MODULE I – PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHTS ON EDUCATION

Introduction
This chapter dwells on the philosophical thoughts on education of John Locke, Herbert
Spencer, John Dewey, George Counts, Theodore Brameld and Paulo Freire. This discussion is
focused on their opinions of what should be taught for the socialization of the individual and
how these should be taught.

Here is a summary on the views of the philosophers enumerated above, in terms of what
should be taught to the children and how it should be taught. Read through the notes and answer
the learning activity at the end.

A. John Locke (1632 – 1704) – The Empiricist Educator

 Acquire knowledge about the world through the senses – learning by doing and
interacting with the environment
 Simple ideas become more complex through comparison, reflection and generalization –
the inductive method
 Questioned the long traditional view that knowledge came exclusively from literary
sources, particularly the Greek and Latin classics
 Opposed the “divine right of king” theory which held that the monarch had the right to be
unquestioned and absolute ruler over his subjects
 Political order should be based upon a contract between the people and the government
 Aristocrats are not destined by birth to be rulers. People were to establish their own
government and select their own political leaders from among themselves; civic
education is necessary
 People should be educated to govern themselves intelligently and responsibly (Orstein,
1984 in Prieto, et 2019)

B. Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903): Utilitarian Education

 Spencer’s concept of “survival of the fittest” means that human development had gone
through an evolutionary series of stages from the simple to the complex and from the
uniform to the more specialized kind of activity
 Social development had taken place according to an evolutionary process by which
simple homogenous societies had evolved to more complex societal systems
characterized with humanistic and classical education
 Industrialized society require vocational and professional education based on scientific
and practical (utilitarian) objectives rather than on the very general educational goals
associated with humanistic and classical education
 Curriculum should emphasize the practical, utilitarian and scientific subjects that helped
human kind master the environment
 Was not inclined to rote learning; schooling must be related to life and to the activities
needed to earn a living
 Curriculum must be arranged according to their contribution to human survival and
progress
 Science and other subjects that sustained human life and prosperity should have
curricular priority since it aids in the performance of life activities
  Individual competition leads to social progress. He who is fittest survives (Orstein, 1984
in Prieto, et 2019)

C. John Dewey (1859 – 1952): Learning Through Experience

 Education is a social process and so, school is intimately related to the society that it
serves
 Children are socially active human beings who want to explore their environment and
gain control over it
 Education is a social process by which the immature members of the group, especially
the children, are brought to participate in the society
 The school is a special environment established by members of society, for the purpose
of simplifying, purifying and integrating the social experience of the group so that it can
be understood, examined and used by its children
 The sole purpose of education is to contribute to the personal and social growth of
individuals
 The steps of the scientific or reflective method which are extremely important in
Dewey’s educational theory are as follows:
 The learner has a “genuine situation of experience” – involvement in an
activity in which he/she is interested
 Within this experience, the learner has a “genuine problem” that
stimulates thinking
 The learner possesses the information or does research to acquire the
information needed to solve the problem
 The learner develops possible and tentative solutions that may solve the
problem
 The learner tests the solutions by applying them to the problem. In this
way, one discovers their validity for oneself
 The fund of knowledge of the human race – past ideas, discoveries and inventions was to
be used as the material for dealing with problems. This accumulated wisdom of cultural
heritage has to be tested. If it served human purposes, it becomes part of a reconstructed
experience
 The school is social, scientific and democratic. The school introduces children to society
and their heritage. The school as a miniature society is a means of bringing children into
social participation.
 The school is scientific in the sense that it is a social laboratory in which children and
youth could test their ideas and values. In here, the learner acquires the disposition and
procedures associated with scientific or reflective thinking and acting.
 The school is democratic because the learner is free to test all ideas, beliefs and values.
Cultural heritage, customs and institutions are all subject to critical inquiry, investigation
and reconstruction
 School should be used by all, it being a democratic institution. No barrier of custom or
prejudice segregate people. People ought to work together to solve common problems
 The authoritarian or coercive style of administration and teaching is out of place because
they block genuine inquiry and dialogue
 Education is a social activity and the school is a social agency that helps shape human
character and behavior
  Values are relative but sharing, cooperation and democracy are significant human values
that should be encouraged by schools (Orstein, 1984 in Prieto, et 2019)

D. George Counts (1889 – 1974): Building a New Social Order

 Education is not based on eternal truths but is relative to a particular society living at a
given time and place
 By allying themselves with groups that want to change society, schools should cope with
social change that arises from technology
 There is a cultural lag between material progress and social institutions and ethical values
 Instruction should incorporate a content of a socially useful nature and a problem-solving
methodology. Students are encouraged to work on problems that have social significance
 Schools become instrument for social improvement rather than an agency for preserving
the status quo
 Teachers should lead society rather than follow it. Teachers are agents of change
 Teachers are called on to make important choices in the controversial areas of economics,
politics and morality because if they failed to do so, others would make the decisions for
them
 Schools ought to provide an education that afford equal learning opportunities to all
students

E. Theodore Brameld (1904 – 1987): Social Reconstructionism

 As the name implies, social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the
reformation of society. It contends that:
 … humankind has moved from an agricultural and rural society to an urban and
technological society… there is a serious lag in cultural adaptation to the realities of a
technological society. Humankind has yet to reconstruct its values in order to catch up
with the changes in the technological order, and organized education has a major role to
play in reducing the gap between the values of culture and technology (Orstein, 1984 in
Prieto, et 2019)
 Social reconstructionists assert that schools should:
Critically examine present culture and resolve inconsistencies, controversies and conflicts
to build new society not just change society… do more than reform the social and
educational status quo. It should seek to create a new society… Humankind is in a state
of profound cultural crisis. If schools reflect the dominant social values, then organized
education will merely transmit the social ills that are symptoms of the pervasive problems
and afflictions that beset humankind. The only legitimate goal of a truly human education
is to create a world order in which people are in control of their own destiny. In an era of
nuclear weapons, the social reconstructionists see an urgent need to reconstruct itself
before it destroys itself (Orstein, 1984 in Prieto, et 2019)
 Technological era is an era of interdependence and so education must be international in
scope for global citizenship
 Education is designed “to awaken students consciousness about social problems and to
engage them actively in problem solving
 Social reconstructionists are firmly committed to equality or equity in both society and
education. Barriers of socio-economic class and racial discrimination should be
eradicated
  They also emphasize the idea of an interdependent world. The quality of life needs to be
considered and enhanced on a global basis (Orstein, 1984 in Prieto, et 2019)

F. Paulo Freire (1921 – 1997) – Critical Pegagogy

Critical Pedagogy and Dialogue VS. the Banking Model of Education
 Freire believed that systems must be changed to overcome oppression and improve
human conditions
 Education and literacy are the vehicles for social change. In his view, human must learn
to resist oppression and not become its victims, nor oppress others. To do so requires
dialogue and critical consciousness, the development of awareness to overcome
domination and oppression.
 Rather than “teaching as banking” in which the educator deposits information into
students’ heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of inquiry in which the
child must invent and reinvent the world
 Teachers must not see themselves as the sole possessors of knowledge and their students
as empty receptacles. He calls this pedagogical approach the “banking method” of
education
 A democratic relationship between the teacher and his/her students is necessary in order
for the conscientization process to take place
 Freire’s critical pedagogy is problem-posing education
 A central element of Freire’s pedagogy is dialogue. It is love and respect that allow us to
engage people in a dialogue and to discover ourselves in the process and learn from one
another. By its nature, dialogue is not something that can be imposed. Instead, genuine
dialogue is characterized by respect of the parties involved toward one another. We
develop a tolerant sensibility during the dialogue process, and it is only when we come to
tolerate points of views and ways of being of others that we might be able to learn from
them and about ourselves in the process. Dialogue means the presence of equality,
mutual recognition, affirmation of people, a sense of solidarity with people and
remaining open to questions.
 Dialogue is the basis of critical and problem – posing pedagogy, as opposed to banking
education, where there is no discussion, only the imposition of the teachers’ ideas on
students (Orstein, 1984 in Prieto, et 2019)
 MODULE II – HISTORICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

Introduction
This module on Historical Foundation of Education is meant to help you, preservice
teachers, to understand how education in the Philippines and in the world has changed
throughout the years and how it can continue to change now and in the future.

Let us begin this module with the quote from John Dewey:
“When a school introduces and trains each child of society into
membership within such a little community, saturating him with the
spirit of service, and providing him with the instruments of effective
self-direction, we shall have the deepest and best guaranty of a
larger society which is worthy, lovely and harmonious.”

Reflecting on this quote, answer the following questions:

1) What is the function of the school according to John Dewey?
2) Who creates schools?
3) What is the relationship between schools and society?

The school is an institution created by society. Education is a function of society and as

such, arises from the nature and character of the society itself. Society seeks to preserve itself
and to do this, it maintains its functions and institutions, one of which is education, to assure its
survival, stability and convenience.
As John Dewey claimed in the quote above, it is the school that introduces and trains
each child of society into membership within such a little community, saturating him with the
spirit of service, and providing him with the instruments of effective self-direction…” When
schools succeed to do this, in the words of Dewey “we shall have the deepest and best guaranty
of a larger society which is worthy, harmonious and lovely.”
This is called the socialization process. Socialization is the “process of learning the roles,
statuses and values necessary for participation in social institutions (Brinkerhoff, 1989, in Prieto
et al, 2019). Socialization is a lifelong process. It occurs primarily during early childhood but as
a progress from infancy to old age, we shed old roles and adopt new ones. Role learning that
prepares us for future roles is termed anticipatory socialization (Brinkerhoff, 1989, in Prieto et
al, 2019). Because of this, most of us are more or less prepared for our future roles like being a
spouse, a parent or a professional teacher.
The family is the most important agent of socialization. Psychology tells us that the self-
concept formed during childhood has lasting consequences. Besides, “the parents’ religion,
social class and ethnicity influence the child’s social roles and self-concept which in turn
influence the expectations that others have for the child, and they determine the groups with
which the child will interact outside the family”. (Brinkerhoff, 1989, in Prieto et al, 2019).
The school is also an important agent of socialization. It is an institution charged by
society to impart specific knowledge and skills necessary for functioning in a society. They are
also charged with the task of transmitting society’s cultural values.
Education in Primitive Society
In primitive societies, preliterate persons faced the problem of survival in an environment
that pitted them against natural forces and wild animals. To survive, human beings needed food,
shelter, warmth and clothing. To transform a hostile environment into one that is life-sustaining,
human kind developed life skills that eventually became cultural patterns.
The life skills included: (1) tool or instrument making; (2) adherence to the moral
behavior code of group life; and, (3) language.
Early humankind found security in group life based on kinship and tribal patterns. Life in
the human group was educational as children observed and learned from elders and as they were
deliberately taught by their parents and elders. For these cultural patterns to continue, the adults
had to teach these skills and values to their children. This is socialization, a function of education
in society. Socialization is a process by which individuals internalize the norms and values of
society and so social and cultural continuity are attained. This is also informal education in
action.
As abstract thinkers, human beings could create, use and manipulate symbols. They could
communicate with one another through gestures, sounds and words. These symbols were
expressed in signs, pictographs, letters. The creation and introduction of oral and written
language made a great leap in literacy which in turn had tremendous educational consequences
which citizens of a civilized society like netizens of the 21st century now enjoy.

Key Periods in Educational History

Below are key periods in educational history from 7000 BC to AD 1600. It can be
observed from this timeline that education and school are a function of society and schools
reflect the nature and character of society itself. What society considers important is what
education focuses to preserve society.

Table 1. Points of Emphasis on Education in History

Key Periods in Educational History, 7000 BC to AD 1600
Historical Educational Curriculum Agents Influences in
Group or Goals Western
Period Education
Primitive To teach group Practical skills Parents, tribal Emphasis on the
Societies survival skills; of hunting, elders, and role of informal
7000 BC – 5000 fishing, food priests education in the
BC gathering, transmission of
skills and values
to cultivate stories myths,
group songs, poems,
cohesiveness dances
Greek To cultivate Athenian: Athens: private Athens: The
1600 BC – 300 civic reading, writing, teachers and concepts of the
BC responsibility arithmetic, schools; well-rounded,
and identify with drama, music, Sophists; liberally educated
 city – state physical philosophers person
education,
Athenian: to literature, poetry Sparta: military Sparta: The
develop well- teachers, drill concept of the
rounded persons Spartan: drill, sergeants military state
military songs
Spartan: to and tactics
develop soldiers
and military
leaders
Roman To develop Reading, Private schools Emphasis on
750 BC – ad 450 sense of civic writing, and teachers; ability to use
responsibility for arithmetic, Laws schools of education for
the republic and of Twelve rhetoric practical
the empire; to Tables, law, administrative
develop philosophy skills; relating
administrative education to civic
and military responsibility
skills
Arabic To cultivate Reading, Mosques, court Arabic numerals
AD 700 – AD religious writing, schools and computation;
1350 commitment to mathematics, re-entry of
Islamic beliefs; religious classical materials
to develop literature, on science and
expertise in scientific studies medicine
mathematics,
medicine and
science
Medieval To develop Reading, Parish chantry Establishing the
AD 500 – AD religious writing, and cathedral structure, content
1400 commitment, arithmetic, schools, and organization
knowledge and liberal arts, universities, of the university
ritual; to re- philosophy, apprenticeship; as a major
establish social theology, crafts, knighthood institution of
order; to prepare military tactics higher education;
persons for and chivalry the
appropriate roles institutionalization
and preservation
of knowledge
Renaissance To cultivate a Latin, Greek, Classical An emphasis on
AD 1350 – AD humanist who classical humanist literary
1500 was expert in the literature, educators and knowledge,
classics – Greek poetry, art schools such as excellence, and
and Latin; to lycee, style as expressed
prepare courtiers gymnasium, in classical
for service to Latin grammar literature; a two
 dynastic leaders school track system of
schools
Reformation To cultivate a Reading, Vernacular A commitment to
AD 1500 – AD sense of writing, elementary universal
1600 commitment to a arithmetic, schools for the education to
particular catechism, masses; classical provide literacy to
religious religious schools for the the masses; the
denomination; to concepts and upper classes origins of school
cultivate general ritual, Latin and systems with
literacy Greek; theology supervision to
ensure doctrinal
conformity

The History of the Philippine Educational System

Let us see how the nature and character of Philippine society are reflected in the
education process in different periods of Philippine history.

Education During the Pre-colonial Period

Education was informal and unstructured, decentralized. Fathers taught their sons how to
look for food and other means of livelihood. Mothers taught their girls to do the household
chores. This education basically prepared the children to become good husbands and wives.
Children were provided more vocational training but lesser academics. Teachers were tribal
tutors (Babaylan or Katalonan)

Education During the Spanish Era

Education was formal and organized. It was authoritarian in nature. Tribal tutors of the
pre-Spanish period were replaced by Spanish missionaries. Pupils attended formal schooling in
the parochial school. Instruction was religion-oriented. Christian doctrines, sacred songs and
music and prayers were taught because they were required for confession and communion. There
was a separate school for boys and girls. Wealthy Filipinos or the ilustrados were accommodated
in schools.

The Educational Decree of 1863

This law gave Filipinos a complete system of education from elementary to the collegiate
level. The law provided for the establishment of the elementary schools in all municipalities in
the country. Although religion was the core of the curriculum, the curriculum included the
subjects reading, writing, arithmetic, history, Christian doctrine, Spanish language, vocal music,
agriculture for the boys and needlework for the girls. Attendance in school was compulsory
between the ages of seven and twelve.

Education During the American Regime (1898 – 1946)

The Americans promoted democratic ideals and democratic way of life. The schools
maintained by the Spaniards for more than three centuries were closed but were re-opened on
August 29, 1898 by the Secretary of the Interior. A system of free and compulsory elementary
education was established by the Malolos Constitution.
In May 1898, the first American school was established in Corregidor, and shortly after
the capture of Manila in 1899, seven schools were opened in the city.
Training was done through the schools both public and secular manned by Chaplains and
Military Officers of the US Army.
Thomasites arrived in the Philippines on August 23, 1901. The University of the
Philippines was founded in 1908. UP was the first state school of university status.
The Department of Public Instruction set up a three level school system. The first level
considered a four-year primary and three-year intermediate or seven-year elementary curriculum.
The second level as a four-year junior college and later a four-year program.

The Commonwealth Period (1935 – 1942)

Free education in public schools was provided all over the country, in accordance with
the 1935 Constitution.
Vocational education and some household activities like sewing, cooking, and farming
were also given importance.
Education also emphasized nationalism so the students were taught about the life of the
Filipino heroes.
Vocational education and some household activities were also given importance. Good
manners and discipline were also taught to the students.
The institute of private education was established in order to observe private schools.
Formal adult education was also given.
Executive Order No. 134 (of 1936) was signed by Pres, Manuel L. Quezon designating
Tagalog as the National Language.
Executive Order No. 217 otherwise known as the Quezon Code of Ethics was taught in
schools.
Executive Order No. 263 (9n 1940) required the teaching of the Filipino national
language in the senior year of all high schools and in all years in the normal schools.
The Education Act of 1940 was approved by the Philippine Assembly on August 7, 1940,
which provided for the following:
 Reduction of the 7-year elementary course to 6 years
 Fixing the school entrance age at 7
 National support for elementary education
 Compulsory attendance of primary children enrolled in Grade I
 Adoption of double-single sessions in the primary grade with one teacher one class
assignment of intermediate teachers.

The Japanese Occupation

 Make the people understand the position of the Philippines as a member of the East Asia
Co- Prosperity Sphere
 Eradication of the idea of reliance upon Western States particularly the US and Great
Britain
  Fostering a new Filipino culture based on the consciousness of the people as Orientals
 Elevating the moral of the people giving up over-emphasis on materialism
 Diffusion of elementary education and the promotion of vocation education
 Striving for the diffusion of the Japanese language in the Philippines and the termination
of the use of English in schools
 Developing in people the love of labor

Post-colonial Philippines
 Education aimed at the full realization of the democratic ideals and way of life
 The Civil Service Eligibility of teachers was made permanent pursuant to RA 1079 in
June 15, 1954
 A daily flag ceremony was made compulsory in all schools including the singing of the
National Anthem pursuant to RA 1265 approved on June 11, 1955
 Curricular offerings in all schools, the life, the works and writings of Jose Rizal
esepecially the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo shall be included in all levels
 Elementary education was nationalized and matriculation fees were abolished
 Magna Carta for Teachers was passed into law by virtue of RA 4670
 The fundamental aims of education in the 1973 Constitution are: foster love of country;
teach the duties of citizenship; develop moral character; self- discipline; and scientific,
technological and vocational efficiency

Other development
 Integration of values in all learning areas
 Emphasis on mastery learning
 YDT (Youth Development Training) and CAT (Citizen’s Arm Training) introduced as
new courses
 Media Instruction – Bilingual Education Policy: Mandates the use of English and Filipino
separately as media of instruction in schools
 Education Act of 1982 – created the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports (MECS)
 NCEE (National College Entrance Examination was introduced
 Executive Order No. 117 – President Corazon C. Aquino renamed MECS into DECS
( Department of Education, Culture and Sports) in 1987
 Creation of the Board for Professional Teachers composed of 5 under PRC
 Replacement of PBET (Professional Board Examination for Teachers) by LET
(Licensure Examination for Teachers)
 Transfer of Authority of administering the LET from CSC (Civil Service Commission)
and DECS to the Bureau of Professional Techers under PRC
 Trifocalization of Education System
 The Trifocal education system refocused DECS’ mandate to basic education which
covers elementary, secondary and nonformal education, including culture and Sports.
TESDA (Technical Education Skills Development Authority) now administers the post-
secondary,middle-level manpower training and development (RA 7796 – Technical
Education and Skills Development Act of 1994)
  CHED (Commission on Higher Education0 is responsible for higher education (RA 7722
– Higher Education Act of 1994)
 In August 2001, Republic Act 9155 (Governance of Basic Education Act) was passed
transforming the name Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) to the
Department of Education (DEpEd)and redefining the roles field offices (regional,
division, district, and schools). RA 9155 provide the overall framework for (i) school
head empowerment by strengthening their leadership roles; and, (ii) school-based
management within the context of transparency and local accountability. The goal of
basic education is to provide the school age population and young adults with skills,
knowledge and values to become caring, self-reliant, productive and patriotic citizens.
 Values education is offered as a separate subject and integrated in all subject areas in the
New Secondary Education Curriculum
 RA 10157, January 20, 2012 – Kindergarten Act, an act institutionalizing the
kindergarted education into the basic education system
 K to 12 Program (RA 10533) – The k\K to 12 program covers kindergarten and 12 years
of basic education (six years of primary education, 4 years of junior high school and 2
years of senior high school) to provide sufficient time for mastery of concepts and skills,
develop life long learners, and prepare graduates for tertiary education, middle level
skills development, employment and entrepreneurship.

The Varied Goals of Education in Different Historical Periods of Philippine History

Historical Periods Goals of Education

Pre – Colonial Period Vocational training but lesser academics for
students to be good fathers and mothers
Spanish Period Religious formation to help students live the
Christian faith
American Regime Educated Filipinos to become good citizens of
a democratic country
Japanese Regime Students were taught to love labor
Post-colonial Period Foster love of country
Teach the duties of citizenship
Develop moral character and self-discipline
Scientific, technological and vocational
efficiency

At present, the DepEd Vision, Mission and core values and the national vision and
mission of the Commission on Higher Education “highlights” and summarizes the goals of
Philippine Education.
 MODULE III – SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORIES AND
THEIR IMPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION

Introduction
Sociologists today employ three primary theoretical perspectives: functionalist, conflict
and symbolic interactionist. These perspectives explain how society influences people and how
people influence the society. Each perspective uniquely conceptualizes society, social forces and
human behavior.

Structural – Functional Theory

Functionalism, also called structural-functional theory, sees society as a structure with
interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in that
society. Functionalism grew out of the writings of English philosopher and biologist, Herbert
Spencer (1820–1903), who saw similarities between society and the human body; he argued that
just as the various organs of the body work together to keep the body functioning, the various
parts of society work together to keep society functioning (Spencer 1898). The parts of society
that Spencer referred to were the social institutions, or patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused
on meeting social needs, such as government, education, family, healthcare, religion, and the
economy.
Émile Durkheim, another early sociologist, applied Spencer’s theory to explain how
societies change and survive over time. Durkheim believed that society is a complex system of
interrelated and interdependent parts that work together to maintain stability (Durkheim 1893),
and that society is held together by shared values, languages, and symbols. He believed that to
study society, a sociologist must look beyond individuals to social facts such as laws, morals,
values, religious beliefs, customs, fashion, and rituals, which all serve to govern social life.
Alfred Radcliff-Brown (1881–1955) defined the function of any recurrent activity as the part it
played in social life as a whole, and therefore the contribution it makes to social stability and
continuity (Radcliff-Brown 1952). In a healthy society, all parts work together to maintain
stability, a state called dynamic equilibrium by later sociologists such as Parsons (1961).
Durkheim believed that individuals may make up society, but in order to study society,
sociologists have to look beyond individuals to social facts. Social facts are the laws, morals,
values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social
life (Durkheim 1895). Each of these social facts serves one or more functions within a society.
For example, one function of a society’s laws may be to protect society from violence, while
another is to punish criminal behavior, while another is to preserve public health.
Another noted structural functionalist, Robert Merton (1910–2003), pointed out that
social processes often have many functions. Manifest functions are the consequences of a social
process that are sought or anticipated, while latent functions are the unsought consequences of a
social process. A manifest function of college education, for example, includes gaining
knowledge, preparing for a career, and finding a good job that utilizes that education. Latent
functions of your college years include meeting new people, participating in extracurricular
activities, or even finding a spouse or partner. Another latent function of education is creating a
hierarchy of employment based on the level of education attained. Latent functions can be
beneficial, neutral, or harmful. Social processes that have undesirable consequences for the
operation of society are called dysfunctions. In education, examples of dysfunction include
getting bad grades, truancy, dropping out, not graduating, and not finding suitable employment.
 (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/functionalism/
#:~:text=Functionalism%20grew%20out%20of%20the,work%20together%20to%20keep
%20society).

The different components/parts of the society must coordinate and collaborate for society
to function well. Just like in the stories you have read, if one part of the human body does not
function well, the whole body is affected. In the same way, when one component of the society
does not do its part, society will not function well. The overall health of the organism and the
society depends upon the health of each structure or part.
The functionalist theory of education focuses on how education serves the need of society
through the development of skills encouraging social cohesion. The role of schools is to prepare
students for participation in the institutions of society. Education is concerned with the
transmission of core values for social control. Education is concerned with socializing people by
bringing together people from different backgrounds. The functionalist theory is focused on
social stability and solidarity. Functionalists see education as a beneficial contribution to an
ordered society.
Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in changing their social
environment, even when such changes may benefit them. Instead, functionalism sees active
social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will compensate naturally for
any problems that may arise.
According to the functionalists, the purposes of the school are the following:
1) Intellectual purposes – acquisition of cognitive skills and inquiry skills
2) Political purposes – educate future citizens; promote patriotism; promote assimilation of
immigrants; ensure order, public civility and conformity to laws
3) Economic purposes – prepare students for later work roles; select and train the labor
force needed by society.
4) Social purposes – promote a sense of social and moral responsibility; serve as a site for
the solution or resolution of social problems; supplement the efforts of other institutions
of socialization such as the family and church.

The Functional theory stresses the functions that education serves in fulfilling a society’s
various needs. Perhaps the most important function of education is socialization. If children are
to learn the norms, values, and skills they need to function in society, then education is a primary
vehicle for such learning. Schools teach the three Rs (reading, ’riting, ’rithmetic), as we all
know, but they also teach many of the society’s norms and values. In the United States, these
norms and values include respect for authority, patriotism, punctuality, and competition (for
grades and sports victories). A second function of education is social integration. For a society to
work, functionalists say, people must subscribe to a common set of beliefs and values. As we
saw, the development of such common views was a goal of the system of free, compulsory
education that developed in the nineteenth century. Thousands of immigrant children in the
United States today are learning English, US history, and other subjects that help prepare them
for the workforce and integrate them into American life.
A third function of education is social placement. Beginning in grade school, students are
identified by teachers and other school officials either as bright and motivated or as less bright
and even educationally challenged. Depending on how they are identified, children are taught at
the level that is thought to suit them best. In this way, they are presumably prepared for their
later station in life. Whether this process works as well as it should is an important issue, and we
explore it further when we discuss school tracking later in this chapter.
Social and cultural innovation is a fourth function of education. Our scientists cannot
make important scientific discoveries and our artists and thinkers cannot come up with great
works of art, poetry, and prose unless they have first been educated in the many subjects they
need to know for their chosen path.

Conflict Theory
Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources. This perspective is
a macro-level approach most identified with the writings of German philosopher and sociologist
Karl Marx (1818–1883), who saw society as being made up of individuals in different social
classes who must compete for social, material, and political resources such as food and housing,
employment, education, and leisure time. Social institutions like government, education, and
religion reflect this competition in their inherent inequalities and help maintain the unequal
social structure. Some individuals and organizations are able to obtain and keep more resources
than others, and these “winners” use their power and influence to maintain social institutions.
Several theorists suggested variations on this basic theme. Polish-Austrian sociologist Ludwig
Gumplowicz (1838–1909) expanded on Marx’s ideas by arguing that war and conquest are the
basis of civilizations. He believed that cultural and ethnic conflicts led to states being identified
and defined by a dominant group that had power over other groups (Irving 2007).
German sociologist Max Weber agreed with Marx but also believed that, in addition to
economic inequalities, inequalities of political power and social structure cause conflict. Weber
noted that different groups were affected differently based on education, race, and gender, and
that people’s reactions to inequality were moderated by class differences and rates of social
mobility, as well as by perceptions about the legitimacy of those in power. German sociologist
Georg Simmel (1858–1918) believed that conflict can help integrate and stabilize a society. He
said that the intensity of the conflict varies depending on the emotional involvement of the
parties, the degree of solidarity within the opposing groups, and the clarity and limited nature of
the goals. Simmel also showed that groups work to create internal solidarity, centralize power,
and reduce dissent. Resolving conflicts can reduce tension and hostility and can pave the way for
future agreements. In the 1930s and 1940s, German philosophers, known as the Frankfurt
School, developed critical theory as an elaboration on Marxist principles. Critical theory is an
expansion of conflict theory and is broader than just sociology, including other social sciences
and philosophy. A critical theory attempts to address structural issues causing inequality; it must
explain what’s wrong in current social reality, identify the people who can make changes, and
provide practical goals for social transformation (Horkeimer 1982). More recently, inequality
based on gender or race has been explained in a similar manner and has identified
institutionalized power structures that help to maintain inequality between groups. Janet
Saltzman Chafetz (1941–2006) presented a model of feminist theory that attempts to explain the
forces that maintain gender inequality as well as a theory of how such a system can be changed
(Turner 2003). Similarly, critical race theory grew out of a critical analysis of race and racism
from a legal point of view. Critical race theory looks at structural inequality based on white
privilege and associated wealth, power, and prestige (https://www.google.com/search?
q=conflict+theory&rlz=1C1CHBD_enPH901PH902&ei=4-
1zYP_LKPVmAWJ9bboCA&oq=Conf&gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAEYADIHCAAQsQMQQzIE
CAAQQzIFCAAQkQIyBAgAEEMyBAgAEEMyCggAELEDEIMBEEMyCggAELEDEIMBEE
MyBQgAELEDMgQIABBDMgcILhCxAxBDOgUIABCwAzoECC4QQ1DiKlikMWCaSmgBc
AB4AIABpQGIAZsFkgEDMC41mAEAoAEBqgEHZ3dzLXdpesgBAcABAQ&sclient=gws-
wiz.

According to this theory, there are always two (2) opposing sides in a conflict solution.
People take sides between maintaining the status quo and introducing change then arrive at an
agreement. The Conflict theory welcomes conflict for that is the way to the establishment of a
new society. Conflict theorists find potential conflict between any groups where inequality
exists: racial, gender, religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict theories note that
unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against
one another. This constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing
nature of society.
Regarding education, according to this theory, education is not truly a social benefit or
opportunity as a seen by the functionalists. Rather, education is a powerful means of maintaining
power structures and creating a docile work for capitalism. The purpose of education is to
maintain social inequality and to preserve the power of those who dominate society and teach
those in the working class to accept their position as a lower class worker of society.

The Symbolic Interactionist Theory

Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that focuses on the relationships among
individuals within a society. Communication—the exchange of meaning through language and
symbols—is believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds. Theorists
Herman and Reynolds (1994) note that this perspective sees people as being active in shaping the
social world rather than simply being acted upon.
George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) is considered a founder of symbolic interactionism
though he never published his work on it (LaRossa and Reitzes 1993). Mead’s student, Herbert
Blumer, coined the term “symbolic interactionism” and outlined these basic premises: humans
interact with things based on meanings ascribed to those things; the ascribed meaning of things
comes from our interactions with others and society; the meanings of things are interpreted by a
person when dealing with things in specific circumstances (Blumer 1969). If you love books, for
example, a symbolic interactionist might propose that you learned that books are good or
important in the interactions you had with family, friends, school, or church; maybe your family
had a special reading time each week, getting your library card was treated as a special event, or
bedtime stories were associated with warmth and comfort.
Social scientists who apply symbolic-interactionist thinking look for patterns of
interaction between individuals. Their studies often involve observation of one-on-one
interactions. For example, while a conflict theorist studying a political protest might focus on
class difference, a symbolic interactionist would be more interested in how individuals in the
protesting group interact, as well as the signs and symbols protesters use to communicate their
message. The focus on the importance of symbols in building a society led sociologists like
Erving Goffman (1922–1982) to develop a technique called dramaturgical analysis. Goffman
used theater as an analogy for social interaction and recognized that people’s interactions showed
patterns of cultural “scripts.” Because it can be unclear what part a person may play in a given
situation, he or she has to improvise his or her role as the situation unfolds (Goffman 1958).
 Constructivism is an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that
reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be. We develop social constructs based on
interactions with others, and those constructs that last over time are those that have meanings
which are widely agreed-upon or generally accepted by most within the society. This approach is
often used to understand what’s defined as deviant within a society. There is no absolute
definition of deviance, and different societies have constructed different meanings for deviance,
as well as associating different behaviors with deviance. One situation that illustrates this is what
you believe you’re to do if you find a wallet in the street. In the United States, turning the wallet
in to local authorities would be considered the appropriate action, and to keep the wallet would
be seen as deviant. In contrast, many Eastern societies would consider it much more appropriate
to keep the wallet and search for the owner yourself; turning it over to someone else, even the
authorities, would be considered deviant behavior (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-
sociology/chapter/reading-symbolic-interactionist-theory/).
The three (3) tenets of symbolic interaction are as follows:
1) An individual’s action depends on meaning. We act based on the meanings we give to
symbols. Symbols can be actions, objects or words. If a student understands that the
teacher believes in his or her ability, he/she tries his/her best prove that indeed, he/she is
able. If a teacher does otherwise, a student tends to behave in accordance with teacher’s
poor perception. Try to read about the Pygmalion effect and relate it to this tenet.
2) Different people may give different meanings to the same thing. When teachers are
strict, some students see it as an expression of care. Others may rebel because they
perceive teacher’s behavior as limiting their moves and desires. What is the value of the
rain to you?
3) Meanings change as individuals interact with one another. A negative meaning that
you used to have about certain objects may change as you “see” these objects in a
different situation. If you are taught well, your idea of teaching as boring may change as
one that is exciting.

This theory directs sociologists to consider the symbols and details of everyday life, what
these symbols mean and how people interact with each other. As the term implies, the symbolic
interactionist theory states that people interact with one another through symbols. Language is a
predominant symbol among people. People attach meanings to symbols and then they act
according to their subjective interpretation of these symbols. Conversation is an interaction of
symbols between individuals who constantly interpret the world around them. To insure mutual
understanding, the sender of the symbol and the receiver of the symbol must give the same
meaning to the symbol or run the risk of misunderstanding.
The Theoretical Perspectives in a Snap Shot
Theoretical
Major assumptions
perspective

Education serves several functions for society. These include (a) socialization,
(b) social integration, (c) social placement, and (d) social and cultural
innovation. Latent functions include child care, the establishment of peer
Functionalism
relationships, and lowering unemployment by keeping high school students
out of the full-time labor force. Problems in the educational institution harm
society because all these functions cannot be completely fulfilled.

Education promotes social inequality through the use of tracking and

standardized testing and the impact of its “hidden curriculum.” Schools differ
Conflict theory
widely in their funding and learning conditions, and this type of inequality
leads to learning disparities that reinforce social inequality.

This perspective focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on the

playground, and in other school venues. Specific research finds that social
Symbolic interaction in schools affects the development of gender roles and that
interactionism teachers’ expectations of pupils’ intellectual abilities affect how much pupils
learn. Certain educational problems have their basis in social interaction and
expectations.
 MODULE IV– THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO
CHARACTER: A SOCIO-CULTURAL ISSUE

Introduction
As was already discussed in our previous modules, the school has an important role in
shaping and even changing the society. It cannot be denied also that the school is important in
addressing socio-cultural problems, especially during this advanced period of technological
development.

Below is an article about the report on moral recovery submitted on April 27, 1988 by the
Task Force to President Corazon Aquino, the Senate and the members of the press by then
Senator Letecia Shahani, the moving spirit behind the program. This was reiterated by former
CHED Commissioner, Patricia Licuanan.

A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People--Building a Nation by Patricia Licuanan

(https://ourhappyschool.com/esp-values-education/moral-recovery-program-building-people-
building-nation-patricia-licuanan)

The events at EDSA in February 1986 not only ousted a dictator, but also demonstrated
to the world and to ourselves our great strengths as a people. At EDSA we saw courage,
determination and strength of purpose; we saw unity and concern for one another; we saw deep
faith in God; and even in the grimmest moments, there was some laughter and humor.
We were proud of ourselves at EDSA and we expected great changes after our moment
of glory. Today, sometime after, we realize that most of our problems as a nation still remain.
We may have ousted a dictator, but that was the easy part. The task of building a nation is so
much more difficult. Now, with EDSA only an inspiring memory, we are faced with our
weaknesses. Self-interest and disregard for the common good rears its ugly head. We are
confronted with our lack of discipline and rigor, our colonial mentality, and our emphasis
on porma (form). Despite our great display of people's power, now we are passive once more,
expecting our leaders to take all responsibility for solving our many problems.
The task of building our nation is an awesome one. There is need for economic recovery.
There is need to re-establish democratic institutions and to achieve the goals of peace and
genuine social justice. Along with these goals, there is a need as well to build ourselves as a
people. There is need to change structures and to change people.
Building a people means eliminating our weaknesses and developing our strengths; this
starts with the analysis, understanding, and appreciation of these strengths and weaknesses. We
must take a good look at ourselves--objectively with scientific detachment, but also emotionally
(i.e., lovingly) and, when appropriate, with disgust. We must view ourselves as might a lover
viewing a loved one but also as might a judge capable of a harsh verdict. We must not be self-
flagellating, but neither can we afford to be defensive.
We must change, and for this, understanding ourselves is the first step.
STRENGTHS OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER
1) Pakikipagkapwa-Tao (regard for others). Filipinos are open to others and feel one with others.
We regard others with dignity and respect, and deal with them as fellow human
beings. Pakikipagkapwa-tao is manifested in a basic sense of justice and fairness, and in concern
for others. It is demonstrated in the Filipino's ability to empathize with others, in helpfulness and
generosity in times of need (pakikiramay), in the practice of bayanihan or mutual assistance, and
in the famous Filipino hospitality.
Filipinos possess a sensitivity to people's feelings or pakikiramdam, pagtitiwala or trust,
and a sense of gratitude or utang-na-loob. Because of pakikipagkapwa-tao, Filipinos are very
sensitive to the quality of interpersonal relationships and are very dependent on them: if our
relationships are satisfactory, we are happy and secure.
Pakikipagkapwa-tao results in camaraderie and a feeling of closeness one to another. It
helps promote unity as well a sense of social justice.

2) Family Orientation. Filipinos possess a genuine and deep love for the family, which includes
not simply the spouses and children, parents, and siblings, but also grandparents, aunts, uncles,
cousins, godparents, and other ceremonial relatives. To the Filipino, one's family is the source of
personal identity, the source of emotional and material support, and the person's main
commitment and responsibility.
Concern for family is manifested in the honor and respect given to parents and elders, in
the care given to children, the generosity towards kin in need, and in the great sacrifices one
endures for the welfare of the family. This sense of family results in a feeling of belonging or
rootedness and in a basic sense of security.

3) Joy and Humor. Filipinos have a cheerful and fun-loving approach to life and its ups and
downs. There is a pleasant disposition, a sense of humor, and a propensity for happiness that
contribute not only to the Filipino charm, but to the indomitability of the filipino spirit. Laughing
at ourselves and our trouble is an important coping mechanism. Often playful, sometimes
cynical, sometimes disrespectful, we laugh at those we love and at those we hate, and make jokes
about our fortune, good and bad.
This sense of joy and humor is manifested in the Filipino love for socials and
celebrations, in our capacity to laugh even in the most trying of times, and in the appeal of
political satire.
The result is a certain emotional balance and optimism, a healthy disrespect for power
and office, and a capacity to survive.

4) Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity. Filipinos have a great capacity to adjust, and to adapt
to circumstances and to the surrounding environment, both physical and social. Unplanned or
unanticipated events are never overly disturbing or disorienting as the flexible Filipino adjusts to
whatever happens. We possess a tolerance for ambiguity that enables us to remain unfazed by
uncertainty or lack of information. We are creative, resourceful, adept at learning, and able to
improvise and make use of whatever is at hand in order to create and produce.

This quality of the Filipino is manifested in the ability to adapt to life in any part of the
world; in the ability to make new things out of scrap and to keep old machines running; and, of
course, in the creative talent manifested in the cultural sphere. It is seen likewise in the ability to
accept change.
The result is productivity, innovation, entrepreneurship, equanimity, and survival.

5) Hardwork and Industry. Filipinos have the capacity for hard work, given proper conditions.
The desire to raise one's standard of living and to possess the essentials of a decent life for one's
family, combined with the right opportunities and incentives, stimulate the Filipino to work very
hard. This is manifested most noticeably in a willingness to take risks with jobs abroad, and to
work there at two or three jobs. The result is productivity and entrepreneurship for some, and
survival despite poverty for others.

6) Faith and Religiosity. Filipinos have a deep faith in God. Innate religiosity enables us to
comprehend and genuinely accept reality in the context of God's will and plan. Thus, tragedy and
bad fortune are accepted and some optimism characterizes even the poorest lives.
Filipinos live very intimately with religion; this is tangible--a part of everyday life. We ascribe
human traits to a supernatural God whom we alternately threaten and thank, call upon for mercy
or forgiveness, and appease by pledges. Prayer is an important part of our lives.
The faith of the Filipino is related to bahala na, which, instead of being viewed as
defeatist resignation, may be considered positively as a reservoir of psychic energy, an important
psychological support on which we can lean during difficult times. This pampalakas ng
loob allows us to act despite uncertainty.
Our faith and daring was manifest at EDSA and at other times in our history when it was
difficult to be brave. It is seen also in the capacity to accept failure and defeat without our self-
concept being devastated since we recognize forces external to ourselves as contributing to the
unfolding of events in our lives.
The results of the Filipino's faith are courage, daring, optimism, inner peace, as well as
the capacity to genuinely accept tragedy and death.
7) Ability to Survive. Filipinos have an ability to survive which is manifested in our capacity for
endurance despite difficult times, and in our ability to get by on so little. Filipinos make do with
what is available in the environment, even, e.g., by eking out a living from a garbage dump. This
survival instinct is related to the Filipinos who bravely carry on through the harshest economic
and social circumstances. Regretfully, one wonders what we might be able to do under better
circumstances.

WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

1) Extreme Personalism. Filipinos view the world in terms of personal relationships and the
extent to which one is able personally to relate to things and people determines our recognition
of their existence and the value. There is no separation between an objective task and emotional
involvement. This personalism is manifested in the tendency to give personal interpretations to
actions, i.e., to "take things personally." Thus, a sincere question may be viewed as a challenge
to one's competence or positive feedback may be interpreted as a sign of special affection. There
is, in fact, some basis for such interpretations as Filipinos become personal in their criticism and
praise. Personalism is also manifested in the need to establish personal relationships before any
business or work relationship can be successful.
Because of this personalistic world view, Filipinos have difficulty dealing with all forms
of impersonal stimuli. For this reason one is uncomfortable with bureaucracy, with rules and
regulations, and with standard procedures--all of which tend to be impersonal. We ignore them
or we ask for exceptions.
Personal contacts are involved in any transaction and are difficult to turn down.
Preference is usually given to family and friends in hiring, delivery of services, and even in
voting. Extreme personalism thus leads to the graft and corruption evident in Philippine society.

2) Extreme Family-Centeredness. While concern for the family is one of the Filipino's greatest
strengths, in the extreme it becomes a serious flaw. Excessive concern for the family creates an
in-group to which the Filipino is fiercely loyal, to the detriment of concern for the larger
community or the common good.
Excessive concern for family manifests itself in the use of one's office and power as a
means of promoting the interests of the family, in factionalism, patronage, and political
dynasties, and in the protection of erring family members. It results in lack of concern for the
common good and acts as a block to national consciousness.

3) Lack of Discipline. The Filipino's lack of discipline encompasses several related

characteristics. We have a casual and relaxed attitude towards time and space which manifests
itself in lack of precision and compulsiveness, in poor time management and in procrastination.
We have an aversion to following strictly a set of procedures, which results in lack of
standardization and quality control. We are impatient and unable to delay gratification or reward,
resulting in the use of short cuts, skirting the rules (the palusot syndrome) and in foolhardiness.
We are guilty of ningas cogon, starting out projects with full vigor and interest which abruptly
die down, leaving things unfinished.
Our lack of discipline often results in inefficient and wasteful work systems, the violation
of rules leading to more serious transgressions, and a casual work ethic leading to carelessness
and lack of follow-through.

4) Passivity and Lack of Initiative. Filipinos are generally passive and lacking in initiative. One
waits to be told what has to be done. There is a strong reliance on others, e.g., leaders and
government, to do things for us. This is related to the attitude towards authority. Filipinos have a
need for a strong authority figure and feel safer and more secure in the presence of such an
authority. One is generally submissive to those in authority, and is not likely to raise issues or to
question decisions.
 Filipinos tend to be complacent and there rarely is a sense of urgency about any problem.
There is a high tolerance for inefficiency, poor service, and even violations of one's basic rights.
In many ways, it can be said that the Filipino is too patient and long-suffering (matiisin), too
easily resigned to one's fate. Filipinos are thus easily oppressed and exploited.

5) Colonial Mentality. Filipinos have a colonial mentality which is made up of two dimensions:
the first is a lack of patriotism or an active awareness, appreciation, and love of the Philippines;
the second is an actual preference for things foreign.
Filipino culture is characterized by an openness to the outside--adapting and
incorporating the foreign elements into our image of ourselves. Yet this image is not built around
a deep core of Philippine history and language. The result is a cultural vagueness or weakness
that makes Filipinos extraordinarily susceptible to the wholesome acceptance of modern mass
culture which is often Western. Thus, there is preference for foreign fashion, entertainment,
lifestyles, technology, consumer items, etc.
The Filipino colonial mentality is manifested in the alienation of the elite from their roots
and from the masses, as well as in the basic feeling of national inferiority that makes it difficult
for Filipinos to relate as equals to Westerners.

6) Kanya-Kanya Syndrome. Filipinos have a selfish, self-serving attitude that generates a feeling
of envy and competitiveness towards others, particularly one's peers, who seem to have gained
some status or prestige. Towards them, the Filipino demonstrated the so-called "crab mentality",
using the levelling instruments of tsismis, intriga and unconstructive criticism to bring others
down. There seems to be a basic assumption that another's gain is our loss.
The kanya-kanya syndrome is also evident in personal ambition and drive for power and status
that is completely insensitive to the common good. Personal and in-group interests reign
supreme. This characteristic is also evident in the lack of a sense of service among people in the
government bureaucracy. The public is made to feel that service from these offices and from
these civil servants is an extra perk that has to be paid for.
The kanya-kanya syndrome results in the dampening of cooperative and community spirit
and in the denial of the rights of others.

7) Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection. There is a tendency in the Filipino to be

superficial and even somewhat flighty. In the face of serious problems both personal and social,
there is lack of analysis or reflection. Joking about the most serious matters prevents us from
looking deeply into the problem. There is no felt need to validate our hypotheses or explanations
of things. Thus we are satisfied with superficial explanations for, and superficial solutions to,
problems.
Related to this is the Filipino emphasis on form (maporma) rather than upon substance.
There is a tendency to be satisfied with rhetoric and to substitute this for reality. Empty rhetoric
and endless words are very much part of public life. As long as the right things are said, as long
as the proper documents and reports exist, and as long as the proper committees, task forces, or
offices are formed, Filipinos are deluded into believing that what ought to be actually exists.
 The Filipino lack of self-analysis and our emphasis upon form is reinforced by an
educational system that is often more form than substance and a legal system that tends to
substitute law for reality.

THE MANY FACES OF THE FILIPINO

From this discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino, it is clear that there
is much that is good here, but there is also much that needs to be changed. Many of our strong
points are also the sources of our weakness.
As a people, we are person-oriented, and relationships with others are a very important
part of our lives. Thus, we are capable of much caring and concern for others. On the other hand,
in the extreme our person orientation leads to lack of objectivity and a disregard for universal
rules and procedures so that everyone, regardless of our relationship with them, is treated
equally. Our person orientation leads us to be concerned for people, and yet unfair to some.
Our family orientation is both a strength and a weakness, giving us a sense of rootedness
and security, both very essential to any form of reaching out to others. At the same time, it
develops in us an in-group orientation that prevents us from reaching out beyond the family to
the larger community and the nation.
Our flexibility, adaptability and creativity is a strength that allows us to adjust to any set
of circumstances and to make the best of the situation. But this ability to "play things by ear"
leads us to compromise on the precision and discipline necessary to accomplish many work-
oriented goals.
Our sense of joy and humor serves us well in difficult times. it makes life more pleasant,
but serious problems do need serious analysis, and humor can also be destructive.
Our faith in God and our religiosity are sources of strength and courage, but they also
lead to an external orientation that keeps us passive and dependent on forces outside ourselves.
There are other contradictions in the many faces of the Filipino. We
find pakikipagkapwa-tao and the kanya-kanya mentality living comfortably together in us. We
are other-oriented and capable of great empathy; and yet we are self-serving, envious of others,
and unconstructively critical of one another.
We also find the Filipino described alternately as hardworking and lazy. Indeed we see
that we are capable of working long and hard at any job. However, our casual work ethic as well
as our basic passivity in the work setting also is apparent as we wait for orders and instructions
rather than taking the initiative.

ROOTS OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

The strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino have their roots in many factors such as: (1)
the home environment, (2) the social environment, (3) culture and language, (4) history, (5) the
educational system, (6) religion, (7) the economic environment, (8) the political environment, (9)
mass media, and (10) leadership and role models.
 The Family and Home Environment. Childbearing practices, family relations, and
family attitudes and orientation are the main components of the home environment. Childbearing
in the Filipino family is characterized by high nurturance, low independence training, and low
discipline. The Filipino child grows up in an atmosphere of affection and over protection, where
one learns security and trust, on the one hand, and dependence, on the other. In the indulgent
atmosphere of the Filipino home, rigid standards of behavior or performance are not imposed,
leading to a lack of discipline.

Attempts to maintain discipline come in the form of many "no's" and "don'ts" and a
system of criticism to keep children in line. Subtle comparisons among siblings also are used by
mothers to control their children. These may contribute to the "crab mentality."
In a large family where we are encouraged to get along with our siblings and other relatives, we
learn pakikipagkapwa-tao. In an authoritarian setting we learn respect for age and authority; at
the same time we become passive and dependent on authority.
In the family, children are taught to value family and to give it primary importance.
The Social Environment. The main components of the social environment are social
structures and social systems such as interpersonal religious and community interaction. The
social environment of the Filipino is characterized by a feudal structure with great gaps between
the rich minority and the poor majority. These gaps are not merely economic but cultural as well,
with the elite being highly westernized and alienated from the masses. This feudal structure
develops dependence and passivity.
The Filipino is raised in an environment where one must depend on relationships with
others in order to survive. In a poor country where resources are scarce and where the systems
meant to respond to people's needs can be insensitive, inefficient, or non-existent, the Filipino
becomes very dependent on kinship and interpersonal relationships.
Sensitivity about hurting established relationships controls our behavior. We are
restrained from making criticisms no matter how constructive, so standards of quality are not
imposed. We have difficulty saying no to requests and are pressured to favor our family and
friends. That trying to get ahead of others is not considered acceptable exerts a strong brake upon
efforts to improve our individual performance. The struggle for survival and our dependence on
relationships make us in-group oriented.
Culture and Language. Much has been written about Filipino cultural values. Such
characteristics such as warmth and person orientation, devotion to family, and sense of joy and
humor are part of our culture and are reinforced by all socializing forces such as the family,
school, and peer group.
Filipino culture rewards such traits and corresponding behavioral patterns develop
because they make one more likable and enable life to proceed more easily.
Aside from emphasizing interpersonal values, Filipino culture is also characterized by an
openness to the outside which easily incorporates foreign elements without a basic consciousness
of our cultural core. This is related to our colonial mentality and to the use of English as the
medium of instruction in schools.
The introduction of English as the medium of education de-Filipinized the youth and
taught them to regard American culture as superior. The use of English contributes also to a lack
of self-confidence on the part of the Filipino. The fact that doing well means using a foreign
language, which foreigners inevitably can handle better, leads to an inferiority complex. At a
very early age, we find that our self-esteem depends on the mastery of something foreign.
The use of a foreign language may also explain the Filipino's unreflectiveness and mental
laziness.
Thinking in our native language, but expressing ourselves in English, results not only in a
lack of confidence, but also in a lack in our power of expression, imprecision, and a stunted
development of one's intellectual powers.
History. We are the product of our colonial history, which is regarded by many as the
culprit behind our lack of nationalism and our colonial mentality. Colonialism developed a mind-
set in the Filipino which encouraged us to think of the colonial power as superior and more
powerful. As a second-class citizen beneath the Spanish and then the Americans, we developed a
dependence on foreign powers that makes us believe we are not responsible for our country's
fate.
The American influence is more ingrained in the Philippines because the Americans set
up a public school system where we learned English and the American way of life. Present-day
media reinforce these colonial influences, and the Filipino elite sets the example by their western
ways.
Another vestige of our colonial past is our basic attitude towards the government, which
we have learned to identify as foreign and apart from us. Thus, we do not identify with
government and are distrustful and uncooperative towards it. Much time and energy is spent
trying to outsmart the government, which we have learned from our colonial past to regard as an
enemy.
The Educational System. Aside from the problems inherent in the use of a foreign
language in our educational system, the educational system leads to other problems for us as a
people. The lack of suitable local textbooks and dependence on foreign textbooks, particularly in
the higher school levels, force Filipino students as well as their teachers to use school materials
that are irrelevant to the Philippine setting. From this comes a mind-set that things learned in
school are not related to real life.
Aside from the influences of the formal curriculum, there are the influences of the
"hidden curriculum" i.e., the values taught informally by the Philippine school system. Schools
are highly authoritarian, with the teacher as the central focus. The Filipino student is taught to be
dependent on the teacher as we attempt to record verbatim what the teacher says and to give this
back during examinations in its original form and with little processing. Teachers reward well-
behaved and obedient students and are uncomfortable with those who ask questions and express
a different viewpoint. The Filipino student learns passivity and conformity. Critical thinking is
not learned in the school.
Religion. Religion is the root of Filipino optimism and its capacity to accept life's
hardships. However, religion also instills in the Filipino attitudes of resignation and a pre-
occupation with the afterlife. We become vulnerable also to being victimized by opportunism,
oppression, exploitation, and superstition.
The Economic Environment. Many Filipino traits are rooted in the poverty and hard life
that is the lot of most Filipinos. Our difficulties drive us to take risks, impel us to work very hard,
and develop in us the ability to survive. Poverty, however, has also become an excuse for graft
and corruption, particularly among the lower rungs of the bureaucracy. Unless things get too
difficult, passivity sets in.
The Political Environment. The Philippine political environment is characterized by a
centralization of power. Political power and authority is concentrated in the hands of the elite and
the participation of most Filipinos often is limited to voting in elections.
Similarly, basic services from the government are concentrated in Manila and its outlying towns
and provinces. A great majority of Filipinos are not reached by such basic services as water,
electricity, roads, and health services. Government structures and systems--e.g., justice and
education--are often ineffective or inefficient.

Since the government often is not there to offer basic services, we depend on our family,
kin, and neighbors for our everyday needs. The absence of government enhances our extreme
family-and even community-centeredness. We find it difficult to identify with a nation-family,
since the government is not there to symbolize or represent the state.
The fact that political power is still very much concentrated in the hands of a few may
lead to passivity. The inefficiency of government structures and systems also leads to a lack of
integrity and accountability in our public servants.

Mass Media. Mass media reinforces our colonial mentality. Advertisements using Caucasian
models and emphasizing a product's similarity with imported brands are part of our daily lives.
The tendency of media to produce escapist movies, soap operas, comics, etc., feed th
Filipino's passivity. Rather than confront our poverty and oppression, we fantasize instead. The
propensity to use flashy sets, designer clothes, superstars, and other bongga features
reinforce porma.

Leadership and Role Models. Filipinos look up to their leaders as role models. Political leaders
are the main models, but all other leaders serve as role models as well. Thus, when our leaders
violate the law or show themselves to be self-serving and driven by personal interest--when there
is lack of public accountability--there is a negative impact on the Filipino.

GOALS AND STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE

Goals. Based on the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino, the following goals for change are
proposed. The Filipino should develop:
1. a sense of patriotism and national pride--a genuine love, appreciation, and commitment to the
Philippines and things Filipino;
2. a sense of the common good--the ability to look beyond selfish interests, a sense of justice and
a sense of outrage at its violation;
3. a sense of integrity and accountability--an aversion toward graft and corruption in society and
an avoidance of the practice in one's daily life;
4. the value and habits of discipline and hard work; and
5. the value and habits of self-reflection and analysis, the internalization of spiritual values, and
an emphasis upon essence rather than on form.

General Strategic Principles. In identifying goals for change and developing our capabilities for
their achievement, it is necessary to consider certain general principles:

1. Strategies must be multi-layered and multi-sectoral;

2. Strategies must emphasize change in the power-holders as well as in the masa (people);
3. Strategies should be holistic, emphasizing individual as well as systemic or structural change;
4. The change should involve a critical mass of people;
5. The goals should be divided into small pieces for implementation;
6. Strategies must be connected to the daily life of people; and
7. Strategies must be implemented by an act of the will and involve self-sacrifice.
Multi-Layered, Multi-Sectoral Strategies. A program of change must adopt strategies that are
multi-layered and multi-sectoral. These layers and sectors could consist of the following: (1) the
government; (2) non-governmental organizations; (3) people or the masa; (4) the family;
(5) educational institutions; (6) religious institutions; and (7) media. Some strategies should
target all sectors of society, while other strategies should focus on particular sectors.

Roles of Power-Holders and the Masa. To ensure that meaningful change will take place,
proposed strategies must emphasize change among power-holders or decision-makers as much as
among the masa. These power-holders and decision-makers hold the key to structures and
systems which in most cases need to be set up first before change can take place. Unless the
people on top change, it will be difficult to expect real change. On the other hand, as
the masa constitute the greater majority of Philippine society, any program for change will have
to target this critical mass. Their active participation and support are indispensable components
of our strategies.

Holistic, Individual and Systemic/Structural Change. Our approach to change should be

holistic in that our strategies should facilitate individual as well as systemic or structural change.
Individual conversion or renewal, as manifested in changed values, attitudes, habits and
behavior, is a prerequisite to social change. However, individual conversion or renewal needs to
be complemented and reinforced by a corresponding systemic or structural transformation.
Otherwise, the effect of solely individual renewal would be shallow and limited, especially since
many systems and structures in Philippine society themselves are the stumbling blocks to
individual renewal.

Critical Mass or Network of Change Initiators. The initiators of change should not be a few
individuals, but a critical mass or network of people highly committed to the goals of change.
Aside from initiating change, the role of the critical mass or network of people is to follow
through with persistence on the implementation of these strategies. This prevents ningas
cogon from setting in.
Restricted or "Bite-Size" Goals. Strategies for change must be worked on one goal at a time,
with everyone's effort concentrated on the goal chosen for that designated time period. The goals
must be cut up into bite-size, realistic pieces, for easier management.

Goals Related to People's Lives. Change strategies must be connected to our daily lives,
particularly to our economic activities, businesses, professions, occupations and jobs. Value
change must likewise address matters close to our hearts, that is, activities and affairs of our
families and communities from which change must start.

Act of the Will and Self-Sacrifice. The implementation of these strategies must be an act of the
will. If we want change, kailangang kayanin natin. We must be ready for tremendous sacrifice--
starting with ourselves.

SPECIFIC STRATEGIES
A. For Developing Patriotism, and National Pride:
1. Ideology. We need a national ideology that can summon all our resources for the task of lifting
national morale, pride and productivity.

2. History.
a. We have to write and teach our true history; history books must be rewritten from our
perspective.
b. We should include in our education those aspects of the past that are still preserved by cultural
communities. The culture and traditions of these minorities should be protected and given
importance.
c. We can start instilling national pride by nurturing community pride first. This can be done by
setting up community museums where materials reflecting of local history are displayed: old folk
re-telling our town or community history in public gatherings; reviving local cultural groups;
tracing family trees; having family reunions, etc.

3. Languages. We ought to use Filipino in our cultural and intellectual life. Some of our
universities and other institutions have started doing this; the practice should be continued and
expanded.

4. Education.
a. We must push for the Filipinization of the entire educational system.
b. We must have value formation in the school curriculum and teach pride in being a Filipino.
c. Literature should be used to instill national pride.

5. Trade and Industry. We should support the "Buy Filipino" movement by:
a. Identifying and making known the centers of product excellence in the Philippines; and
dispersing economic activities based on local product expertise and indigenous materials (i.e.,
industries should be developed in the respective regions where the required skills and resources
already abound).
b. Having a big brother-small brother relationship between companies, where big companies
could help related companies improve the quality of their products. The government could also
act as a big brother helping these small companies improve the quality of their output.
c. Having an "order-regalo" or "order-pasalubong" (gift) project which targets Filipinos abroad.
This could be initiated by both the government and businessmen.
d. Promoting a "Sariling Atin" day when everybody would wear and use Filipino clothes and
products only.

6. Media/Advertising.
a. We can coordinate with KBP, PANA and other media agencies in such projects as the
following:
- Giving awards or other incentives to advertisements that promote national pride and patriotism.
Conversely, giving "kalabasa" awards or denying incentives to advertisements that promote
colonial mentality.
- Prohibiting the use of foreign models in advertisements.
b. We can organize contests (i.e., oratorical, story, drama, essay, etc.) about love for country, and
about what Filipinos like about their country or their countrymen. These stories, dramas, essays,
and the like can then be made into teaching materials for our schools.
c. We need to use media programs (such as comics and programs in the various dialects) that will
reach with the masa or great majority of people. For instance, R. Constantino's, "How to
Decolonize the Filipino Mind", could be written in comics form in the various dialects.

7. Government.
a. The leadership in the executive, legislative and judicial branches of the government should be
models of positive Filipino traits.
b. In order to promote national unity and national integration, the government must attempt a
long-range strategy for democratic transformation in Philippine politics.
c. The government must continue and even increase its present efforts to have a more
independent economic strategy: it must diversify its sources of assistance and not merely rely on
the U.S. or on any other foreign nation.

B. Developing a Sense of the Common Good:

1. Government.
a. The government needs to decentralize its power and give more voice and greater participation
to people at the grassroots.
b. Government must widen democratic space, establish political pluralism, and protect and
support the forces working for change (e.g., change agents from cause-oriented groups, non-
governmental organizations and people's organizations) instead of repressing them.
c. The government should bring basic services to the depressed areas in a participatory manner,
giving the local people a more active role in administering and enhancing such services.
2. Non-governmental organizations.
a. The role of our cause-oriented groups or non-governmental organizations should be both
crusading or consciousness-raising and problem solving. Our community groups or people's
organizations can conduct their own projects with the support of non-governmental
organizations, religious groups and the government, and empower themselves in the process.
b. Our social institutions need to be mobilized towards a common purpose and shared priorities
with the government and the Philippine society as a whole.
c. Our community groups, people's organizations and non-governmental organizations could
promote public forums and discussions wherein pressing national concerns like land reform,
graft and corruption, unemployment, etc., can be discussed. The government should participate
in these fora and religious should be encouraged to do the same.
d. We can form small study groups in our schools, work places or communities. Through these
groups, we can study the various ways by which we can initiate change in our spheres of
influence and encourage each other to become role models for our family, peers, and community.

3. Religious Organizations/Movements.
a. Religious family movements, like Marriage Encounter or the Christian Family Movement, can
be encouraged to reach out to the poor who are the least prepared for family life. Programs for
the poor should be coordinated with the government and religious institutions.
b. The charismatic, cursillo, and born-again movements should be encouraged to concretize
spiritual doctrines by reaching out to the poor and contributing to nation-building.

4. Education.
a. Communication of our schools should be developed to give a common experience to students
and to foster greater equality in society.
b. Social orientation courses in our schools should be not only for socialization activities, but
also for socially-oriented and socially-relevant activities.

C. For Developing Integrity and Accountability:

1. Government Leadership Structure/Systems
a. Our top government officials should serve as models for other workers in the lower echelons
of the bureaucracy.
b. Since our leaders are too insulated from what is actually happening at the bottom, they need to
be exposed to the realities of social life.
c. The government needs to implement comprehensive, concrete and operational measures to
minimize graft and corruption. These measures must be given teeth by establishing groups or
institutions vested with police power.
d. There is a need for a more efficient bureaucracy, with a minimum of red tape. The government
should systematize information dissemination. For instance, the public should be informed how a
government agency administers its services. This and other similar strategies could minimize
"fixers" and lessen graft and corruption.
e. A system of reinforcing desirable behavior must be formulated by the government
bureaucracy. For example, honest policemen and industrious Metro Aides can be given
appropriate recognition, awards, or other incentives.

2. Education/Training.
a. The career executive program given to government officials should be extended, that is, a
similar program should be drawn up for all government employees. The program can be a
training package called "Public Service".
b. Our government employees should be given value clarification seminars.

D. For Developing Discipline and Hard Work

1. In both government and private institutions, we need to:
a. provide positive controls; keep performance records; and maintain reward and recognition
systems; and
b. get rid of useless, meaningless rules.
2. We ought to reward excellence in whatever Filipinos do by:
a. identifying and making known centers of excellence in the Philippines;
b. looking for, documenting and publicizing success or excellence stories (e.g., local
entrepreneurs who have succeeded) using various media;
c. recognizing and encouraging advertisements that convey the value of excellence and depict
positive Filipino values; and
d. using media (such as comics, radio programs in the various dialects), that will communicate to
the masa in order to depict positive Filipino values, and giving awards to radio, TV programs,
and movies that convey these values.

E. For Developing Self-reflection and Analysis

1. Religion/Religious Movements. The teaching of religion or catechism should be concrete,
integrated to daily life, and socially relevant. Our religious movements should not only engage in
"spiritual" activities but should specifically reach out to the poor and needy.

2. Small Groups/NGO's.
a. We can start a movement of small groups (e.g., community groups, work groups, and parish
groups) where people can begin to reflect on their situation and that of the country.
b. Some big companies are already inculcating the habit of observation-action-reflection through
training programs that use experiential methods. These efforts should be expanded. Specifically,
the training programs could be re-designed for use in other contexts, such as in the small groups
mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

3. Government Leadership.
a. We should encourage "conversion" at the top level, as manifested in public "repentance" or
confession.
b. The Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) and private learning institutions
should inculcate the value and habit of self-reflection starting from childhood. Educational
methods should not focus on rote learning, but should emphasize reflection and analysis.
c. We can conduct a "national reflection weekend" for officials and employees in all levels and
branches of the government. During this weekend, government personnel can repeat the process
of the Moral Recovery project, that is, reflect on Filipino traits, then contemplate goals for
strengthening the positive traits and changing the negative traits; or a commission or similar unit
can go to regional and provincial levels to help the regional and provincial government officials
and employees in their reflection.
d. We can strengthen the research arms of government agencies by linking them with universities
and non-governmental organizations.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In conclusion, it is recommended that once this report is submitted to the Senate and becomes a
Senate Report, the project should be allowed to develop on its own, independent of, but in
collaboration with, the legislature. It is envisioned that training modules could be developed that
would enable a critical mass of people to reflect on our strengths and weaknesses as a people. It
is important that these modules not simply communicate the findings of the project, but, more
importantly, should attempt to replicate the process of communal reflection that was an essential
ingredient of the project methodology.
 MODULE V– GLOBAL ISSUES THAT CONCERN SCHOOLS AND SOCIETY

Introduction
The world has become a global village. We are now part of the global community and
what happens in one part of the world can affect us, no matter how far we seem to be. In this part
of the module, we will be discussing global issues that affect the schools and us. We will begin
with the Ten (10) most critical problems in the World according to the Millennials, then the
Ten (10) Current Global Issues according to Turner and finally, the Seventeen (17) Sustainable
Development Goals for the period 2015 – 2030. In the process of discussing and learning about
these issues, we will also try to identity feasible, plausible and workable solutions that can be
used to address these issues.

The 10 most critical problems in the world, according to millennials

World Economic Forum surveys people every year about the biggest problems facing the
world.
Climate change is the millennial generation's top concern for the third year in a row.
Millennials are also concerned about large scale conflict, wars, and inequality.
For the third year in a row, millennials who participated in the World Economic Forum's
Global Shapers Survey 2017 believe climate change is the most serious issue affecting the world
today.
Nearly half (48.8%) of the survey participants chose climate change as their top concern,
and 78.1% said they would be willing to change their lifestyle to protect the environment.
Survey respondents were also in near unequivocal agreement over the cause of climate
change. Over 91% of respondents answered "agree" and "strongly agree" with the statement
"science has proven that humans are responsible for climate change."
Despite the dire state of the world today — and the stereotype that millennials' are selfish
and apathetic — the generation aged 18 to 35 cares deeply about global issues, and they're
determined to tackle them.

Below are the top-10 most concerning world issues, according to millennials.
1. Climate change / destruction of nature (48.8%)
2. Large scale conflict / wars (38.9%)
3. Inequality (Income, Discrimination) 30.8%
4. Poverty (29.2%)
5. Religious Conflicts (23.9%)
6. Government accountability and transparency / corruption (22.7%)
7. Food and water security (18.2%)
8. Lack of education (15.9%)
9. Safety/security/Well-being (14.1%)
10. Lack of economic opportunity and unemployment (12.1%)
Source: https://www.businessinsider.com/world-economic-forum-world-biggest-problems-
concerning-millennials-2016-8
Top 10 Current Global Issues and How they can be Addressed
Among all the good in the world, and all the progress being made in global issues, there
is still much more to be done. Given the overwhelming disasters that nations, including the U.S.,
have been or still are going through, it is important to be aware of the most pressing global
issues.

1) Climate Change
The global temperatures are rising, and are estimated to increase from 2.6 degrees Celsius to
4.8 degrees Celsius by 2100. This would cause more severe weather, crises with food and
resources and the spread of diseases. The reduction of greenhouse emissions and the
spreading of education on the importance of going green can help make a big difference.
Lobbying governments and discussing policies to reduce carbon emissions and encouraging
reforestation is an effective way of making progress with climate change.

2) Pollution
Pollution is one of the most difficult global issues to combat, as the umbrella term refers
to ocean litter, pesticides and fertilizers, air, light and noise pollution. Clean water is
essential for humans and animals, but more than one billion people don’t have access to
clean water due to pollution from toxic substances, sewage or industrial waste. It is of the
utmost importance that people all over the world begin working to minimize the various
types of pollution, in order to better the health of the planet and all those living on it.

3) Violence
Violence can be found in the social, cultural and economic aspects of the world. Whether
it is conflict that has broken out in a city, hatred targeted at a certain group of people or
sexual harassment occurring on the street, violence is a preventable problem that has been
an issue for longer than necessary. With continued work on behalf of the governments of
all nations, as well as the individual citizens, the issue can be addressed and reduced.

Various Forms of Violence

 4) Security and Well-Being
The U.N. is a perfect example of preventing the lack of security and well being that is a
serious global issue. Through its efforts with regional organizations and representatives
that are skilled in security, the U.N. is working toward increasing the well being of
people throughout the world.

5) Lack of Education
More than 72 million children throughout the globe that are of the age to be in primary
education are not enrolled in school. This can be attributed to inequality and
marginalization as well as poverty. Fortunately, there are many organizations that work
directly with the issue of education in providing the proper tools and resources to aid
schools.

6) Unemployment
Without the necessary education and skills for employment, many people,
particularly 15- to 24-year olds, struggle to find jobs and create a proper living for
themselves and their families. This leads to a lack of necessary resources, such as enough
food, clothing, transportation and proper living conditions. Fortunately, there are
organizations throughout the world teaching people in need the skills for jobs and
interviewing, helping to lift people from the vicious cycle of poverty.

7) Government Corruption
Corruption is a major cause of poverty considering how it affects the poor the most,
eroding political and economic development, democracy and more. Corruption can be
detrimental to the safety and well being of citizens living within the corrupted vicinity,
and can cause an increase in violence and physical threats without as much regulation in
the government.

8) Malnourishment and Hunger

Currently there are 795 million people who do not have enough to eat. Long-term success
 to ending world hunger starts with ending poverty. With fighting poverty through proper
training for employment, education and the teaching of cooking and gardening skills,
people who are suffering will be more likely to get jobs, earn enough money to buy food
and even learn how to make their own food to save money.

9) Substance Abuse
The United Nations reports that, by the beginning of the 21st century, an estimated 185
million people over the age of 15 were consuming drugs globally. The drugs most
commonly used are marijuana, cocaine, alcohol, amphetamine stimulants, opiates and
volatile solvents. Different classes of people, both poor and rich, partake in substance
abuse, and it is a persistent issue throughout the world. Petitions and projects are in
progress to end the global issue of substance abuse.

10) Terrorism
Terrorism is an issue throughout the world that causes fear and insecurity, violence and
death. Across the globe, terrorists attack innocent people, often without warning. This
makes civilians feel defenseless in their everyday lives. Making national security a higher
priority is key in combating terrorism, as well as promoting justice in wrongdoings to
illustrate the enforcement of the law and the serious punishments for terror crimes.

With so many current global issues that require immediate attention, it is easy to get
discouraged. However, the amount of progress that organizations have made in combating
these problems is admirable, and the world will continue to improve in the years to come. By
staying active in current events, and standing up for the health and safety of all humans,
everyone is able to make a difference in changing the fate of our world.
– Chloe Turner
Source: https://borgenproject.org/top-10-current-global-issues/

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals for the period 2015 – 2030

1) No poverty - End poverty in all forms everywhere
2) Zero Hunger - End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture
3) Good Health and Well-being - Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all
ages
4) Quality Education - Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-
long learning opportunities for all
5) Gender Equality - Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
6) Clean Water and Sanitation - Ensure availability and sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all
7) Affordable and Clean Energy - Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and
modern energy for all
8) Decent Work and Economic Growth - Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all
9) Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure - Build resilient infrastructure, promote
inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.
 10) Reduced Inequalities - Reduce inequality within and among countries.
11) Sustainable Cities and Communities - Make cities and human settlements inclusive,
safe, resilient, and sustainable
12) Responsible Consumption and Production - Ensure sustainable consumption and
production patterns
13) Climate Action - Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (in line
with the United Nations Frameworks Convention on Climate Change)
14) Life Below Water - Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources
for sustainable development
15) Life on Land - Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainable manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation
and half biodiversity loss
16) Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions - Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for
sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable
and inclusive institutions at all levels
17) Partnerships for the Goals - Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the
global partnership for sustainable development

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations Member
States in 2015, provides a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet,
now and into the future. At its heart are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which
are an urgent call for action by all countries - developed and developing - in a global partnership.
They recognize that ending poverty and other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies
that improve health and education, reduce inequality, and spur economic growth – all while
tackling climate change and working to preserve our oceans and forests.

Source: https://sdgs.un.org/goals

MODULE VI– THE WHY AND HOW OF SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY

PARTNERSHIP
Introduction
A partnership is an agreement or association between two parties in order to attain a
common goal. This association means that both parties can benefit from the relationship. If the
school and the community “partner” for the goal of improving the quality of education that
learners receive for improved learning, then this can be considered as educational partnership. In
this partnership, the school and the community both benefit. Module 5 presents the partnership
between the school and the community and the benefits that each may find from the partnership.

What can the Community Do for the School?

Here are some activities that the community can do for the school:
1) Brigada Eskwela – This program engages all education stakeholders to contribute their
time, effort and resources in ensuring that public school facilities are set in time for the
opening of classes. It takes place more or less 2 weeks before classes begin in June. This
is a school maintenance program that has been institutionalized since 2009 when DepEd
issued DepEd Order #100.
2) Curriculum Development – The community can be a resource for the implementation of
the curriculum. If the community has cultural and historical landmarks, they can be used
for the development of the lessons that are related to them. If there are experts in the
community who can be invited as resource speakers by the school, this is another way of
partnership. Also, elders of the community may be invited as key informants in
researches conducted by the school.
In the college and graduate program level, the community, and other government
agencies can help in the revision of the curriculum. Experts from the community can
suggest on courses and other activities that can improve the crafting and the
implementation of the curriculum.
3) Work Experience Program – Business establishments and offices in the community can
serve as partners of the school for the On-the-Job trainings or Work Immersion activities
of the Senior High School Students. The partner offices for immersion provide SHS
students with opportunities (1) to become familiar with the work place; (2) for
employment simulation; and (3) to apply their competencies in areas of
specialization/applied subjects in authentic work environments (Enclosure to DepEd
Order No. 30, s. 2017).
4) Remediation and Enrichment Classes – Parents and retired teachers may help in the
School Reading Remediation and Learning Enrichment classes. Some even volunteer as
Religion teachers and consultants in school activities.
5) Youth Development Programs – The youth may involve themselves in youth
development programs and develop their talents and skills, learn how to deal positively
with peers and adults and serve as resources in their communities.
6) Community Service – Some examples of community service are students participating in
tutorial programs, tree planting activities, clean up drives, assisting in medical missions,
and the like.

What can schools do for the community?

 Schools may allow the community resources. Here are some concrete examples of how
the school can share their resources to the community:
1) Classrooms are used by community organizations for meetings
2) Schools are used as polling centers and venues for medical missions which may be co-
sponsored with the Rural Health Unit
3) Schools are used by the Rural Health Clinic for mother’s class on child care
4) Schools are used as evacuation centers
5) School facilities are used for community assemblies
6) The school basketball court are used for local celebrations and barangay sports leagues
7) The schools offer livelihood and skills training programs for parts and out-of-school
youths.

Legal Basis for Parents and Community Involvement

 RA 9155 (Governance of Basic Education Act), Section E (10) states that one of
the responsibilities of school heads is “establishing school and community
networks and encouraging the active participation of teachers organizations,
nonacademic personnel of public schools, and parents-teachers-community
associations.”
 RA 9155 (Governance of Basic Education Act), Section 3 (f) encourages “local
initiatives for the improvement of schools and learning centers to provide the
means by which improvements may be achieved and sustained”.
 RA 9155 (Governance of Basic Education Act) states further that partnership
between school and community also ensures that (1) educational programs,
projects and services take into account the interests of all members of the
community (Sec 3, d); (2) the schools and learning centers reflect the values of
the community by allowing teachers/learning facilitators and other staff to have
the flexibility to serve the needs of all learners (Sec 3, e); and, (3) local initiatives
for the improvement of schools and learning centers are encouraged and the
means by which these improvements may be achieved and sustained are provided
(Sec 3, f).
 Batas Pambansa Bilang 232 (Education Act of 1982), Section 7 states that:
“Every educational institution shall provide for the establishment of appropriate
bodies through which the members of the educational community may discuss
relevant issues and communicate information and suggestions for assistance and
support of the school and for the promotion of their common interest.
Representatives from each subgroup of the educational community shall sit and
participate in these bodies, the rules and procedures of which must be approved
by them and duly published.
 RA 8525(Adopt-A-School Program Act) also provides for school-community
partnership. It allows “private entities to assist a public school, whether
elementary, secondary or tertiary in but not limited to, the following areas: staff
and faculty development for training and further education; construction of
facilities; upgrading of existing facilities, provision of books, publications and
other instructional materials; and, modernization of instructional technologies.”
 Education for All (EFA) 2015 Plan, the a vision and a holistic program that aimed
to improve the quality of basic education for every Filipino by end of 2015
 likewise states: “Schools shall continue to harness local resources and facilitate
involvement of every sector of the community in the school improvement
process.”
This EFA 2015 Plan was extended in Education for All Beyond 2015-
Agenda 2030. Agenda 2030 has 7 new educational targets from 2015 to 2030 that
must involve education stakeholders which in essence is school-community
partnership. UNESCO Assistant Director General for education, Dr. Qian Tang
himself admits that Agenda 2030 cannot be realized without schools partnering
with the community. He said: “Our vision must be more aggressive, more
committed, not just involving government, non-government agencies but all
stakeholders”.

The Benefits of School-Community Partnerships

When schools and community organizations work together to support learning, everyone
benefits. Partnerships can serve to strengthen, support, and even transform individual partners,
resulting in improved program quality, more efficient use of resources, and better alignment of
goals and curricula (Harvard Family Research Project, 2010).
First and foremost, learning partnerships can support student outcomes (see, for example,
Little, Wimer, & Weiss, 2008). For example, the Massachusetts Afterschool Research
Study found that afterschool programs with stronger relationships with school teachers and
principals were more successful at improving students’ homework completion, homework effort,
positive behavior, and initiative. This may be because positive relationships with schools can
foster high quality, engaging, and challenging activities, along with promoting staff engagement
(Miller, 2005).

In addition to supporting student learning directly, partnerships can have additional

benefits to students and their families. They can
 provide continuity of services across the day and year, easing school transitions and promoting
improved attendance in after school programs;
 facilitate access to a range of learning opportunities and developmental supports, providing
opportunities for students and teachers alike to experiment with new approaches to teaching and
learning;
 facilitate information sharing about specific students to best support individual learning; and
 provide family members with alternative entry points into the school day to support their
student’s learning.

Learning partnerships can also greatly benefit schools. They can

 complement the academic curriculum with a wider range of services and activities, particularly
enrichment and arts activities that may not available during the school day;
 support transitions across the school years, particularly the critical middle to high school
transition, which research indicates is a key predictor of high school graduation (Neild, Balfanz,
& Herzog, 2007);
 reinforce concepts taught in school without replicating the school day, often exposing classroom
teachers working in the after school program to new pedagogies;
 improve school culture and community image through exhibitions and performances that help
“shine the light” on students whose talents may not be apparent in the classroom; and
 gain access to mentors, afterschool staff, and other resources to support in ‐school learning and
improve the teaching and learning in the classroom itself.

Finally, learning partnerships with schools can strengthen and support community
partners. They can
 help gain access to and recruit groups of students most in need of support services;
 improve program quality and staff engagement, particularly when there is crossover between
school and community organization staff;
 foster better alignment of programming to support a shared vision for learning, one which
aligns curriculum to support state and local standards; and
 maximize resource use such as facilities, staff, data, and curriculum.

Source: https://www.expandinglearning.org/expandingminds/article/school-community-learning-
partnerships-essential-expanded-learning-success

MODULE VII– THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY: TEACHERS’ ETHICAL

AND PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOR
Introduction
In our course, The Teaching Profession last semester, we discussed about the different
qualities of a teacher, the characteristics of an effective teacher and the Code of Ethics for
Professional Teachers, which is a standard that should guide us all, teachers, in how we perform
and uplift our profession. In this module, the focus of the discussion will be on Chapter III of the
Code of Ethics (The Teacher and the Community).

ARTICLE III - THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY

Section 1. A teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of the youth; he
shall, therefore, render the best services by providing an environment conducive to such
learning and growth.
Section 2. Every teacher shall provide leadership and initiative to actively participate in
community movements for moral, social, educational, economic and civic betterment.
Section 3. Every teacher shall merit reasonable social recognition for which purpose he
shall behave with honor and dignity at all times and refrain from such activities as gambling,
smoking, drunkenness and other excesses, much less illicit relations.
Section 4. Every teacher shall help the school keep the people in the community, and shall,
therefore, study and understand local customs and traditions in order to have a sympathetic
attitude, therefore, refrain from disparaging the community.
Section 5. Every teacher shall help the school keep the people in the community informed
about the school’s work and accomplishment as well as its need and problems.
Section 6. Every teacher is an intellectual leader in the community, especially in the
barangay, and shall welcome the opportunity to provide such leadership when needed, to extend
counseling services, as appropriate, and to actively be involved in matters affecting the welfare
of the people.
Section 7. Every teacher shall maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and official
relation with other professionals, with government officials, and with the people, individually or
collectivity.
Section 8. A teacher possesses freedom to attend church and worship, as appropriate, but
shall not use his position and influence to proselyte others.

MODULE VIII – ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

Introduction
 Module VIII is about organizational leadership. The teacher, aside from directly giving
instructions to the learners are also leaders in many ways. As significant members of the
community, they are considered role models that people look up to as their standards of
behavior. Teachers are leaders in the way that take and behave. They may be considered as great
influencers among their learners and other children.

Discussion Proper
Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act toward achieving a
common goal. Leadership captures the essentials of being able and prepared to inspire others.
Effective leadership is based upon ideas—both original and borrowed—that are effectively
communicated to others in a way that engages them enough to act as the leader wants them to
act. A leader inspires others to act while simultaneously directing the way that they act. They
must be personable enough for others to follow their orders, and they must have the critical
thinking skills to know the best way to use the resources at an organization's disposal
(https://www.thebalancesmb.com/leadership-definition-2948275).
In the school setting, the school leader motivates the stakeholders of the community
toward achieving a goal or a target that is set. He/She is also able to prepare and inspire others in
order to meet that goal.

What is Organizational Leadership?

Organizational leadership is a management approach in which leaders help set strategic
goals for the organization while motivating individuals within the group to successfully carry out
assignments in service to those goals (Sofia Tokar, 2020).
For those who hold leadership roles in the workplace, it is important to know what
organizational leadership is and why it is important. Organizational leaders are people oriented
and goal centered. Good organizational leaders will not only establish a vision for their
companies but also implement strategic approaches toward carrying out that vision, motivating
individuals along the way.
Organizational leadership is multifaceted but relies on leaders who are willing to
empower individuals and influence their organizations. Organizational leadership is important in
the workplace because it provides efficiency, allowing companies to plan out and accomplish
their goals. Leaders must learn about how individuals work and organizations operate by
analyzing their environments and interacting with their teams. By strategizing for the bigger
picture while also recognizing the human side of business, leaders are invaluable to their
organizations.
In the school setting, organizational leadership works towards what is best for individual
members and what is best for the organization as a group at the same time. It is also an attitude
and a work ethic that empowers an individual in any role to lead from the top, middle, or bottom
of an organization. In the school, the school leader helps anyone from the organization not
necessarily from the top to lead others. An example of this is teacher leadership

Why Is Organizational Leadership Important in the Workplace?

Organizational leadership is important not only for a company as a whole but for its
employees. There are many benefits of good organizational leadership in the workplace that
affect everyone involved at all levels. Adaptive leaders improve the quality of organizations
when they apply their skills and managerial competencies toward cultivating more successful
work environments.
Leaders drive the success of an organization through:
Improved productivity. When an organizational leader sets a goal with vision and clear
communication, a company’s productivity improves.
Boosting employee morale. A good organizational leader focuses on individual
strengths, motivating employees toward their goals.
Supporting team goals. By articulating individual duties and responsibilities, an
organizational leader supports not only individuals but teams as well.
Supporting innovation. Organizational leaders strategically plan for success and are
willing to promote innovative ideas that can benefit the bigger picture (Rider University)

Organizational leadership (OL) is a field of work that includes setting goals for both individuals
and groups of people. This field of work may include working on large projects with businesses and
corporations, and even smaller projects with groups of people who share similar outlooks. Individuals
looking to become involved in this field will need to be organized and vision oriented. The ability to
see both the small and big picture is necessary. Additionally, it takes someone who can meet the needs
of many different types of people who are working together towards a goal
(https://www.bestcollegereviews.org/faq/what-is-organizational-leadership/, April 2021).

School Heads Must be Both a Leader and a Manager

Management is the coordination and administration of tasks to achieve a goal. Such
administration activities include setting the organization’s strategy and coordinating the efforts
of staff to accomplish these objectives through the application of available resources.
Management can also refer to the seniority structure of staff members within an organization.
To be an effective manager, one needs to develop a set of skills, including planning,
communication, organization and leadership. You will also need extensive knowledge of the
company’s goals and how to direct employees, sales and other operations to accomplish them
(https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/what-is-management).
In order for a school head to be efficient and effective, he/she should not only be a
leader but a manager as well. There are activities and functions in school that demands for
a school head to be a leader and there are also times that he/she must be managers. Below
is a table that differentiates leaders from managers.
Leaders Managers
Innovate Administer
Develop Maintain
Inspire Control
Has a long-term view Has a short-term view
Ask What and Why Ask How and When
Originate Initiate
Challenge the Status Quo Accept the Status Quo
Do the Right Things Do Things Right

Leadership Skills
 What characteristics to skills should one possess to be a leader? The video you have
watched about the lion has identified some characteristics of a leader. But there is no single
reference that could completely describe a leader. Hence, several ideas on the skills of a
leader are presented below.
There is no unique way to describe great leadership skills. Unsurprisingly, you can find
different lists describing the leadership skills one should possess to become a great leader in the
workplace.
In essence, leadership skills are the abilities people have to lead and deliver projects,
encourage initiatives, build a sense of common purpose, and empower others.
Leadership skills also include the abilities people have to steer employees toward the
achievement of the business goals, inspire them, drive change, and deliver results.
There are many different leadership skills required in the workplace, but the most in-
demand ones include: (1) Active listening; (2) Empathy; (3) The ability to share clear messages
and make complex ideas easy to understand for everyone; (4) Strategic thinking skills; (5)
Creativity; (6) The ability to inspire and convince others; (7) Flexibility; (8) The ability to turn
information into action; (9) Project planning; (10) The ability to assess employees’ strengths and
weaknesses; (11) Business storytelling; (12) Time management; (13) The ability to build trust;
(14) Strong communication skills; (15) Positivity; (16) Reliability; (17) Management skills; (18)
The ability to align the employees with the school values and goals; (18) A strong leadership
vision; (19) Recruiting skills; (20) Persuasion skills; (21) The ability to help employees find
meaning at work; and, (22) Strong charisma (https://blog.smarp.com/what-are-the-top-
leadership-skills-that-make-a-great-leader).

The Top 10 Leadership Skills are (1) Communication; (2) Motivation; (3) Delegating; (4)
Positivity; (5) Trustworthiness; (6) Creativity; (7) Feedback; (8) Responsibility; (9)
Commitment; and (10) Flexibility (DOYLE, 2021 https://www.thebalancecareers.com/top-
leadership-skills-2063782).

The 5 Effective leadership styles in education (https://studyonline.ecu.edu.au/blog/effective-

leadership-styles-education)
Leadership in education can play an integral role in creating a positive school culture. It
can also influence student learning and achievement. Effective school leadership is increasingly
viewed as the key to far-reaching education transformation. With the right leadership approach,
education heads can turn an average school into a successful one. Here are effective leadership
styles in education that will prepare you to lead for impact.

Instructional leadership
Effective school management generally comes from engagement in instructional
leadership. There’s a growing body of evidence which shows that schools with instructional
leadership outperform others. This coaching style of leadership concentrates on student learning
outcomes by improving teaching quality. To realise this goal, school leaders adopt the
responsibility for the professional development of teachers.
Instructional leadership involves the practice of planning, evaluation, coordination and
improvement of teaching and learning. According to the Australian Institute for Teaching and
School Leadership, instructional leaders define the school’s mission, manage the instructional
program, promote high expectations and provide incentives for teachers and students.
Working directly with teachers, instructional leaders evaluate teacher performance and
help advance their skills through mentoring and coaching. Becoming an instructional leader
entails time spent solving pedagogical problems, taking action to improve teachers’ instruction,
as well as holding teachers accountable for improving their instructional skills. This pursuit to
improve learning within the school community requires leaders to have an in-depth
understanding of pedagogy and practice themselves.

Transformational leadership
Taking a collaborative approach, transformational leaders empower their school teams to
have a say in decision-making processes and enable collective goal-setting. Through role
modelling, these leaders create a culture of innovation and improvement and a shared sense of
purpose. This sets the foundations for growth and success.
Transformational leaders are able to influence school outcomes by outlining high-
performance expectations, developing people through individual support, building productive
relationships and providing instructional support. According to researcher Bernard Bass, the four
attributes of transformational leadership are defined as idealized influence, inspirational
motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration.
Transformational leaders instill trust, admiration, loyalty and respect – which inspires
teacher motivation, morale and performance. The influence exerted by transformational leaders
has been described as “the generating of feelings.” Using charisma, compassion and emotional
intelligence (EI), transformational leaders are able to monitor and manage not only their own
emotions but those of others as well. This gives them the ability to energise their teams and drive
successes.
Studies have shown that transformational leadership has a direct impact on teacher
performance, with teachers willingly taking steps to improve their classroom practice. The
findings also show that transformational leadership increases teacher job satisfaction and
strengthens their commitment to professional growth. The result is improved student
outcomes and lasting progress across the school system.

Constructivist leadership
This type of leadership is about facilitating the learning process, rather than directing it.
At the core of the constructivist approach is that learners control their own learning, not teachers.
Acknowledging that every learner understands, processes and gives meaning to lessons through
their own reality, constructivism places a priority on customized teaching approaches that take
into consideration individual learning needs.
School leaders who embrace the constructivist model shift the focus within their school,
from knowledge as a product to knowing as a process. Instruction and curriculum design under
their leadership encourages the sharing of big ideas and challenging other’s perspectives. The
classroom is seen as a place where ‘inquiry and co-construction dominate.’ Constructivist leaders
expect teachers to engage in reflective practices and processes with their students and peers. The
purpose of reflection is to challenge previous assumptions about teaching and learning and to
rethink and reframe student participation.
 Constructivist leadership is about immersing teachers in a culture of learning and
enabling them to take risks. It’s not about dictating to teachers on how to deliver instructions –
it’s about educating teachers that we are all learners.

Servant leadership
This participatory style of leadership pushes the ego aside and considers the needs of
others, rather than focus on self-interest. The philosophy behind servant leadership is that a
“great leader must first serve others and that this simple fact is central to his or her greatness:
true leadership emerges from those whose primary motivation is a desire to help others.” School
leaders who practice servant leadership maintain high expectations; however, they also help
teachers and students to develop their skills to improve their performance. These leaders instill
the desire for improvement while maintaining a focus on both results and relationships.
The former president of the Robert K. Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership identified
the ten characteristics of servant leaders as: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion,
conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people, and building
community. Servant leaders are able to cultivate high-performance teachers by removing
barriers, providing resources and opening communication channels with the whole school
community.
Sharing the power in decision-making, servant leaders motivate and persuade their school
community to fulfil their long-standing vision. By engaging with teachers and students on what
the school’s future should look like, servant leaders can implement structural changes that keep
an eye on the bigger picture. Research shows that in the long-term servant leadership creates a
positive and productive school environment.

Strategic leadership
Strategic leadership is based on long-range planning. Through analysis, evaluation and
monitoring, strategic leaders assess current school performance and take the necessary steps to
improve future results. These leaders not only set the direction of the school by having an
organizational vision, they create frameworks, set up interventions, allocate resources and
maintain systems for reforms to take place.
There are seven guiding principles of strategic leaders. Rather than focusing on day-to-
day issues, strategic leaders are future-orientated and prepare for an uncertain destiny. These
leaders base their decisions on evidence and research. Drawing on data that demonstrates school
learning outcomes, strategic leaders will respond with the most suitable approach – whether
that’s staff training, reviewing policies and procedures, or fostering a culture based on
achievements. Innovation is at the heart of a strategic leader’s mission – they’re always looking
for ways to improve the school environment – whether that’s relationship building, embracing
diversity or creating partnerships with parents. Strategic leaders invest in partnerships across the
school community and use the power of collective thinking to build a values-based school were
transparency, ethics and accountability are the cornerstones of their leadership.
Studies show that using strategy as a tool to manage an educational organization is at the
heart of developing successful schools in the long term. Aligning organizational structures,
processes, culture and people behind a strategic focus is critical to this success.

Why does leadership matter?

 Great school leadership is the bedrock for great schools. Evidence suggests that effective
leadership is essential to creating a learning environment where every student has access to high-
quality education. Teachers who pursue postgraduate education in leadership will be able to
support effective teaching and learning strategies, keep pace with transformation across the
education industry and inject new thinking into schools.

What is situational leadership?

(HTTPS://WWW.BETTERUP.COM/EN-US/RESOURCES/BLOG/SITUATIONAL-
LEADERSHIP-EXAMPLES-(AND-HOW-TO-DEVELOP-THIS-MANAGEMENT-
STYLE)#:~:TEXT=SITUATIONAL%20LEADERSHIP%20IS%20A%20WAY,SIZE
%20FITS%20ALL%E2%80%9D%20LEADERSHIP%20STYLE)

Another type/style of leadership that is worth mentioning here is situation leadership.

Situational leadership is a way of adjusting one’s management style to adapt to each
situation or task, and the needs of the team or team member.
The Situational Leadership Theory was developed by Ken Blanchard and Paul Hersey in
1969, under the notion that there is no “one size fits all” leadership style. Instead, the model
provides a framework for leaders to diagnose the development level of an employee or team for a
task and adapt their leadership approach accordingly.
The situational leadership model considers employee competence and commitment
levels, which may vary across different challenges and performance areas. It also considers the
complexity of the task and the level of direction and support required from the leader.
This flexibility allows leaders to meet each situation that arises with the leadership style
that will bring out the best in employees and give them the highest chance of success.
What are the four leadership styles of situational leadership?
Blanchard and Hersey’s situational leadership matrix describes four leadership behavioral
styles that may be used, depending upon the situation. The styles are described based on the
characteristic of the followers.

Style 1 (S1) Style 2 (S2) Style 3 (S3) Style 4 (S4)

Selling/Directing Telling Coaching Participating/Supporting Delegating
Telling (S1) – Selling (S2) – Participating (S3) – Delegating (S4) –
Telling, or directing, Selling, or Participating, or sharing, Delegating is useful
is useful when a team persuading, is useful is useful when a team or when a team or team
or team member when a team or team team member has the member has a high
requires close member has some competence required to level of competence
supervision and competence, but actively participate in and is self-
regular guidance. perhaps not enough planning and decision motivated. Leaders
The leader makes to be successful, or making. Leaders using leveraging this style
decisions, and directs when they are this style are typically will set a vision,
the team or team unmotivated. The collaborative in their outline desired
member on their role. leader is open to approach to problem outcomes, grant
This can include feedback and solving and decision clear authority, and
providing collaboration in making, letting their teams then get out of the
instructions to novice order to boost the and team members make way.
team members or team or team decisions within their
taking charge in an member’s areas of expertise.
emergency. participation.
Leaders utilizing
this style may be
helping team
members to develop
or improve their
skills or
encouraging buy-in
to a larger vision.

What does a situational leader do?

Situational leadership requires leaders to have multiple leadership styles and to move
flexibly among them. This might require practice to develop. Leaders may have a “comfort
zone” or a natural tendency toward a particular management style – and so might the
organization. This can make it challenging to develop the full scope needed to be an effective
situational leader.
It’s important for leaders to stretch this way, though, because different situations and
people require different approaches and leadership styles to bring out the best results. Just like
we need multiple tools to build a house, we need multiple leadership styles to meet the
challenges that arise in today’s rapidly changing and increasingly diverse work environment. It
often takes conscious effort to develop these skills.
A strong leader should develop the following characteristics of situational leadership
include:
Flexibility – A situational leader is paying close attention to the changing needs of the
team, task, and organization and adjusts their leadership style as needed to bring out the best in
team members and ensure successful outcomes.
Active listening – In order to identify what is going on and accurately diagnose and
provide what team members need, a situational leader must constantly leverage their active
listening skills and seek to understand.
Clear direction – Situational leaders must be effective at providing the level of support
and direction team members require.
Encourage participation – Situational leaders engage in behaviors that create
psychological safety and opportunities for team members to share their thoughts, experience, and
input. They also have the skills required to effectively delegate authority to team members as
appropriate.
Coaching skills – To be most effective, situational leaders need to develop their ability to
coach a wide range of developmental levels so they can meet team members where they are and
support them in getting where they need to be.

Transformational Leadership
Another type of leader that are found effective now are the transformational leaders.
The transformational leader is not content with status quo and sees the need to transform
the way the organization thinks, relates and does things. The transformational school leader sees
school culture as it could be and should be, not as it is and so plays his/role as a visionary,
engager, learner, collaborator, and instructional leader. As a transformational leader, he/she
makes positive changes in the organization by collaboratively developing new vision for the
organization and mobilizing members to work towards that vision.
To do this, the transformational leader combines charisma, inspirational leadership and
intellectual stimulation to introduce innovation for the transformation of the organization.

Sustaining Change
For reforms to transform, the innovations introduced by the leader must be
institutionalized and sustained. A proof of this is if the result or effect of the change persists or
ripples even when the transformational leader is gone or transferred to another school or gets
promoted in the organization. If school leaders want improvement in the way things are done in
the organization, in the school, or even in life, that change should be embraced. And this change
must be dealt with for the innovation to be sustained.
To insure that the innovation introduced leads to the transformation of the organization,
Morato of Bayan ABS – CBN (2011) gives the following advice.
1) Seek the support of the stakeholders
2) Get the people involved early and often
3) Plan a communications campaign
4) Ensure that the innovation is understood by all
5) Consider timing and phasing
 MODULE IX – THE SCHOOL HEAD IN SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT (SBM)

School-Based Management
School-based management (SBM) is a strategy to improve education by transferring
significant decision-making authority from state and district offices to individual schools. SBM
provides principals, teachers, students, and parents greater control over the education process by
giving them responsibility for decisions about the budget, personnel, and the curriculum.
Through the involvement of teachers, parents, and other community members in these key
decisions, SBM can create more effective learning environments for children.

What are the advantages of School-Based Management?

According to the American Association of School Administrators (AASA), the National
Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP), the National Association of Secondary
School Principals (NASSP), and other sources, school- based management can:
1) Allow competent individuals in the schools to make decisions that will improve learning;
2) Give the entire school community a voice in key decisions;
3) Focus accountability for decisions;
4) Lead to greater creativity in the design of programs;
5) Redirect resources to support the goals developed in each school;
6) Lead to realistic budgeting as parents and teachers become more aware of the school's
financial status, spending limitations, and the cost of its programs; and,
7) Improve morale of teachers and nurture new leadership at all levels.
Legal Basis of SBM
The Philippine Constitution provides that Congress shall enact a local government code
that will institutionalize a system of decentralization (Article 10, Sec. 3) whereby the local
government units shall be extended more power, authority …. The local Government Code in
1991 is a fulfillment of this Constitutional provision.
This means that long before the Department of Education legally introduced
decentralization in schools through School-Based Management (SBM) in 2001 through the
enactment of RA 9155, local government units were already empowered for local governance.
RA 9155 (Governance of Basic Education Act of 2001) transfers the power and authority as well
as the resources to the school level. School empowerment is based on the assumption that the
school heads including the teachers, key leaders in the community, and the parents know best the
root and solution to the problem.

Conditions for the Success of SBM

 Teachers and school heads must be given the opportunity to make choices. They must
actively participate in school improvement planning.
 The involvement of parents and teachers must be strongly encouraged and highly
welcomed
  Stakeholders must participate in the development of a School Improvement Plan (SIP).
They must have a say on resource allocation to meet specific needs.
 Higher authorities must actively encourage thoughtful experimentation and innovation in
an atmosphere where mistakes are viewed as learning experiences. They must be willing
to share their authority with the academic and the larger community.
 Teachers must develop reflection and problem solving skills.

In addition, based on international experience, the following must be present for SBM to
succeed in schools:
 have basic resources;
 have developed an effective school support system;
 are provided with regular information on their performance;
 are given advice on how they may improve; and,
 emphasize the motivational element in the management work of the principal.

Factors that Contribute to School Effectiveness

Research findings point to the following factors that spell school effectiveness:
1) Human factors – these include:
 a dynamic school head,
 highly selected, competent and committed teachers,
 highly motivated pupils with high expectations, and,
 a supportive community.
2) Non-human factors, processes – These refer to:
 clear and shared vision-mission (focus),
 high expectations/ambitious standards,
 emphasis on accountability,
 aligned curriculum, instruction and assessment with state/DepEd standards,
 efficiency or optimal utilization of resources and facilities,
 collaboration and communication,
 focused professional development, and,
 global and future orientation.

These factors are exemplified by high performing schools in the Philippines and abroad
and by the best education performing countries in the world.
In the Philippines, the practice of School-Based Management gave greater autonomy to
schools to make decisions in collaboration with parents and community towards greater school
effectiveness.
The heart of all these elements, both human and non-human is the school head, the school
leader. These means that all these factors an contribute to school effectiveness and can come
forth only with a dynamic and transformational school leader.
 MODULE X – CREATING A POSITIVE SCHOOL CULTURE

Introduction
In this module we will be learning about school culture that can greatly affect the
learning, growth and development of students.
We will begin by differentiating school climate from school culture, which are often used
synonymously but are actually different. Then we will be learning about school culture,
including the elements associated with it. We then end the module with a presentation of the
teacher norms and student norms.

Discussion Proper

School Climate versus School Culture

School climate refers to the school's effects on students, including teaching practices;
diversity; and the relationships among administrators, teachers, parents, and students. School
culture, on the other hand, refers to the way teachers and other staff members work together and
the set of beliefs, values, and assumptions they share. A positive school climate and school
culture promote students' ability to learn (http://www.ascd.org/research-a-topic/school-culture-
and-climate-resources.aspx).
School climate is the feel of the school (the schools’ attitude), the behaviors and points
of view exhibited and experienced by students, teachers and other stakeholders. Freiberg and
Stein (1999) describe school climate as “the heart and soul of the school,” the feeling that
either encourages teachers and students to engage, love the school, and to want to be a part of
it, or to reject the school and disengage from it. It is the outcome of the school’s norms and
values, the way in which people at the school relate to and interact with one another, and the
way systems and policies manifest. According to the National School Climate Center, “school
climate includes major spheres of school life such as safety, relationships, teaching and
learning, and the environment as well as larger organizational patterns (e.g. from fragmented
to shared; healthy or unhealthy).” These dimensions not only shape how students feel about
being in school, but “these larger group trends shape learning and student development”
(National School Climate Center, 2013 in https://aesimpact.org/school-climate-and-culture/).
School Culture
School climate is the collective mood, or morale, of a group of people. Climate describes
the shared perceptions of the people in a group or organization, while culture includes how
people feel about the organization and the beliefs, values, and assumptions that provide the
identity and set the standards of behavior. Climate is “how are we feeling around here” while
culture is “the way we do things”. Climate is more of the mood or attitude of the group while
culture is the personality of all staff members. Both climate and culture impact behaviors of the
people in the school, but climate is has a narrower concept than culture. Culture goes deeper to
include the immediate environment and what people believe and value. Culture is a product of
the relationship history in a school while climate is a function of how current staff perceive those
relationships in the present (https://techinnovationlive.wordpress.com/2018/01/03/school-
culture-vs-climate/).
The term school culture generally refers to the beliefs, perceptions, relationships,
attitudes, and written and unwritten rules that shape and influence every aspect of how a school
functions, but the term also encompasses more concrete issues such as the physical and
emotional safety of students, the orderliness of classrooms and public spaces, or the degree to
which a school embraces and celebrates racial, ethnic, linguistic, or cultural diversity.
Like the larger social culture, a school culture results from both conscious and
unconscious perspectives, values, interactions, and practices, and it is heavily shaped by a
school’s particular institutional history. Students, parents, teachers, administrators, and other
staff members all contribute to their school’s culture, as do other influences such as the
community in which the school is located, the policies that govern how it operates, or the
principles upon which the school was founded.
Generally speaking, school cultures can be divided into two basic forms: positive
cultures and negative cultures.
Broadly defined, positive school cultures are conducive to professional satisfaction,
morale, and effectiveness, as well as to student learning, fulfillment, and well-being. The
following list is a representative selection of a few characteristics commonly associated with
positive school cultures:
 The individual successes of teachers and students are recognized and celebrated.
 Relationships and interactions are characterized by openness, trust, respect, and
appreciation.
 Staff relationships are collegial, collaborative, and productive, and all staff members are
held to high professional standards.
 Students and staff members feel emotionally and physical safe, and the school’s policies and
facilities promote student safety.
 School leaders, teachers, and staff members model positive, healthy behaviors for students.
 Mistakes not punished as failures, but they are seen as opportunities to learn and grow for
both students and educators.
 Students are consistently held to high academic expectations, and a majority of students
meet or exceed those expectations.
 Important leadership decisions are made collaboratively with input from staff members,
students, and parents.
 Criticism, when voiced, is constructive and well-intentioned, not antagonistic or self-
serving.
 Educational resources and learning opportunities are equitably distributed, and all students,
including minorities and students with disabilities.
 All students have access to the academic support and services they may need to succeed.

School culture has become a central concept in many efforts to change how schools
operate and improve educational results. While a school culture is heavily influenced by its
institutional history, culture also shapes social patterns, habits, and dynamics that influence
future behaviors, which could become an obstacle to reform and improvement. For example, if a
faculty culture is generally dysfunctional—i.e., if interpersonal tensions and distrust are
common, problems are rarely addressed or resolved, or staff members tend to argue more than
they collaborate or engage in productive professional discussions—it is likely that these cultural
factors will significantly complicate or hinder any attempt to change how the school
operates. This simple example illustrates why school culture has become the object of so many
research studies and reform efforts—without a school culture that is conducive to improvement,
reform becomes exponentially more difficult.
The following describe a few representative examples of common ways that schools may
attempt to improve their culture:
 Establishing professional learning communities that encourages teachers to communicate,
share expertise, and work together more collegially and productively.
 Providing presentations, seminars, and learning experiences designed to educate staff and
students about bullying and reduce instances of bullying.
 Creating events and educational experiences that honor and celebrate the racial, ethnic, and
linguistic diversity of the student body, such as hosting cultural events and festivals,
exhibiting culturally relevant materials throughout the school, inviting local cultural leaders
to present to students, or making explicit connections between the diverse cultural
backgrounds of students and what is being taught in history, social studies, and literature
courses. For related discussions, see multicultural education and voice.
 Establishing an advisory program that pairs groups of students with adult advisor to
strengthen adult-student relationships and ensure that students are well known and
supported by at least one adult in the school.
 Surveying students, parents, and teachers about their experiences in the school, and hosting
community forums that invite participants to share their opinions about and
recommendations for the school and its programs.
 Creating a leadership team comprising a representative cross-section of school
administrators, teachers, students, parents, and community members that oversees and leads
a school-improvement initiative
Source: https://www.edglossary.org/school-culture/

Elements of a Positive School Culture

1) Collegiality – The school atmosphere is friendly. Everyone works in an atmosphere
where responsibility and authority is shared by everyone.
2) Experimentation – The atmosphere encourages experimentation and so will welcome
mistakes as a part of the learning process. (Read about Edison’s way of expressing his
“failures”.
3) High expectations – “One’s level of achievement is always lower than one’s level of
aspiration”. Set high expectations for high achievement.
4) Trust and confidence – Students, teachers, school heads and parents relate well and work
well when relationships are solidly built on trust and confidence.
5) Tangible support – Everyone in the school community gets concrete support for the good
that they do. Support comes in not just words but in action.
6) Reaching out to the knowledge bases – Teachers care to grow professionally to update
themselves on content knowledge and pedagogy (Domain 1 of PPST).
7) Appreciation and recognition – Words of appreciation and recognition make classroom
climate highly favorable.
"Recognition is not a scarce resource. You can't use it up or run out of it."- Susan M.
Heathfield, About.com Human Resources Expert
8) Caring, celebration and humor –
 Nobody cares how much you know until they know how much you care -
Theodore Roosevelt
 To the world, you may be one person, but to one person you may be the world.
Unknown
 Happiness is when what you think, what you say, and what you do are in
harmony.
Gandhi –
 A smile is a light in your window that tells others that there is a caring, sharing
person inside - |Denis Waitley
9) Involvement in decision making – Involving others who are concerned with decisions to
be made enhances sense of ownership. They also feel important.
10) Protection of what's important – What schools consider important must form part of their
tradition and so must be protected by all means.
 11) Traditions – A school must have an intentional culture-based program on shared values,
beliefs, and behaviors. This strengthen sense of community. A truly positive school
culture is characterized by the presence of a set of norms and values that focus the school
community’s attention on what is most important and motivate them to work hard toward
a common purpose.
12) Honest, open communication- No one gets ostracized for speaking up his mind. Everyone
is encouraged to speak his mind without fear of being excluded or rejected. The
agreement of every discussion is “agree to disagree”.

Norms
Norms are a fundamental concept in the social sciences. They are most commonly
defined as rules or expectations that are socially enforced. Norms may be prescriptive
(encouraging positive behavior; for example, “be honest”) or proscriptive (discouraging negative
behavior; for example, “do not cheat”). The term is also sometimes used to refer to patterns of
behavior and internalized values. Norms are important for their contribution to social order.
Governments (and other hierarchies) and markets are argued to contribute to order, as are
individual prosocial motivations. But the norms enforced through groups and networks also play
an important role. Norms have long been used to explain behavior, but in recent years, scholars
have increasingly focused on explaining norms themselves—in particular, their emergence and
enforcement (Christine Horne in https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-
9780199756384/obo-9780199756384-0091.xml).

Shared Norms: Teacher and Student Norms

Shared norms for both teachers and students contribute to a positive school culture. Boss
and Larmier (2018) share teacher norms and students norm to contribute to a fair and engaging
learning environment, a characteristic of a positive school culture. They check on the following
norms every week.

Teacher Norms Student Norms

1. Teach in different ways. 1. Have a growth mindset.
a. Believes that they can improve
b. Falls forward
c. Keeps trying
d. Speaks positively about their abilities to
learn
2. Call students by their names. 2. Call classmates by their names.
3. Care about students’ feelings. 3. Be responsible for their work
a. Understand their situation a. Have materials ready
b. Advocate for themselves
c. Be professional
d. Meet deadlines
e. Participate
f. Be on time to class
4. Have a good attitude. 4. Listen…
a. Stay calm a. to the teacher
b. Use kind words b. to classmates
c. Have patience c. to guests
d. Greet students and say goodbye d. to the directions
5. Help students understand 5. Attend school majority of the time
a. Work at a reasonable pace
b. Explain clearly
c. Support different learning styles
d. Expect the best
e. Re-explain if necessary
6. Attend school majority of the time 6. Be a good team player
a. Provide good, helpful feedback
b. Stay calm
c. Encourage others
d. Stay on the topic
e. Be considerate
f. Use proper language
g. Communicate clearly to other students and
teachers
7. Be respectful
a. Give everyone what they need
b. Use proper language
c. Allow space if needed
d. Use supportive words when explaining
e. Call students by their name
8. Have a growth mindset