Part IT MODULE 3: Quantum Computing & Quantum GatesChapter 4 Principles of Quantum Information & Quantum Computing 4.1 Introduction to Quantum Com- puting Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on developing computing methods based on the principle of {quantum theory. Quantum computing is based on the prin- ciple of quantum superposition. Ia Quantum comput the information is encoded in quantum system such as ‘aloms, ions or quantum dots. One quantum rule in par- ticular creates an enormous incentives to apply « ‘mechanics to comput The algorithms are also written based on quantum pri ciples in which, Shor's algorithm for factorization Grover's scarch algorithm are basic. (Grover is an Indian bom Physicist working in Bell Labs). The process of com- putation is ineredlibly fast but it has to be done by the help ‘oF quantum computers which are yer to be realized in prac tice, TLis expected that 140 digit iog number could be fac~ toted a billion (10°) times faster that is possible with clas- sical computation, It is so powerful that a search engine ‘can search every part of internet in half an hour. 4.2 Moore’s law & its end In the year 1965, Gordon Moore observed increasing per- formance in the first few generations of the integrated. circuit (IC) technology. Moore predicted that it would continue to improve at an exponential rate with the per- formance per unit cost increasing by a factor or two every 18 months are so. The computer industry has followed this prediction since then, But actually the doubling was oc- curring im every 24 months or2 years, The following plot shows the 50 years of Moore The question that arises is how long can Moore's law continues to hold and what are the ultimate limitations?, According to the semiconductor size data the size reached S nanometer in 202], The Demise of the Transis- tor in the quantum scale could be expected as the dimen- sions decrease further. Quantum effects can cascade into law, 29 the micro scale realm causing problems for current miero- clectronics. The most typical effects are electron tunneling among the eitcuit lines. Thus Quantum Computa ‘option for the further generation, on isthe Table 2-2 Semiconductor Da fr Figure 22 ver San nananetrs 2001 0 43 Differences and Quantum Computing Between Cla 43.1 Classical Computing 1. Used by large scale: multipurpose and devices 2 Information is stored in bits 3. There isa discrete number of possible states. Either 0 wl,4. Calculations are deterministic. This means repeating the same inputs results in the same output. ‘5. Data processing is carried out by logic and in sequen- tial order. 6. Operations are governed by Boolean Algebra, 7. Circuit behavior is defined by Classical Physics. 4.32 Quantum Computing 1. Used by high speed, quantum mechanics-based com puters 2. Information is based on Quantum Bits 3. The is an infinite, continuous number of possible states. They are the result of quantum superposition. 4. The calculations are probabilistic, meaning there are multiple possible outputs to the same inputs. 5. Data processing is carried out by quantum logic at parallel instances. 6 Operations are det Space, ied by Linear algebra by Hilbert 7. Circuit behavior is defined by Quantum Mechanics, 4.4 Concept of Qubit and its proper- ties 44.1 Concept of Qubit ‘The counterpart of a classical bit in quantum computing is (Qubit. It's the basic unit in which of information in a quan- ‘tum computer. Superposition, Entanglement, and Tunnel- ing are all special properties that define a qubit, 442 Properties of Qubits 1. A qubit can be in a superposed state of the two states Oand 1 If measurements are carried out with a qubit in super- posed state then the results that we get will be prob= abilistic unlike how it's deterministic in a classical ‘computer, 3. Owing to the quantum nature, the qubit changes its state at once when subjected to measurement. This ‘means, one cannot copy information from qubits the way we do in the present computers, as there will be no similarity between the copy and the original. This is known as “no cloning principle". A Qubit can be physically implemented by the two states of an electron of horizontal and vertical polarizations of photons as |) and |f) Department of Physies 30 Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22 4.5 Representation of Qubits by Bloch Sphere ‘The pare state space qubits (Two Level Quantum Me- chanical Systems) can be visualized using an imaginary sphere called Bloch Sphere, It has a unit radius, ‘The Arrow on the sphere represents the state of the Qubit. The north an south poles are used to represent the basis states [0) and |1} respectively. The other locations are the superpositions of 0) and |) states and represented by a |0) +A 1) witha? +p = 1, Thus Qubit can be any point on the Bloch Sphere ‘The Bloch sphere allows the state of the qubit to be rep- sd unit spherical co-ordinates. They ate the polar an- ‘gle @ and the azimuth angle 4. The block sphere is repre- sented by the equation Oye olbeinl Ww) = cos Jo) + e!#sin$ [1) an here 0 <0 < mand 0 < 6 < 2x. The normalization constraint is given by | a 4.6 Single and Two qubits and Ex- tension to N qubits 4.6.1 Single qubit AA Single Qubit has two computational basis states [0) and |). the pictorial representation of the single qubit is as follows. «r|0) +6 1) BGS College of Engineering & Technology4.6.2 ‘Two qubit A towo-qubit system has 4 computational basis states de~ noted as 00), JO1), |10),|11). The pictorial representation ‘of two qubit is as follows, a 100) + 801) +y|10) +6111) 4.6.3 Extension to N qubits ‘A multi-qubit system of N qubits ha basis states, For 2" computa nple astate with 3 qubits has putational basis states. Thus for N-qubits the comp ‘ional basis states are denoted as {00-00}, }00:--O1). 100---10), [00---11) --» |11---11). The block diagram of representation of N qubits i us follows, onal Department of Physics 31 Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22 BGS College of Engineering & TechnologyChapter 5 Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations 5.1 Linear Algebra Lincar Algebras the study of veetor spaces and operations ‘on vector spaces. ‘The Standard quantum mechanical no- {ation for a quantum state W in a vector space is). The notation |) indicates thatthe object is vector rand is called aaket vector, The examples of ket vectors ate |), |) and Iu) ete 5.2. Matrix Representation of 0 and 1 States ‘The wave function could be expressed in ket notation as |) (ket Vector), is the wave function, The |v) ‘he matrix for ofthe states 0) and 1). J) = n=(°) 5.2.1 Identity Operator Tie etre = (59) ey oe ‘ator, When an identity operator acts on a state vector its keeps the state intact. By analogy we study identity opera- tor as an identity matrix. Let us consider the operation of Mlentity eperator on (0) and |1) states. As per the principle of identity operation 110) = 0) and 21) = 1) 10) = ( th) () ny=(4 NG)-() ‘Thus the operation of id [1 leaves the states unc! 6) 62) ‘matrix(operator) on |0) and 3 5.2.2 Pauli Matrices Pauli Matrices and Their operation on (0) and |1) States ‘There are four extreamly useful matrices called Pauli Max trices. The Pauli matrices ofthe following form asi(' 4) 53 =o,=x=(° Gal = 5.5) 0 eo) o (5.6 Pauli Matrices operating on 0) and |1) States 710) = “b 1) (3) = (0) = min GE) o)(e)= ()= a} (1) = (0) =: n=(0 otn=(? BGS College of Engineering & Technology5.3. Conjugate of a Matrix Conjugate of a Matrix It is possible to find the conjugate for a given matrix by replacing each element of the matrix ‘with its complex conjugate.for example consider & matrix Aas given below. -(oah) 6s Thus A" is the conjugate of A 5.4 ‘Transpose of a Matrix ‘The transpose of matrix is found by interchanging its rows into columns oF columns into rows, The Transpose of a matrix A is denoted by using the superscript as AT. Consider a matrix A as given below. a-() ‘The Transpose of the matrix A is given by ; 6.10) “Thus AT is the Transpose of A 5.5 The Conjugate ‘Transpose of a Matrix ‘The complex conjugate transpose of a matrix interc the row and column index for each element, reflecting the clements across the main diagonal. “The operation also negates the imaginary part of any complex numbers, It is denoted by a symbol as a super script. i a-(i 4) ean The Tapoicathe mart Aen by wre(F a) ow ‘Thus A’ is the Conjugate-Transpose of A. 5.6 Hermitian ‘he mais dh sequal 1 its conuguesanspse cae Herman Thana) a ea ce He iitian or Self-Adjoint matrix Department of Physics Engineering Physics-22PHYS 12/22 a(t) es The congo Usven by 3c wQ3 3s) ow evan of gen 13 3H aie(Q2, 32) wis Hence A’ = A 5.7 Unitary Matrix ‘A matrix is said to be Unitary if the condition U'U = Lis satisfied. Thus an operator is said to be Unitary if each of its matrix representations are unitary. Consider an operator in matrix form U. ei8 tien win oe %| i Yo. Tes oi Hence U is unitary. 5.8 Column and Row Matrices ‘The Column Vectors are called ket Vectors denoted by |) and are represented by Column Matriees. The Row Vee tors are called Bra Vectors denoted by (| and are rep- resented by Row Matrices. Let us consider a ket vector represented in the form of a column ma Ww | (5.20) ‘The Row Matrix is represented as wl 621) Here ie (5.22) Bi BGS College of Engineering & Technology[y- Flipping between kets and bras is called "Taking the Dual" 6.23) Thus for [0) sate the corresponding (0 is given by lo) = lol 624 (ol=[1 0] 6.25) and similarly for and |1) states we have (1 a8 follows, wf 626) also 4] 627 5.9 Inner Product - Multiplication of Row and Column Matrices Let us consider two states |) and |) as follows. W)= | 5.28) 16) = a. (5.29) bere i= [ey Bi] 6.30) ‘The multiplication of the |) and |) is possible only by taking the inner product and is given by (lp) i alee] (Wd) = afaa + Bip ‘The inne produc vay esl in aseaar product. wie) (531) 6.32) 5.10 Probability Let us consider a Quantum State Ww 0) +811) 5.33) ‘The above equation represents the Quantum Superposition of states |0) and |1). go] fe wr=aleleelt]=[p| 63) Deparment of Physi Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22 Using equation 5.31 the inner product (|W) is given by, (5.35) 6.36) 637) Thus the above equation represents Probability Density sper the principle of Normalization (5.38) ww) lo? + BP ‘Thas it implies |) is normalized, 5.11 “Two states |¥) and |) are said to be orthogonal if their inner product is Zero, Mathematically Orthogonality (ol) =0 (5.39) ‘The two states are orthogonal means they are mutually ex- clusive. Like Spin Up and Spin Down of an electron. ‘Consider (01) ony=[1 0} {| (0+0)=0) (6.40) 5.12 Orthonormality The states |¥/) and |) are said to be orthonormal if 1. 1p) and |g) are normalized. 2. |W) and |¢) are orthogonal wo each other. BGS College of Engineering & TechnologyChapter 6 Quantum Gates 6.1 Introduction to Quantum Gates Tn quantum computing a quantum logic gate is a basic {quantum circuit operating on a small number of qubits ‘A qubit is useless unless it is used to carry out a quan- ‘um calculation. ‘The quantum calculations are achieved by performing a series of fundamental operations, known as quantum logic gates. They are the building blocks of {quantum circuits similar to the classical logic gates in con- ventional digital circuits 6.2 6.2.1 gle Qubit Gates Quantum Not Gate Tn Quantum Computing the quantum NOT gate for qubits takes the state 0) to 1) and vice versa. It is analogous to the classical not gate “The Matrix representation of Quantum Not Gateis given by x-(?) ww xio=(? a)(o)=(t)= 2) xine? 2Q)=(-m 6 A Quantum State is given by «|0) + )|1) and its ma- trix representation i given by [| Hence the operation of Ge) ‘quantum state becomes a |1) + 10), Simi ‘@|1) + |0) to the quantum not gates changes the state to 0) +81). The quantum not gate circuit and the truth table are as shown below. al 4) —{X [ovr Quantum NOT gate alo} Truth abe of NOT gate Tapa ‘pa a ™ n ») ‘ak) + BI) at) + Bo) 6.2.2 Pauli-X,Y and Z Gates XGate The Pauli-X Gate is nothing but Quantum Not Gate. 623 Y Gate YY Gate is represented by Pauli matrix or or ¥. Thi Maps [0) state to i|1) state and |1) state to —/|0) state. The YY Gate and its operation is as given below olde rn=() B)(t}=(Z) = m0 =-11m «6 ‘Thus the ¥- vo=(° Z)()=() [10) (620 ‘The Truth Table of operation of CNOT gate is as fole lows. Input | Output “[00) | Too) lor) | Jou) {uo) | |) 1) | [10) BGS College of Engineering & Technology6.33 Swap Gate ‘The SWAP gate is two-qubit operation. Expressed in basis states, the SWAP gate swaps the state of the two qubits involved inthe operation, The Matix representation ofthe Swap Gate is as follows o 0] o 2 Uswar = (6.28) Ssez 0 1 oot The schematic symbol of swap gate circuit is as follows, I Ww Ww » Which is equivalent to The swap gate is a combined. co rm) Ww » cuit of 3 CNOT gates and the over all effect is that two input qubits are swapped at the output. The Action and truth table of the swap gate is as follows, = Tiare Caparo T 3488) 2 heen) 3 Ima) 6.3.4 Controlled Z Gate In Controlled Z Gate, The operation of Z Gate is controlled by a Control Qubit. Ifthe control Quibit is |A) = |1) then only the Z gate transforms the Target Qubit |B) as per the Pauli-Z operation. The action of Controlled Z-Gate could is specified by a matrix as follows, 1000 lo 10 0 x Uz=\o 01 0 (6.29) jo 0 oO =I ‘The controlled Z. gate and the truth table are as follows. Department of Physics Engineering Physics-22PHYS1222 a z wee oe: 00) Joo) 1) fo) ho no) im) +1) 635 Toffoli Gate ‘The Toffoli Gate is also known as CCNOT Gate (Controlled-Controlied-Not). It has three inputs out of which two are Control Qubits and oneis the Target Qubit. ‘The Target Qubit flips only when both the Control Qubits are [1). The two Control Qubits are not altered during the operation ‘The matrix representation, Gate Circuit and the Truth ‘Table of Toffoli Gate are as follows. 10 0 0 © 0 o oj 01000006 00100000 0 0 © 1 0 0 o of v 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 of 0 0 0 0 0100 ooo 000 ot ooo 0001 e 000/000 1) oo1loor o10lo10 O1rlorr |) 100/100 rol;1or [ep rioliit Lo ‘The Toffolli matrix is unitary. The Toffolli cwn inverse. It could be used for NAND Gat Xe is its mulation, BGS College of Engineering & Technology6.4 Question Bank and Numerical Problems 64.1 Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing 1. Describe briefly the Quantum Computing and its im- portance 2. Elucdate the differences between classical and quan- tum computing tween the Mention the properties of Qubit 4. Discuss the representation of qubit by Bloch Sphere. 5. Explain single, two qubits and extension to N qubis 642 Dirac Representation and Matrix Op- erations 1. Mention the matrix representation of (0) and |1) states and apply the Identity operator to show there is no change in states 2. State the Pauli matrices and apply Pauli matrices on the states |0) and |1). . Explain conjugate and Transpose of a matrix. Describe unitary matrix and along with an example. Describe row and column matrices and the inner product. 6. Discuss probability and quantum superposition, 7. Explain the conditions for orthogonality and or- thonormality 64.3 Quantum Gates 1. Illustrate the principle and working of Quantum Not Gate. 2. Discuss the Pauli X.Y and Z gates and their opera tions on quantum states. 3, Describe the Phase gate along with matrix represen- tation and truth table. 4. Discuss the CNOT gate and its operation on four dif ferent input states 5. explain the matrix form and operation of Toffoli gate. 6, Describe the Swap gate with the matrix and truth ta- ble. 7, Blucidate the working of controlled-Z, gate me ing its matrix representation and truth table. Department of Physics Engineering Physics-22PHYS12/22 8, Distinguish between single qubit and multiple qubit gates, 9. Describe Quantum Gates with three examples. 10. wuss the functioning of Hadamard gate with ma- trix representation and truth table. 11. Explain the working of T gate with its matrix and truth table, 65 Numerical Problems 65.1 Dirac Representation and Matrix Op- erations 1. A Linear Operator °X" operates such that X 0) = |1) and X|1) = |0). Find the matrix representation of x Given 4 Sh ht he Matic U-= fe 3] s Uni va) Ver 4. Find the inner product of states [1) and 0) and draw conclusions on the result 5. Given w) = (1) and te) = (ft) move ut Wd) = lw)” 65.2 Quantum Gates 1 Using Matrix multiplication show that on applying Hadamard gate twice to a [0) results in its original state. Using two X-gates in series show that two not gates in series are equivalent to a quantum wire. 3. Show the Hadamatd Gate is Unitary. 4, Two Qubits are passed through CNOT gate Ifthe first, ‘qubit is the control qubit then what is the output for the following initial states 1. |00),2. 01), and 3.11). 5. Show that $ gate can be formed by connecting two T gates in Series, BGS College of Engineering & Technology