump. Such characteristics
as strength, friction angle or cohesion, and gradation are
parameters determining the type of analyses that would be
selected to solve or define the stability condition.
 STABILITY OF MINE WASTE DUMPS
Each mine waste dump site presents a unique set of
problems and would have to be analysed as a separate and
district case; however, certain general conclusions may be
drawn based on some simplifying assumptions.

For instance, coarse frictional material on a competent

foundation with a slope angle less than or equal to the
material’s angle of repose may be dumped to practically
unlimited heights and would represent the safe side of the
problem. Cohesive wastes on a weak foundation by a
number of mechanisms would represent the unsafe,
unstable side of the problem. Between these extremes exist
a large number of combinations that have different failure
modes and, be carefully analysed.
 STABILITY OF MINE WASTE DUMPS
The most commonly occurring combinations are coarse
frictional materials in weak shallow foundations or weak
foundations extending to considerable depth.
The failure modes associated with these are horizontal
translation of the waste deep seated rotational shear failure
through the foundation, or a combination of the two.
For cohesive waste on shallow or deep, weak foundations,
the failure modes become difficult to distinguish and the
type of analyses used becomes a matter of experience and
judgment.
It should be remembered that regardless of the
sophisticated analysis and the capacity of computers to
 STABILITY OF MINE WASTE DUMPS
produce numbers to several decimal places, the reliability of
the calculated factors of safety is dependent primarily on
the degree to which the input parameters or assumptions
made are representative of the actual conditions existing in
the waste material and of the foundation of the dump.
This is where an engineer’s experience is vital to assess the
stability of a mine waste dump by determining whether the
assumptions and choice of analyses are reasonable.
External forces such as water and earthquakes often play a
decisive role in the stability of mine waste dump and,
therefore, should carefully be considered in the analysis.
Of the two, earthquakes or seismic forces are a relatively
 STABILITY OF MINE WASTE DUMPS
straightforward factor that can readily be accommodated in
most stability analysed be determining the location of the
waste dump in relation to seismic zones and inputting the
proper seismic coefficient into the analysis as an additional
horizontal force.

The effect of water on the stability of mine waste dumps is

more difficult to evaluate and, as a general rule of thumb,
measures should be taken to prevent water from entering
the dump. Water pressure buildup in the dump will always
lower the factor of safety and, therefore, should be
prevented, if possible.
 STABILITY OF MINE WASTE DUMPS
It is not always possible to build mine waste dumps across
drainage courses, and therefore, provisions should be made
for unimpeded passage of floes either around the dump by
ditching to divert the water or by providing a coarse, filter-
protected drainage layer beneath the dump.

The top surface of the dump should be sloped away from

the leading edge of the dump face to eliminate pounding
during periods of rainfall and when snow melts. In some
circumstances, it may be necessary to include inclined
drainage layers at the perimeter of the dump to maintain
drained conditions.