Hello everybody and welcome to general chemistry 2!

In the first chapter for this course, we are

going to cover intermolecular forces. Intermolecular forces are the forces holding individual
molecules and atoms together in the liquid and solid states.

We are going to cover four big topics in this chapter: intermolecular forces, phase changes,
phase diagrams, and liquids. It is going to be important for this chapters discussion to
distinguish a chemical bond from an intermolecular force.

 A chemical bond is a strong force of attraction holding atoms together within a molecule
or crystal. In contrast, an intermolecular force, or intermolecular attraction, is a weaker
force that can cause individual molecules to aggregate, leading to the formation of a
solid or liquid.

So let us begin officially and discuss intermolecular forces!

 All intermolecular attractive forces are coulombic in nature, that is, they consist of
electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged particles. There are three important
types of intermolecular forces present in pure substances: dipole-dipole forces,
hydrogen bonding, and london dispersion forces.
1. Dipole-Dipole forces: We learned that a polar molecule is one with an unequal
distribution of charge, resulting from its shape and the nature of its bond.
1. When placed in a magnetic field, a polar molecule behaves as if it has a center of
positive charge and a center of negative charge.
2. In other words, it possesses a permanent dipole. When the partial positive on
one molecule’s dipole interacts with the patial negative on another’s molecule’s
dipole, the result if a dipole dipole force.
3. Dipole-dipole forces exist between polar molecules such as hydrogen chloride.
4. When comparing molecules of similar size, the strength of dipole-dipole
attractions increase with increasing polarity. As their dipole moment increases,
the dipole dipole attractive froces also increase.
2. Hydrogen bonding: A hydrogen bond is an intermolecular attraction between a polarized
hydrogen on one molecule and a very electronegative atom on another.
1. When a molecule contains a hydrogen atom covalently attached to F O N , there
is a large difference in electronegativity resulting in a covalent bond and the bond
is polarize.
2. But hydrogen bond can be misleading. A hydrogen bond in regards to
intermolecular forces is not a bond in the sense of a covalent bond, instead it is
an intermolecular force existing between two separate molecules.
3. Hydrogen bonding is an especially strong type of dipole-dipole attraction. It is
given its oen classification because it is usually much stronger than other dipole-
dipole attractions.
4. Molecules that are held together by hydrogen bonds generaly have higher boiling
points and melting points than other molecules of similar size.
5. Hydrogen bonding helps explain many important properties of water such as its
high specific heat capacity, high boiling point, and high heat of fusion and
vaporization.
6. Hydrogen bonding is also responsible for some of the important characterisitics
of DNA which consists of base molecules attached to a sugar phosphate
backbone. Hydrogen bonds can hold two particular bases together.
 3. Last for this chapter: London dispersion forces. What is it that holds nonpolar
substances together in the solid or liquid state? After all nonpolar substances do not
possess a permanent dipole with positive and negative charges.
1. The intermolecular forces that hold nonpolar molecules together are called
london dispersion forces. LDF are attractive forces due to temporary induced
dipoles.
2. A helium atom consists of two electrons symmetrically distributed in a spherical
cloud around the nucleus. At ant given instant the electron cloud of a helium
atom can be distorted with more electron density on one side than on the other.
At that moment helium possesses a temporary dipole.
3. LDF increase with increasing polarizability the ease with which the electron cloud
of a molecule, atom, or ion can be distorted. The larger the molecule, the more
polarizable it is, and the stronger its london dispersion forces.
4. All substances both polar and nonpolar experience dispersion forces. They are
the only intermolecular attractive force existing between nonpolar molecules, but
they are also present among molecules that experience dipole-dipole forces and
hydrogen bonding.
 Now there is a step by step manner in which we determine which intermolecular forces
are present in a molecule.

Lets do PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Now we are going to discuss the next opic and that is phase changes!

 A change in the physical state of a substance is called a phase change.

o Some phase changes are endothermic: melting, vaporization, and sublimation.
o The reverse phase changes are exothermic: freezing, condensation, and
deposition.
 The enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of a pure solid is completely melted is
called the heat of fusion. The term fusion in chemistry means melting.
 The enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of a pure liquid is completely vaporized
is called the heat of vaporization. Substances with stronger intermolecular attractive
forces generally have higher vales of heat of fusion and vaporization.
 The heat of vaporization of a given substance is generally much higher than its heat of
fusion. When a substance is vaporized its intermolecular forces must be completely
overcome so that the molecules can be totally separated. In contrast, when a substance
melts, its indivudal molecules are given a greater freedom of motion, but they remain
very close. Therefore, melting only requires sufficient energy to partially overcome
intermolecular forces.
o Now, a heating curve for a substance is a plot of temperature as a function of the
amount of heat absorbed by the substance.
o The melting point of a substance (which is the same as its freezing point), is the
temperature at which its solid and liquid states coexist in equilibrium.
o When a substance is at its melting point the rate at which the solid melts equals
the rate at which the liquid freezes. The heating curve remains flat at the melting
point because even though heat continue to be added, all of the additional heat
goes into giving the solid-state molecules sufficient energy to partially overcome
the intermolecular forces and go into the liquid phase.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Another important topic to talk about is vapor pressure and bioling point

 It is important to understant the difference between the terms vapor and gas.
 A vapor is a gas in every sense of the word: it expands to fill a container, its particles are
in constant, random motion; its pressure is proportional to temperature at a given
volume.
 If a gas at a given temperature and pressure can be condensed to the liquid state or can
undergo deposition to the solid state, then it is appropriate to describe it as a vapor.
 In other words, the term vapor is used to describe the gas phase of a substance that
normally exists in the solid or liquid phase at the temperature or pressure.
 Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid or solid
state. It is the dynamic equiibrium meaning that liquid molecules evaporate and gas
molecules condense at the same rate. Since both processes occur at the same rate
there is no overall change in the amount of liquid or gas once equilibrium is changed.
 Note vapor pressure of a substance depends on temperature. As temperature increases,
so does vapor pressure. At a higher temperaure, more liquid molecules can acquire
sufficient kinetic energy to escape the surface of the liquid and go into the gas phase.
 Furthermore, vapor pressure does depend on the strength of intermolecular forces. As
intermolecular attractive force increase, more energy is required to vaporize liquid
molecules.
 Therefore the stronger the intermolecular attarcative forces, the lower the vapor
pressure.
 Vapor pressure is directly related to volatility, which describe the ease with which a
substance can be vaporized. Substances that are easily vaporized are volatile, and
substances that are not easily vaporized are nonvolatile. The stronger the intermolecular
attractive forces, the lower the vapor pressure and the less volatile a substance is.
 Boiling point is defined as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals
the external pressure. The relationship between boiling point and vapor pressure helps
explain the characteristic appearance of boiling liquids.
 When a liquid such as water boils, its molecule possess enough kinetic energy to
overcome the intermolecular attarctions holding them in the liquid state. They are able to
go into the gas phase, not just at the surface, but also in the interior of the liquid,
resulting in yhe formation of bubbles that rise to the surface of the liquid.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Next we want to discuss phase diagrams.

 A phase diagram shows the most stable state of a substance at any given temperature
and pressure. Looking at an example phase diagram:
o Each point on a phase diagram represents different temperature and pressure.
The various regions are labeled to show the most stable state of the substance
under those conditions. The solid lines and curves on a phase diagram show the
temperature and pressure at which two states can coexist in equilibrium.
o The solid and liquid phase is called the fusion curve and each point on the line
corresponds to a temperature and pressure at which the solid and liquid phase
coexist in equilibrium.
o In a similar way, the curve separating the solid and gas phases is the sublimation
curve, and the curve separating the liquid and gas phase is the vaporization
curve.
 o Notice that the vaporization curve, which describes the condiion under which the
liquid and vapor are in equilibrium.
 There is one point on the phase diagram where the three curves intersect. It is called the
triple point, and it represents the temperature and pressure at which the three phases of
a substance - solid liquid gas - coexist in equilibrium.
 There is also a critical point. The temperature and pressure at the critical point are called
the critical temperature and critical pressure. If the temperature is increased enough, the
kinetic energy of a gas molecules eventually becomes so high that the gas cannot be
condensed into a liquid regardless of how high the pressure is. The critical temperature
is therefore defined as the temperature above which it is impossible to condense a gas
into a liquid, and the critical pressure is the pressure required to condense a gas at the
critical temperature.
o When a substance is at a temperature and pressures beyond its critical point, it
exist as a supercritical fluid. A supercritical fluid is neither a liquid nor a gas but
possesses properties somewhat intermediate betwee the two.

Last topic, we are going to discuss the properties of liquids.

 We are going to discuss three properties that are indicative of the intermolecular
attractive forces holding molecules together in the liquid phase: surface tension,
viscosity, and capillary action.
1. First property is surface tension. Surface tension is the energy required to increase the
surface area of a liquid by a unit amount.
1. Surface tension arises because molecules at the surface of a liquid experience
fewer intermolecular forces than those in the interior. The key principle is that the
more intermolecular forces experienced by a molecule, the lower its potential
energy.
2. Molecules in the interior of a liquid have a lower potential energy than those on
the surface because they experience more intermolecular forces. Molecules at
the surface tend to move toward the interior in order to increase the number of
attractive interactions and lower their potential energy.
3. The net result is that liquids tend too have the smallest surface area possible with
the fewest number of surface molecules.
4. In order to increase the surface area, molecules in the interior must overcome
attractions to other molecules in the interior and this requires energy. The energy
required to increase the surface area corresponds to the surface tension of the
liquid. In general, the stronger the intermolecular attractive forces, the greater the
sirface tension.
2. Second property is viscosity. Viscosity is a measure of a liquid’s resistence to flow. It
occurs because the intermolecular attractive forces within a liquid prevent its molecules
from moving around as freely as they could in the absence of those forces. Substances
with strong intermolecular forces tend to be more viscous.
1. Viscosity is also affected by the size and shape of the molecules comprising the
liquid. Molecules that are large and complez tend to become entangled. This
makes it more difficult for them to moce around increasing the liquid’s viscosity.
2. In addition to a liquid’s intermolecular forces and molecular size and shape,
temperature also affects viscosity. The increased thermal energy at higher
temperature enables molecules to partially overcome intermolecular forces. As a
result, they can flow around each other more easily, which is why viscosity is
generally descrease with increasing temperature.
3. Last but not least, capillary action. Capillary action is the spontaneous rising of a liquid
against the pull of gravity through a narrow tube.
1. Capillary action is a result of interplay between cohesive forces, the
intermolecular attractions within a liquid, and adhesive forces, the intermolecular
attractions between liquid molecules and the walls of the tube. If the adhesive >
cohesive, water moves up the tube.