opr J 4, Theory of Costs ALL wt pel Md Hoe “ ere ton |. GENERAL NOTES aid pr0d3 “ Q cost function “hich desc are derived functions, They are derived from the production function, ch describes the available(efficient. methods .of productio: Matany.one time. Tnfeoduuchov @ Economic theory distinguishes bet short-run costs and long-run costs. Short-run “202° 4 costs are tt on he costs over a period during which some factors of production (usually. capital equipment and manageneni) ‘are fixed. The long-run costs are the costs over a ~period Tong enough to permit the change of all factors of production, In the Tong run ‘all factors become varial Both in the short run-and‘in the long run, total cost is a multivariable function, thatis __total cost is determined by many factors. Symbolically we may write the long-run cost function as Torok + tenga C= SX TP) * and the short-run cost function as C= f(X, TP, R) : Se FO where C = total cost X = output - T = technology Py = prices of factors - K = fixed factor(s) , © Graphically, costs are shown on two-dimensional diagrams. Such curves imply that_ cost isa function of output C= (XI, ceteris paribus, The clause ceteris paribus implies t factors which-determine.costs_are_constant, If these factors do change, their effect on costs is shown graphically by a shift of the cost curve.(This is the reason why determinants of cost, other than output, are called shift factors) Mathematically there is no difference between the various determinants of costs. The distinction between movements along the cost curve (when output changes) and shifts of the curve (when the other determinants change) is convenient only pedagogically, because it allows the use of two-dimensional diagramns/But it can be misleading when studying the determinants (7) of costs. It is important to_remembet if the cost curve shifts, this does not imply “That the cost function is i minate,) a The factor ‘technology’ is itself a multidimensional factor, determined by the physical quantities of factor inputs, the quality of the factor inputs, the efficiency of the entre- preneur, both in organising the physical side of the production (technical efficiency of the entrepreneur), and in making the correct economic choice of techniques (economic Scanned with ComScannerBasic Too), , ; ‘ "Aa, in these determinants (¢, ot ns ee i tm a edt, he APDUAion gy jsatic i . efceney of etbod of ore out) will is improverent Of raw mat bene ion of exist imilarly the imp: ; tonal programme 10 asc cost CUE. Sim materials will lead to a shift downwa ae il result in a shi of the same : the improvement thew hich he frm operates in any one peri the cost function. ne costs at w ia that they present thee (Crestor ig a mie Os Pe TS) PE th i sid thus Ne “WY long-run_costs ate planning AT rand th a “possibilities for expansion a ses of alternative invest ETVIESSBETO ean Oo! yone 9 ent decision is taken ang funds in the inst state of technology. Afte thei ur_operates under shortaryr we ye sia ef jons: he is on a short | cost Cu 1) economies of Scale and, di veen internal (t0 the firm) ? exten GTA distinction is necessary betneen imi to the shape of the long-run cost cue economies. The intemal economies 8 - is own action as it expands the leve| of its output because they to the firm from its own acti : outside the firm, fro; ~ ection II below.) The ¢ cOnOMICS - ment (or deterioration atte environment in which the firm external to the firm may be realised from actions of oth fir industry. The important characteristic eine economies is ions of the firm, they are external to it. ¢ Sets tp bm rns cation n amen nd thus cause a shift of the cost curves, both the short-run and the long-run ‘summary, while the internal economies of scale relate only to the long-run and at builtinto the shape of the Tong-run cost curve, 1 i¢ external ecOnOMIeS alfect the ;: ie Position ofthe cost curves: both the short-run and the long-run cost cures Will shift i externa) rpPoint on a cost curve shows the minimum cost at which a ro eg oaUCEL: THis the optimality implied by the Points of a cost curve. Usually the above Optimality is associated with the long-run cost curve. However, a similar concept may be applied to the short-run, given te Plant of the firm in any one period In the section IT of this chapter we examine the traditional theory of U-shaped Costs. In section IIT we examine some Tecent developments ji i rete shapeaham fiers Pments in the theory Of costs which rict ¢ Zrounds i don’! "ealistic, and question the ‘envelope’ curve onthe att diseconomies are not Recessary con: curves. Finally. in section Vie, on the fhape Of the long-run and the short-run cost in-making, reli ice of the shape of cost curves | ‘onal theo; + cistinguishes between he ees during Which some factors) nite short dalled he long run. The short rua A nsidered a i Manly capital equipme: t and entre- {sie ton ne age sh ly long run i Ue ped ve "In section 1V we discuss the en the engineerin con curves Scanned with ComScannerTheory of Costs 107 A. SHORT-RUN COSTS OF THE TRADITIONAL THEORY Tn the traditional theory of the firm total H cine aditional theory of ‘otal costs are split into two groups: total fixed ‘costs and total variable costs: TC-= TFC +TVC The fixed costs includ laY salaries of administrative staff 7 Soy depreciation (wear and tear) of machinery _{gy-expenses for building depreciation and repairs iresneses for land maintenance and depreciation (if any), jother element that may be treated in the same way as fixed costs is the normal profi which is a lump sum including a percentage return on fixed capital and allowance for risk. The variable costs include: the raw materials ‘the cost of direct labour he running expenses of fixed capital, such as fuel, ordinary repairs and routine mi fe jaintenance. 1¢ total fixed cost is. graphically denoted by (figure 4.1)_The total variable cost_in the tri Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 This continues until the optimal combination of the fixed and variable factors is _teached- Beyond this point.as increased quantities of the variable ined, the fixed factor(s) the productivity of the variable factor(s) declines (and the AVC _ tises). By adding the TFC and TVC we obtain the TC of the firm (figure 4.3). From the ‘otal-cost curves we obtain average-cost curves. The average fixed cost is found by dividing TFC by the level of output: TFC AFC = Scanned with ComScannerBasic Tools of Analysis 108 pe-of.a line. drawn ular level of i the AVC at eas a to the point on the TVC curve corres] ist utp. For example in gute 45 te ANC at x igure z the slope of.the ray-0P, ane S008 tT the ray becomes tangent to the TVC A2isie in declines continuously until eh the origin starts increasing. e variable factor(s) increases, the optimal combination re 46). a ¥ O-% Xs Xe ¥ £ Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 = 9% 1 The ATC is obtained by dividing the TC by the corresponding level of output: =1e a TC Fe vc 4 arc = FE 2 TFCH+TVE | aces ave Tan® = AUC x x Graphically the ATC curve is derived in the same way as the SAVC. The ATC at any level of output is the slope of the straight line from the origin to the point on the TC Curve corresponding to that particular level of output (figure 4.7). The shape of the ATC is similar to that of the AVC (both being U-shaped). Initially the ATC declines, it reaches a minimum at the level of optimal operation of the plant (X,,) and subsequently is in (Figure 48)The-U shape of both thi AVC and the ATC teflects | tions or law of eventually decreasing returns to thé vari production (see Chapter 3)(The marginal cost is defined as the cha resulls from a unit change Nn Gute Ma jematically the marginal cost is the first derivative of the TC Tunction. Denoting total cost by C and ‘output by X we have eo - ATS Car = OTe Meme So Scanned with CamScannerTC = tve TTF 27C = BVE+O Theory of Costs Ox Ox 0, DTC = BIE = MC a ay OH (Oaeaexs Ya % x Figure 4.7 Figure 48 Graphically the MC is the slope of the TC curve (which of course is the same at any point as the slope The slope of a curve at any one ofits points is the slope of the tangent at that point. With an inverse-S shape of the TC (and TVC) the MC curve will be U-shaped. In figure a e that the slope of the tangent.to the. total-cost_curve declines graduall (with its Slope being equal to zero at this pi ai) and then sar i ing. Accordingly we picture the MC curve in figure 4.10 as U-shaped. ¢| ° % x Figure 49 Figure 4.10 In summary: the traditional theory of costs postulates that in the short run the cost Gurves (AVC, ATC and MC) are U-shaped, reffecting the law of variable proportions, “Inthe short run with a fixed plant there is a phase of increasing productivity (falling unit costs) and a phase of decreasing producti reasing unit costs) of the variable factor(s). Between these rases of plant operation there is a single point at which the plant is Ttilised optimally, that_is, with the uulised_opumaly, Variable factors. The relationship between ATC and AVC The AVC is a part of the ATC, given ATC = AFC + AVC. Both AVC. rc are reflecting the law of variable proportions. However, the minimum point of the ATC occurs to the rij the minimum point of the AVC (figure 4.11), This is TC ous ok Ero ‘Scanned with CamSeanner£ 3 > Basic Tools of Analysis * ; 0 and X > 0, the following results emerge: (a) if (slope of AC) < 0, then MC < AC (b) if (slope of AC) > 0, then MC > AC (ec) if (slope of AC) = 0. then MC = AC “The slope of the AC becomes zero at the minimum point of this curve (given that on theoretical grounds the AC curve is U-shaped). Hence MC = AC at the minimum point of the average- cost curve. a Scanned with CamScanner sion at this point depends B. LONG-RUN COSTS OF THE TRADITIONAL THEORY: THE "ENVELOPE" come FQ pe , end ROE eaahy— ™*‘ ttre of Poclcina, stu Conn 4 0 : "or, = cwete point ont LAC clip _ ro necenerily Bef Hee ile 4) eo Ho (1s ofp twee nia Cest of SATE a aR li 8 Basic Tools of Analysig ¢ is demand to stay constant at this level, the firm will not install the large plant givers 31 fnvolves a larger investment which is profitable only ifdemand expands beyond 3) the level of output X, is produced at a cost cy with the large plant, while it costs c; if produced with the medium-size blanttc, > cs) 4 . Now if we relax the assumption of the existence of only three plants an assume that Now if'we relax the assumpti stence 's and ass the available technology includes many pla iy plant sizes, each suitable for a certain level of -Dutput the points of intersection of Consecutive planis (which are the crucial points for the decision of Whether SIGS ee re numerous. In the limit, if we assume that there is a very large number (infinite number) of plants we obtaiS Continuous curve, which is the planning LAC curve of 1 i he firm. Each point of this curve “SHOWS the minimum (optimal) cost for producing the correspondit ig level of output. The LAC curve is the locus of points denoting the least cost of Producing the corresponding output. [tis a planning cue esate an ea ee EE Espn . plant to Set up in order to produce Optimally (at minimum cost) the ex Nithe expected-tevel of CURE The firm chooses the short-run plant which allows iri Produce the anticipated tin the tong run) output atthe least possible cost. In the traditional theory of the firm the LAC curve is laped and jt is ‘ Pe. ” ‘en- velopes’ the SAC curves (figure 4.13). Snvelope-curye’ because it en Let us examine the U shape of the LAC. This (see Chapter 3). According to these laws the un as plant Teeny eS + Shape of vac »f i on ee a ts * shape ef ste Ufe of Fado haw of binmistg Ked- roto Figure 4.13 ‘Scanned with amSeanner0 PB odma pal CLA mtu beihonel 4 = Th failing pation of LAC Undue teutiional deceny, Maionte cee pene of tage gente Prd” K Am bse Theory of C Pibicote iamvaqertal hecaenenvice . cohere As Cee | Of Costs 6h oe NS ra) of Lang rem cot fae infty ont (eetrarenl | 's, due to the economies of scale which the larger plant sizes make possible. “G6 peye € of economies of scale is discussed in section V beloweeThe traditionaltheary “1 m assumes that economies of scale exist only up to a certain size of plant, which SEele & iS KOWn as the optimum plant size, because with this plant size all possible economies Frey ma“'“f"*™ of Scale are fully expl ed The plan creases further than this optimum size there , | Process becomes less efficien' 0 Continors| erial diséconomies Of scale, since the technical diseconiomies can be avoided by f y by smoorty oo erious implicit assumption of the traditional U> es is Implicit plant size is designed 10 produce optimally a single level of outpu 0 Assumption Any departure from that X, Eats n that X, no matter how small (e.g. an increase by I unit of X)leads iHoral increased costs. The plant is completely inflexible. There is no reserve capacit Tractor) ~ even to meet seasonal variations in demand. As a consequence of this assumption the. U-SPapeet Cat "AC curve.envelopes” Eattrpoint of the LAC isa point of tangency with Curves the corresponding SRAC-curve, The point of tangency occurs to the falling part of the SRAC curves for points lying to the left of the minimum point of the LAC: since the slope of the LAC is negative up to M (figure 4.13) the slope of the SRAC curves mustalso be negative, since at the point of their tangency the two curves have the same slope. The point of tangency for outputs larger than X,, occurs to the rising part of the SRAC curvegsince the LAC rises, the SAC must rise at the point of their tangency with the nly at the minimum point M of the LAC is the corresponding SAC also-at-a minimum, Thusatthe falling part of the LA to the rising part ot the LAC the plants are overwo imum Po is the (short-run) plant optimally employed. “We stress once Tare the Sptin ality i implied the LAC planning curve;each point represents the Teast unit-costfor producing the corresponding level of output))Any point above the LAC is inefficient in that it shows a higher cost for producing thé correspon- ding level of output. Any point below the LAC is economically desirable because it implies a lower unit-cost, but itis not attainable jn the current state of technology and h the prevailing market prices of factors of production. (Recall that each cost curve is drawn under a ceteris paribus clause, which implies given state of.technology and ‘given factor prices, “The long-tun_marginal cost is derived from the SRMC curves, but does not ‘en- ‘velope’ them. The LRMC is formed from points of intersection of the SRMC cutves with vertical lines (ro tire X-axis) drawn (rom the pomis of tangency of the corresponding SAC curves andthe LRA cost curve (igure F ie LMC must be equal To the SI Tee the ourput at which The corresponding SAC is tangent to the LAC: For tevels 07x Teeth lef of-Tangency a the SACS LAC-AT the point of tangency SAC = LAC. ‘As we move from point a’ to a, we actually move from a position of inequality of SRAC and LRAC to a position of equality. Hence the change in total cost (ie. the MC) must be smaller for the short-run curve than for the long-run curve. Thus LMC > SMC to the left of a. For an increase in output beyond X, (e.g. X') the SAC > LAC. That is, we move from the position a of equality of the two costs to the position b where SAC is greater than LAC. Hence the addition to total cost (=MC) must be larger for the short-run curve than for the long-run curve. Thus LMC < SMC to the right of a. Since to the left of a, LMC > SMC, and to the right of a, LMC < SMC, it follows that at a, LMC = SMC. If we draw a vertical line from ato the X-axis the point at which it intersects the SMC (point A for SAC,) is a point of the LMC. If we repeat this procedure for all points of tangency of SRAC and LAC curves to the left of the minimum point of the LAC, we obtain points of the section of the LMC Scanned with ComScanneria Basic Tools of Analysis Lac ° Rh Xu - ie Figure 4.14 Which lies below the LAC. At the minimum point M the LMC intersects the LAC. To the right of M the LMC lies above the LAC curve, At point M we have SACy = SMCy = LAC = LMC There are various mathematical forms which give rise to U-shaped unit cost curves The simplest total cost function which would incorporate the law of variable pro- Portions is the cubic polynomial C= by + bX — bX? + byX? wt Ea bX + bX! TC = TFC + TVC The AVC is TVC AVC = = = by = bX + by X? The MC is ec MC == 1 — 2b, X + 3b,X? The ATC is cC_b yoxth b,X + by xX? The TC curve is roughly S-shaped (figure 4.3), while the ATC, the AVC and the MC are all U-shaped; the MC curve intersects the other two curves at ther, minimum points (figure 4.11). ° IIL MODERN THEORY OF Costs ‘The U-shaped cost curves of the traditional theory have been writers both on theoretical a Stigler’ suggested thatthe short-run average variable cost has a flat stretch over al of output which reflects the t firms-build plants with some Te fexibilty in thee ! G, Stigler, ‘Production and Distribution in the Short Run’, Journal of Political Economy (1939), Reprinted in Readings inthe Theory of Income Disribuion American Economie ner tion) (Blakiston, 1946). Scanned with ComScannerTheory of Coss us productive capacity. The reasons for this reserve capacil by various economists? The shape of the long-run cost curve has attracted greater attention in economic literature, due probably to the serious policy implications of the economics of large~ scale production (see section VII below al reasons have been put forward to explain-why-the-long-run cost curve is CSRIpe Teter har Uestapea? Te has been: argued that_managerial-diseconomies can_be avoided by_the improved methods of modern management science, and even when they appear (at very large scales of output). they are insignificant relative to the technical (production) economies of large plants, 50 that the total costs per unit of output fall, at least over the scales which have been opera- sed in The ead iad Tealindustrial world, —Thete is growing empirical evidence in support of the above shapes of costs (see section VI below). In view of this accumulating evidence it is surprising to see that several economists are still sceptical? and that even the most recently published microeconomic textbooks* are still based on predominantly U-shaped cost curves.* Like the traditional theory, modern microeconomics distinguishes between short- run and long-run costs have been discussed in detai ‘A. SHORT-RUN COSTS IN THE MODERN MICROECONOMIC THEORY ‘As in the traditional theory, short-run costs are distinguished into average variable costs (AVC) and average fixed costs (AFC). ‘The average fixed cost Thisis the cost of indirect factors, that is, the cost of the physical and personal organi- sation of the firm. The fixed costs include the costs for: df the salaries and other expenses of administrative staff “(bythe salaries of staff involved directly in the production, but paid on a fixed-term basis, (ofthe wear and tear of machinery (standard depreciation allowances) (df the expenses for maintenance of buildings (eythe expenses for the maintenance of land on which the plant is installed and operates. ¢ ‘planning’ of the plant (or the firm) consists in deciding the ‘size’ of these fixed, direct factors, which determine the size of the plant, because they set limits to its " See, for example, P. W. S. Andrews, Manufacturing Business (Macmillan, 1949). Also R. Harrod, Economic Essays (Macmillan, 1952); P.3. D. Wiles, Price Cost and Output (Blackwell, 1961). 2 Sargent Florence, The Logic of British and American Industry (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1953), See also P. W. S. Andrews, Manufacturing Business (Macmillan, 1949) and P. J. D. Wiles, Price, Cost and Output (Blackwell, 1961). 3€_A. Smith, ‘Survey of Empirical Evidence on Economies of Scale’, reprinted in G. C. Archibald (ed.), Readings in the Theory of the Firm (Penguin, 1971), 'M. Friedman, ‘Comment’, Universities National Bureau Committee for Economics Research, Business Concentration and Price Policy (Princeton University Press, 1955); reprinted in G.C. Archibald (ed.), Readings in the Theory of the Firm (Penguin, 1971). A. Silberston, ‘Economies of Scale in Theory and Practice’, Economic Journal (1972); re- printed in Readings in Applied Microeconomics, L. Wagner and N, Valtazzis (eds.) (Oxford University Press, 1973). “A notable exception is K. Lancaster's textbook Introduction to Modern Microeconomics (Rand-McNally, 1969). ; 5 See C. J. Hawkins, Theory of the Firm (Macmillan, 1973). ‘Scanned with CamSeanner Apc SAC AISAVCBasic Tools of Analysis 116 7 ot te (Di such as labour and, raw awit ve ea} eT fm ean acquire them e Iara a forthe level of Ou iput_ which he sacs at deed ademas ners Ataxona fo, this lv! of Out more efient- ad Wi tee the businessman Burton havea capacity larger than the expected average’ level of sales, Because Tic DUSICSSTAN fase” wants to have some reserte capacity Tor vaiOus FeBSO7 Dy ctical fluctuations in inventory id with ~The businessman w “his demand. Such Muctuations, cannot always be 7 pucte rf >) Policy} Reserve capacity will allow the entrepreneur to wor lower costs tharra stock-piling policy, epail Reserve capiy-wil sve the uns gree exit for reais of broken down machinery without disrupting the smooth flow of the production pr ide 5, The entrepreneur will want to have more freedom to increase his output if demand = increases. All businessmen hope for growth. In view of anticipated increases in demand (Z the entrepreneur builds some reserve capacity, because he would not like to let all new “demand go-to his rivals, as this may endanger his future hold on the market. It also =) gives him some flexibility for minor alterations of his product, in view of changing tastes © ofcustomers.\~ SS = CD) > Technology usually makes it necessary to build into the plant some reserve capacity. ~~ Some basic types of machinery (eg. a turbine) may not be technically fully employed when combined with other small types of machines in certain numbers, more of which ‘may not be required, given the specific size of the chosen plant, Also such basic machinery may be difficult to install due to time-lags in the ac . The entrepreneurs will thus buy from the beginning such a ‘basic’ machine_whicl allows the highest flexi- bility, in view of future growth in demand, even though ive alterna- tive now. Furthermore some machinery may be so specialised as to be ava lable only to order, which takes time. In this case such machinery will be bought in excess of the minimum required at present numbers, as a reserve. >) _ Some reserve capa always be allowed in the land and buildings, since expan- ~~ sion of operations may be seriously limited if new | aur land_or new buildings have to be k with s (2) Finally, there will be some reserve cay ~~ level, The administrative st in the operations of the firm, Figure 4.15 1 See P.W.S. Andrews, Manufacturing Business (Macmillan, 1949), ‘Scanned with CamSeannerTheory of Costs * ¢ . the businessman will not necessarily choose the chim today the lowest cost, but rather that equipment which will allow him the greatest possible Hexibility, for minor alterations of his product or his technique.) ‘Under these conditions the AFC curve will-be as in figure 4.15. The firm has some JTargest-capacity’ uni chinery which set an absolute limit to the short-run expan: sion of output (boundary B in figure 4.15). The firm has also small-unit machinery, which seis a Timit to expansion (boundary A in figure 4.15). This, however, is not an ‘absolute boundary, because the firm can increase its output in the short run (until the absolute limit B is encountered), either by paying overtime to direct labour for working Tonger hours (in this case the AFC is shown by the dotted line in figure 4.15), or by_ “buying some additional small-unit types of machinery (in this case the AFC shifts upwards, ‘and Starts falling again, wn ‘The average variable cost As in the traditional theory, the average variable cost of modern microeconomics includes the cost of: direct labour which varies with output “(by Faw materials Tunning expenses of machinery. Pas SAVC in modern theory as a(Guse-yp ape, that is, itis broadly ichas a flat stretch over a range of output (hgure #:16y: The flat stretch ionds q rve capacity. Over this VC is equal to the” MC, both being constant per unit OF output. To the left of the flat stretch, MC lies below ‘he SAVC, while to the-nght ofthe Rat stretch the MIC rises above the SAV. The falting part of the: ws. fuction in costs due to the better utilisation of the. ‘red festor and the consequent ineTeave I akils ond productivly ofthe VareIDTeTaCOr e also being redu ment of a short-run SAVC curve with a flat stretch over a certain range of output. The * See Andrews, Manufacturing Business. Scanned with ComScanner NABasic Tools of Analysiz constant SAVC within_a certain range oy is_feserve capacity 1s pl fanned in order 1 ¢ is completely different io give the maximum emt irises with. the U-shaped.costs of the traditional th from the excess capacity which arises. with. tbat each plant is ¢ ny foutput (X,y in figure 1X smaller than Xy there is excess (unplanned olpey 417), AE the fi rs ealerence Neo This ex pacity is obviously undesirable { ual tothe difference Xy — X-Thi a beens teas fo higher unit costs ¢ Figure 4.18 In the modey Q the range of output X,X, in figure 4.18 reflects the X, and at others closer to X. lant within the XX; rar level of utilisation of their plantis som nd three-quarters of their capacity, thatis, at a point cl loser to X, | utilisation of the plant which firms consider as * mi the plans (see p. 121), On the average the sual ‘The average total cost | 1 Figure 4.19 ‘Scanned with CamSeannerTheory of Costs figure 4.19. The ATC curve falls continuously up to the! reserve capacity is “intersect the average total “of the level of output ¥,. at v im point the AVC ends). ng (which occurs to the The composition of the short-run total costs may be schematically presented as Shortrun TC a follows: a Normal profit TFC ro Labour || Raw costs. materials which vary with output Running expenses of machinery Salaries of (a) administrative staff (b) production staff paid on a fixed basis Fixed Depreciation} expenses of || of fied plant capital PROOF =) Mathematically the cost-output relation may be written in the form = == C = by + bX TC = TFC + TVC The TC is.a straight line with a positive slope over the range of reserve capacity (igure 4.20). ‘The AFC is a rectangular hyperbola b AFC = x The AVC is a straight line parallel to the output axis AVC = Oy, The ATC is falling over the range of reserve capacity b ATC = 2 +b, ‘The MC is a straight line which coincides with the AVC falls continuously over thi does inot extend to the increasing part of costs, that is, it does not apply to ranges of ‘output beyond the reserve capacity of the firm. Scanned with ComScannerp “or Hw Lane af eit! Basic Tools of Analy, 120 Rerowe Capceliy POL ¢ Te Te TFC ° ¥ ronge of reserve copocity Figure 4.20 Figure 4.21 Proctuchon Corl, B. LONG-RUN COSTS IN MODERN MICROECONOMIC THEORY: conoaulial THE ‘L-SHAPED" SCALE CURVE into production costs and managerial costs. All costs are ind they give rise to a long-run cost curve which is roughly — L-shaped. The production costs fall continuously with increases in-oulputAt very large scales of output managerial costs may rise, But the fall in p 01 oduction costs more than offsets the increase in the managerial costs, so that the Totat-LAC-falls-with inc creases in scale, 4+ Production costs Production cous fall steeply to begin with and then gradually as the scale of pro-, duction inereaseleThe L-shape of the production cost curve is explained by the tech. ‘ical economies of large-scale production Mnitially these economies are Substantial borates certain level of ostpit i reacion all or most of these economies are attained ‘the fitm.is said to have reached the minimum optimal scale, given the technology of the industry. If new techniques are invented for larger scales of ouiput, they must be cheaper to operate. But even with the existing known techniques some economies FET mah the existing known techniques some economies, ‘can always be achieved at larger outputs Si economies from further decentralisation and improvement in skills; (6) lower repairs costs may be attained if the firm reaches a certain size: the firm, especially if it is multiproduct, may well undertake itself the production Some of the materials or equipment which it needs instead of buying them from other firms. ‘D+ Managerial costs In the modern management science for each plant size there is a corresponding organisational-administrative set-up appropriate for-the~ mooth operating of that plant. There are various levels of management, each with its appropriate kind of manage- ment technique: Each management technique is applicable to a range of output. There are small-scale as well as large-scale organisational techniques. The costs of different techniques of management first fall up to a certain plant size. At very large scales of Output managerial costs may rise, but very slowly.) In summary: Production costs fall smoothly at very large scales, while managerial costs may rise only slowly at very large scales{Modern theorists seem to accept that the Scanned with ComScannerTheory of Costs 12 {all in technical costs more than offsets the probable rise of managerial costs, sg that the LRAC curve falls smoothly or remains constant at very large scales of output) We may draw the LAC implied by the modern theory of ¢ follows. Fo each short-run period we ot ihe SRAC which includes production costs, administration costs, other fixed cos an allowance for normal.profit, Assume that we have a technology with four plant sizes, with costs falling as size increases. We said that in “business practice it is customary to consider that 4 plant is used ‘normally’ when it operates at a level between two-thirds and three-quarters of capacity." Bain writes: ‘The plant or firm will have a somewhat fluctuating output, over time, and at a given scale will thus operate at a number of somewhat different output rates. Correspondingly, it will have a certain ‘load factor” reflecting the ratio-of average actual tate of use 10-Ihe capacity or best rate of use, and this Toad factor will generally be smaller than one. In this circumstance, the Felevant relationship of unit cost to scale is that which prevails when it is assumed that each alternative scale of plant or firm is operated subject to prevailing or anticipated market fluctuations, and is thus subject to a resultant typical load factor on its capacity. The long- run average unit cost of each alternative scale should be calculated on this assumption, and conclusions as to minimum optimal scales and shapes of such curves should be derived accordingly? Following this procedure, and assuming that the typical load factor of each plant is two-thirds of its full capacity (limit capacity), we may draw the LAC curve by joining the points on the SATC curves corr ‘each plant size. If we assume that ther 5a very large number of available plant sizes the LAC curve will be continuous (figure 4.22). The characteris h ic of this LAC curve is JO? that (a)it does not turn up at very large scales of output; (B) nis not the envelope of the —— ‘SATC curves, Dut rather intersects them (at the level of putput defined by the “typical load factor’ ST each plant). TT, as some writers tahevet ihe LAC falls continuously (hough smoothly at very large scales of output), the LMC will lie below the LAC at all scales (figure 4.23). If there is a minimum optimal scale of plant (x in figure 4.24) at Abed feithod — Yate of Ke Clove cterinhees age “PU bores onding to the two=thirds-of the-full capacity Of___ 4. Te cloesnlt -huue vp our veMt he of Of apis nok Hue envelopof fue SPTC Curve) Uh Gott Avdeusedts HU Ly Lac Labnad ad Juver of O[f A L ° x la ty preak Avo Output pH °. r Figure 4.22 flocked. * See R, W. Clower and J. F. Due, Microeconomics (Irwin-Dorsey, 1972) p. 232. 24, §. Bain, Barriers to New Competition (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1956) p. 63. » See, for example, Andrews, Manufacturing Business (Macmillan, 1949). ‘Scanned with CamSeanner12 Basic Tools of Analysis eae Ww of UN we HE wel ant vee, ent Zo Wet ns Fe sep a Kant ee 4 orto" uc optimal LAC MLC stole Lac ° x ° ® x Figure 423 Figure 4.24 which all possible scale economies are reaped (as Bain and other writers have sug- gested), beyond that scale the LAC remains constant. In this case the LMC lies below the LAC until the tinimun optimal scale iy reached and-commcides- with the LAC ‘eyond that level of output (figure 4.24). The above shapes of costs are more realistic IV. ENGINEERING COST CURVES Engincering costs are derived from engineering production functions." Each produc- tive method is divided into sub-activities corresponding to the various physical-technical phases of production for the particular commodity. For each phase the quantities of factors of production are estimated and finally the cost of each phase is calculated on the basis of the prevailing factor prices. The total cost of the particular method of production is the sum of the costs of its different phases. Such calculations are done for all available plant sizes. Production isoquants are subsequently estimated, and from them, given the factor prices, the short-run and the long-run cost functions may be derived. It should be noted that engineering production functions and the cost functions derived from them refer usually to the production costs and do not include the admini- strative costs for the operation of any given plant.? Engineering production functions are characterised by a limited number of methods of production. The production isoquants are kinked (see Chapter 3), reflecting the fact that factor substitutability is not continuous, but limited. Substitution of factors occurs directly at the kinks of the isoquants, where one production technique is substituted for another (figure 4.25). On the straight segments of the production isoquant a combina tion of the adjacent methods of production is employed. What happens in engincering production functions along the segments of the isoquants is an indirect substitution of factors via substitution of processes, Factors cannot be substituted for each other except by changing the levels at which entire ‘echnical processes are used, because cach process uses factors in fixed characteristic ratios.” See H. Chenery, “Engineering Production Functions’, Quarterly Journal of Economics (1949) pp. 507-31. ? See section VI below. » See R. Dorfmann, ‘Mathematical or Linear Programmi (1953) p. 803. American Economic Review Scanned with ComScanner