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ISSN: 0963-7486 (print), 1465-3478 (electronic)

Int J Food Sci Nutr, Early Online: 1–9

! 2014 Informa UK Ltd. DOI: 10.3109/09637486.2013.873888

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Physicochemical characterization and antioxidant activity of

17 commercial Moroccan honeys
Smail Aazza1,2, Badiaa Lyoussi2, Dulce Antunes1, and Maria Graça Miguel1
1
Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, IBB-Centro de Biotecnologia Vegetal, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal and 2Laboratory of Physiology,
Department of Pharmacology and Environmental Health, Faculty of Sciences, University Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdallah, Fez, Morocco
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Abstract Keywords
In this study, 17 commercial honey samples from Morocco were analyzed. Four samples did Antioxidant activity, honey, Morocco,
not meet the international physicochemical standards due to high hydroxymethylfurfural physicochemical characteristics
content and low diastase activity. Phenol content varied from 163.82 mg gallic acid
equivalent (GAE)/kg in citrus honey to 923.70 mg (GAE)/kg in thyme honey from Rachidia; History
flavonoid content ranged from 4.26 mg quercetin equivalent (QE)/kg in citrus honey to
139.62 mg QE/kg in black cumin honey. Black cumin honey had the highest peroxyl Received 17 August 2013
scavenging activity; oregano (from Zaraphyt) and thyme honeys (from Rachidia) had the Revised 5 December 2013
highest ABTS (2,20 -azino-bis[3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid]) scavenging activity; and Accepted 7 December 2013
thyme honey (Saouira) had the highest NO scavenging capacity. The antioxidant activity of Published online 15 January 2014
Moroccan honeys was correlated with the phenol, flavonoid, and melanoidin contents. Dark
For personal use only.

honeys had higher antioxidant activity than light honeys. Samples with high sodium levels had
lower free radical scavenging activity. On the other hand, calcium and magnesium increased
the ABTS and peroxyl scavenging capacity, respectively, of honey samples. According to cluster
and discriminant analyses, the honey samples were grouped in three clusters with respect to
the phenol, flavonoid, melanoidin, proline, mineral and sugar contents, and free radical
scavenging capacity.

Introduction dismutase and reduced glutathione. However, there is no infor-

mation on the antioxidant activity of Moroccan honey.
Sumerian Tables (2100–2000 BC) mention the use of honey as a
The objectives of this study were to assess the antioxidant
drug and ointment. Aristotle (384–322 BC) reported that honey
activity of 17 commercial honey samples from different flower
was used for sore eyes and wounds (Mandal & Mandal, 2011).
sources of Morocco. There are two types of antioxidant assays:
Recent studies have shown that honey has the capacity for wound
those that measure lipid peroxidation and those that measure free
healing and tissue regeneration and reduces inflammation with no
radical scavenging capacity. The capacity to chelate metal ions is
allergic reactions (Molan, 1999 and references therein).
an important antioxidant assay because metals can catalyze free
Glucose and fructose are the most predominant compounds in
radical reactions and induce lipid peroxidation (Singh & Singh,
honey. Other compounds include organic acids, ascorbic acid,
2008; Viuda-Martos et al., 2010). This study measured the
trace elements, vitamins, amino acids, proteins, enzymes, poly-
antioxidant activity of honey samples by different antioxidant
phenols and Maillard reaction products. These compounds are
assays; however, different assays tend to provide inconsistent
responsible for the antiviral, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, anti-
and conflicting results (Niki, 2011; Takashima et al., 2012).
mutagenic, anticancer, immunosuppressive and gastroentero- and
Additionally, the honey samples were physicochemically char-
cardiovascular-protective properties of honey (Bogdanov et al.,
acterized, although palynological, physicochemical, and color
2008 and references therein; Erejuwa et al., 2012). Furthermore,
characterization studies of Moroccan honeys have already been
honey contains antioxidants, the activity of which depends on the
reported (Dapena et al., 2004; Terrab et al., 2001, 2002a,b,
flower source. As a free radical scavenger, honey protects against
2003a,b,c,d).
lipid peroxidation and prevents and/or reduces inflammation
induced by oxidative stress (Alvarez-Suarez et al., 2013). Alvarez-
Materials and methods
Suarez et al. (2012) reported that honey protects red blood cells
against hemolysis and lipid peroxidation and prevents the Honey samples
depletion of intracellular antioxidant enzymes, e.g. superoxide
Towards the end of 2011, 17 commercial honey samples were
obtained from Zaraphyt Enterprise and Beekeepers Associations
Correspondence: Maria Graça Miguel, Faculdade de Ciências e
of Morocco; analyses were conducted during the first eight
Tecnologia, IBB-Centro de Biotecnologia Vegetal, Universidade do months of 2012. During the analyses, honey samples were kept at
Algarve, Edif. 8, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal. E-mail: 20–22  C. Samples were classified according to their brand
mgmiguel@ualg.pt names. Table 1 shows the Arabic name of honey samples.
 Int J Food Sci Nutr Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by 81.193.186.168 on 01/20/14
For personal use only.
2

Table 1. Arabian name and physicochemical results obtained from 17 commercial Moroccan honeys purchased to Zaraphyt enterprise or to beekeeper associations.

Lactone Diastase
Arabic Free acidity acidity Total acidity Moisture Conductivity Proline (Schade
Samplea Location name pH (mEq/kg) (mEq/kg) (mEq/kg) (%) (mS/cm) Ash (%) (mg/kg) units/g)
Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Boulemane Kharoub 3.90 ± 0.02ef 15.2 ± 0.7h 7.3 ± 0.5bcde 22.5 ± 0.8g 20.0 ± 0.1a 640.0 ± 2.7c 0.48 ± 0.01bc 754.33 ± 10.26h 15.70 ± 0.47cd
S. Aazza et al.

Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus Labill.) Zaraphyt Kalitouss 3.85 ± 0.02fg 26.1 ± 0.7cd 6.4 ± 0.5cdef 32.5 ± 0.8cd 19.8 ± 0.1ab 594.7 ± 2.7d 0.39 ± 0.01ef 1047.33 ± 10.06c 13.46 ± 0.47ef
Spurge (Euphorbia resinifera A. Berger) Ben Slimane Darmouss 3.68 ± 0.02i 27.2 ± 0.7bc 9.4 ± 0.5a 36.6 ± 0.8a 20.0 ± 0.1a 444.0 ± 2.7g 0.33 ± 0.01fg 829.33 ± 10.06ef 8.05 ± 0.47g
Lavander (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) Zaraphyt Khozama 3.66 ± 0.02i 21.1 ± 0.7fg 8.4 ± 0.5ab 29.5 ± 0.8e 18.4 ± 0.1de 202.7 ± 2.7k 0.21 ± 0.01i 667.00 ± 10.06i 8.83 ± 0.47g
Multifloral Ifrane – 3.72 ± 0.02hi 20.2 ± 0.7g 6.0 ± 0.5def 26.2 ± 0.8f 17.8 ± 0.1fg 762.3 ± 2.7a 0.58 ± 0.01a 844.33 ± 10.06e 12.01 ± 0.47f
Multifloral Boulemane – 3.94 ± 0.02de 23.3 ± 0.7ef 6.3 ± 0.5cdef 29.6 ± 0.8de 20.0 ± 0.1a 510.7 ± 2.7f 0.36 ± 0.01ef 774.33 ± 10.06gh 16.20 ± 0.47bc
Multifloral Zaraphyt – 3.94 ± 0.02def 27.0 ± 0.7c 6.2 ± 0.5cdef 33.2 ± 0.8bc 19.6 ± 0.1bc 577.3 ± 2.7e 0.36 ± 0.01ef 1456.33 ± 10.06a 14.34 ± 0.47de
Black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) Zaraphyt Sanouj 3.73 ± 0.02hi 20.9 ± 0.7fg 8.0 ± 0.5abc 28.9 ± 0.8ef 19.9 ± 0.1ab 308.7 ± 2.7j 0.21 ± 0.01i 287.67 ± 10.06l 8.36 ± 0.47g
Citrus (Citrus aurantium L.) Ifrane Limoun 3.68 ± 0.02i 23.8 ± 0.7def 6.2 ± 0.5cdef 30.0 ± 0.8de 20.0 ± 0.1a 150.3 ± 2.7l 0.15 ± 0.01j 520.00 ± 10.06k 9.10 ± 0.47g
Oregano (Origanum majorana L.) Zaraphyt Mardadouch 4.05 ± 0.02c 25.6 ± 0.7cde 5.4 ± 0.5ef 31.0 ± 0.8cde 17.8 ± 0.1f 604.0 ± 2.7d 0.41 ± 0.01de 795.33 ± 10.06fg 9.65 ± 0.41g
Harmal (Peganum harmala L.) Zaraphyt Lharmal 4.05 ± 0.02c 16.7 ± 0.7h 5.4 ± 0.5ef 22.1 ± 0.8g 17.5 ± 0.1gh 443.0 ± 2.7g 0.28 ± 0.01gh 598.33 ± 10.06j 5.72 ± 0.47h
Thyme (Thymus spec.) Rachidia Zaâtar 4.51 ± 0.02a 12.0 ± 0.7i 7.5 ± 0.5abcd 19.5 ± 0.8g 19.5 ± 0.1c 519.7 ± 2.7f 0.36 ± 0.01ef 682.33 ± 10.06i 12.96 ± 0.47ef
Thyme (Thymus spec.) Saouira Zaâtar 4.04 ± 0.02c 29.4 ± 0.7ab 8.4 ± 0.5ab 37.8 ± 0.8a 18.5 ± 0.1d 645.0 ± 2.7c 0.52 ± 0.01b 1171.67 ± 10.06b 22.32 ± 0.47a
Thyme (Thymus spec.) Zaraphyt Zaâtar 4.36 ± 0.02b 25.4 ± 0.7cde 7.0 ± 0.5bcdef 32.4 ± 0.8cd 17.3 ± 0.1h 350.7 ± 2.7i 0.26 ± 0.01hi 906.00 ± 10.06d 14.14 ± 0.47de
Jujube (Ziziphus jujube Mill.) Ben Slimane Sedra 3.79 ± 0.02gh 30.4 ± 0.7a 5.4 ± 0.5ef 35.8 ± 0.8ab 18.1 ± 0.1e 399.0 ± 2.7h 0.28 ± 0.01gh 626.67 ± 10.06j 12.99 ± 0.47ef
Jujube (Ziziphus jujube Mill.) Fes Sedra 4.02 ± 0.02cd 25.4 ± 0.7cde 5.2 ± 0.5f 30.6 ± 0.8cde 18.3 ± 0.1de 639.7 ± 2.7c 0.45 ± 0.01cd 524.33 ± 10.06k 17.69 ± 0.47b
Jujube (Ziziphus jujube Mill.) Zaraphyt Sedra 4.04 ± 0.02c 20.1 ± 0.65g 6.0 ± 0.5def 26.1 ± 0.8f 20.0 ± 0.1a 720.3 ± 2.69b 0.53 ± 0.01ab 774.33 ± 10.06gh 9.69 ± 0.47g

Values in the same column followed by the same letter are not significant different (p50.05) by the Tukey’s multiple range test. Zaraphyt refers to an enterprise from where honeys were purchased.
a
The label only reported the common names.
Ash content

Sugar content
Proline content

Mineral content
Diastase activity
(Bogdanov, 2002).
Moisture content

Electrical conductivity

conductivity probe (Orion 013005, MD).

Commission (IHC) guidelines (Bogdanov, 2002).

analytical balance (Shimadzu, Aux 220, Philippines).

Free acidity, pH, lactone acidity, and total acidity

magnesium (1–10 mg/l) and calcium (1–8 mg/l) standards.

volume of the samples was 10 ml with a flow rate of 1.3 ml/min.

content was expressed relative to honey mass (Bogdanov, 2002).

acetonitrile (Panreac, Barcelona, Spain) in water. The injection

purity silica column (LiChroCART 250-4; particle size diameter
measurements were performed according to IHC guidelines
Briefly, 5 g of honey was heated to 550  C in an electric furnace

graphic peaks. The average peak areas of triplicate injections were

times with those of standards. Additionally, the samples were
content was determined in an HPLC system equipped with a
In this experiment, 5 g of honey was dissolved in water and
determined by flame photometry using an air/butane flame;

2009). The solution was passed through a 0.45-mm filter (VWR

to 25 ml with distilled water. Potassium and sodium were
10 ml of 0.1 M nitric acid was added and the mixture was adjusted
and mixed on a heating plate to complete dryness. Subsequently,
Corporation, Orion 3 STAR, Beverly, MA) equipped with a

Sample peaks were identified by comparing their retention

system. The mobile phase consisted of 75% HPLC grade
oven and RI detector were monitored using an EZChrom Elite
of 5 mm) equipped with a guard column (Merck LiChroCART 4-
refractive index (RI) detector (Hitachi model L-2490, Japan).
methanol; the volume was adjusted to 100 ml with water (Al et al.,
transferred to a 100-ml volumetric flask containing 25 ml of
instruments with potassium (1–10 mg/l), sodium (1–10 mg/l),
the minerals was performed following the calibration of the
spectrometry (Terrab et al., 2004). Quantitative determination of
Proline content was determined by the ninhydrin method. Proline
In this study, free acidity, pH, lactone acidity and total acidity
(Cassel, Portugal). The resulting residue was weighed in an

4) maintained at 30  C. The HPLC pump, autosampler, column

Sugar separation was performed in a Merck amino-bonded high
calcium and magnesium were determined by atomic absorption
In this experiment, 5 ml of 0.1 M nitric acid was added to the ash
Diastase activity was measured as reported by Bogdanov (2002).
Ash content was determined as reported by Bogdanov (2002).
(Bogdanov, 2002) using a conductivity meter (Thermo Electron
Electrical conductivity was measured according to IHC guidelines
HI968601, Romania) at 20  C according to International Honey
Int J Food Sci Nutr, Early Online: 1–9

spiked with standards to verify the identity of the chromato-

measuring the refractive index (Abbe Refractometer, HANNA,

International, Radnor, PA) and stored in vials at 4  C. Sugar

Moisture content of the honey samples was determined by
 DOI: 10.3109/09637486.2013.873888
used for peak quantification. A calibration curve was generated
for each sugar using standard solutions (0.1–40 mg/ml). The
samples in crystallised form were liquefied in a 40  C water bath.
Fructose and glucose standards were purchased from Sigma
(St. Louis, MO); other standards consisted of D-(+)-turanose and
D-(+)-melizitose (AppliChem, Darmstadt, Germany), D-trehalose
(Acros Organics, NJ), D-(+)-maltose (Fisher BioReagents, NJ),
and D-(+)-saccharose (Riedel-de Haën Sigma-Aldrich
Laborchemikalien GmbH, Seelze, Germany).
Hydroxymethylfurfural content
Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content was determined according
to IHC guidelines (Bogdanov, 2002).
Total phenol content
Total phenol content was determined by a modification of the
Folin–Ciocalteau method (Singleton & Rossi, 1965); results were
expressed as mg gallic acid (Acros Organics, NJ) equivalents
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(GAE)/100 g honey. Briefly, 5 g of honey was mixed with 50 ml
of distilled water and passed through a qualitative filter. A volume
of the filtrate (500 ml) was mixed with 2.5 ml of 0.2 N Folin–
Ciocalteu reagent (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) for 5 min and
with 2 ml of 75 g/l Na2CO3 (Pronalab, Lisboa, Portugal). All
samples were incubated for 2 h in the dark at room temperature
and their absorbance was measured at 760 nm. The blank
contained water instead of honey. A standard curve was generated
from a stock solution of gallic acid (1 mg/ml) diluted to different
concentrations (8–250 mg/ml).
For personal use only.
Total flavonoid content
Total flavonoid content was determined by the method described
by Popova et al. (2005); results were expressed as mg quercetin
equivalent (QE)/kg honey.
Honey color and melanoidin content
Color was determined by measuring the absorbance of aqueous
solutions (10 g honey in 20 ml water) at 635 nm (A635) in a
Shimadzu spectrophotometer (Naab et al., 2008). Table 1 shows
the sample colors, absorbance measurements, and mm Pfund
values using the following algorithm, mm
Pfund ¼ 38.7 + 371.39  A635.
Additionally, honey color was determined spectrophotomet-
rically by calculating net absorbance (A560  A720). Melanoidin
content was estimated based on the browning index (net
absorbance ¼ A450  A720; Brudzynski & Miotto, 2011).
Spectrophotometric measurements were performed in a 1-cm
quartz cell; results were expressed as absorbance units (AU).
Capacity for scavenging free radicals and chelating metal
ions
The ABTS (2,20 -azino-bis[3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic
acid]) radical scavenging assay was performed according to the
method reported by Miguel (2010). The oxygen radical activity
capacity (ORAC) assay with fluorescein was performed according
to the method described by Ou et al. (2001); ORAC values were
calculated according to Cao & Prior (1999). The nitric oxide (NO)
scavenging assay was performed according to the method reported
by Ho et al. (2010). The capacity to chelate ferrous ions was
measured by the method reported by Miguel et al. (2010).
Statistical analyses
Data were analyzed by ANOVA and Tukey post-hoc test using
SPSS 18.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). Statistical significance was
Moroccan honey 3
set at p50.05. Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was calculated
at p50.01 and p50.05. Hierarchical cluster analyses were
performed to assess similarities and differences in total phenol
and flavonoid contents and free radical scavenging capacity. For
classification purposes, the Ward’s minimum variance method
was used; the squared Euclidean distance was used for the Ward’s
method. Discriminant analysis was performed using SPSS 18.0
following the hierarchical cluster analyses.
Results and discussion
Physicochemical characteristics
According to the results (Table 1), five samples had the maximum
permissible moisture content (20%; Codex Alimentarius, 2001;
EU, 2002). The lowest moisture content was obtained in thyme
honey from Zaraphyt and rosemary honey (17.3%; Table 1).
Previous studies have reported moisture contents 420% in certain
Moroccan honeys (Chakir et al., in press; Dı́ez et al., 2004; Terrab
et al., 2002b).
In this study, the lowest pH values were obtained in lavender
honey from Zaraphyt (3.66) and citrus honey (3.67). The highest
pH value was obtained in thyme honey from Rachidia (4.51).
These pH values are within the accepted range for Moroccan
honey (Dı́ez et al., 2004; Terrab et al., 2002b). Free acidity ranged
from 12.0 mEq/kg (in thyme honey from Rachidia) to 30.4 mEq/
kg (in jujube honey from Ben Selimane); lactone acidity ranged
from 5.2 mEq/kg (in jujube honey from Fes) to 9.4 mEq/kg (in
spurge honey from Ben Selimane; Table 1). The free acidity
values, which were within the European limits (550 mEq/kg; EU,
2002), indicate the absence of undesirable fermentation. Total
acidity ranged from 19.5 mEq/kg (in thyme honey from Rachidia)
to 37.8 mEq/kg (in thyme honey from Saouira).
Citrus honey and multifloral honey from Ifrane had the lowest
and highest ash content, respectively (Table 1). The low ash
content of citrus honey is characteristic of this type of honey
(Felsner et al., 2004). Citrus honey and multifloral honey from
Ifrane had the lowest and highest electrical conductivity,
respectively (Table 1).
Multifloral honey from Zaraphyt had the highest proline
content, whereas black cumin honey had the lowest proline
content (Table 1). All honey samples contained the minimum
permissible proline concentration, i.e. 200 mg/kg (Hermosı́n
et al., 2003).
Diastase activity is an indicator of inadequate storage and/or
processing conditions because the enzyme is susceptible to heat
treatment. Harmal honey had lower diastase activity (5.72 ± 0.47
Schade units/g) than that required by the European legislation (8
Schade units/g; EU, 2002). A minimum of 3 Schade units/g has
been established for citrus honey because this type of honey
contains low levels of diastase; however, the HMF content of
citrus honey should not exceed 15 mg/kg.
Mineral content
Among the minerals tested, potassium was the most predominant
(Table 2). Three honey samples (carob from Boulemane region,
thyme from Saouira, and jujube from Fes) had the highest
potassium concentrations (41000 mg/kg), whereas citrus honey
had the lowest potassium concentration (350.3 mg/kg).
Sodium was the second most abundant mineral. Sodium
content ranged from 38.3 mg/kg (in both citrus honey from Ifrane
and thyme honey from Zaraphyt) to 263.8 mg/kg (in harmal
honey). In carob, black cumin, oregano and thyme honeys from
Rachidia and Zaraphyt, calcium content was higher than that of
sodium. Magnesium content was higher than that of calcium
in multifloral honey from Ifrane region and Zaraphyt (Table 2).
 4 S. Aazza et al. Int J Food Sci Nutr, Early Online: 1–9

Table 2. Mineral content (mg/kg) in 17 commercial Moroccan honeys purchased to Zaraphyt enterprise or to beekeeper associations.

Sample Location Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Sum

Carob Boulemane 45.0 ± 9.4hi 1014.3 ± 5.5b 202.7 ± 3.5a 43.6 ± 1.1b 1308.6 ± 11.0a
Eucalyptus Zaraphyt 184.2 ± 9.4b 945.7 ± 5.5d 34.0 ± 3.5hi 19.3 ± 1.1gh 1183.2 ± 11.0c
Spurge Selimane 117.9 ± 9.4de 541.3 ± 5.5k 74.2 ± 3.5cde 33.6 ± 1.1d 767.0 ± 11.0g
Lavander Zaraphyt 121.2 ± 9.4cde 389.3 ± 5.5m 28.0 ± 3.5i 10.1 ± 1.1jk 548.6 ± 11.0h
Multifloral Ifrane 88.1 ± 9.4efg 834.4 ± 5.5e 64.6 ± 3.5ef 101.8 ± 1.1a 1088.9 ± 11.0d
Multifloral Boulemane 104.6 ± 9.4ef 847.4 ± 5.5e 91.2 ± 3.5b 35.1 ± 1.1cd 1078.3 ± 11.0d
Multifloral Zaraphyt 151.0 ± 9.4bcd 980. 9 ± 5.5c 22.1 ± 3.5i 34.4 ± 1.1d 1188.4 ± 11.0c
Black cumin t Zaraphyt 41.6 ± 9.4hi 446.8 ± 5.5l 49.4 ± 3.5g 38.5 ± 1.1c 576.3 ± 11.0h
Citrus Ifrane 38.3 ± 9.4i 350.3 ± 5.5n 30.6 ± 3.5i 8.9 ± 1.1k 428.2 ± 11.0i
Oregano Zaraphyt 71.5 ± 9.4fghi 623.0 ± 5.5i 86.4 ± 3.5bc 28.2 ± 1.1e 809.1 ± 11.0f
Harmal Zaraphyt 263.8 ± 9.4a 739.8 ± 5.5f 65.8 ± 3.5ef 16. 8 ± 1.1hi 1086.2 ± 11.0d
Thyme Rachidia 64.9 ± 9.4ghi 567.3 ± 5.5j 87.0 ± 3.5bc 24.1 ± 1.1ef 743.3 ± 11.0g
Thyme Saouira 74.8 ± 9.4fgh 1047.7 ± 5.5a 56.7 ± 3.5fg 22.1 ± 1.1fg 1201.3 ± 11.0c
Thyme Zaraphyt 38.3 ± 9.4i 697.1 ± 5.5g 74.3 ± 3.5cdei 20.8 ± 1.1fgh 830.5 ± 11.0f
Jujube Ben Selimane 61.5 ± 9.4ghi 623.0 ± 5.5i 43.9 ± 3.5gh 21.1 ± 1.1fg 749.5 ± 11.0g
Jujube Fes 154.4 ± 9.4bc 1014.3 ± 5.5b 67.6 ± 3.5def 13.6 ± 1.1ij 1249.9 ± 11.0b
Jujube Zaraphyt 144.9 ± 9.4cd 670.1 ± 5.5h 80.3 ± 3.5bcd 21.3 ± 1.1fg 916.6 ± 11.0e
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Values in the same column followed by the same letter are not significant different (p50.05) by the Tukey’s multiple range test.
Zaraphyt refers to an enterprise from where honeys were purchased.

The mineral contents in this study were within the range reported
in honeys from other countries (Terrab et al., 2005).
Potassium content correlated with the sum of the minerals
(r ¼ 0.976; p50.01; Table 3). Guler et al. (2007) reported that
electrical conductivity has a strong positive correlation with
potassium. In this study, there was a strong positive correlation
between electrical conductivity and potassium content (r ¼ 0.755;
For personal use only.
respectively; these levels were within those reported for Moroccan
honeys (Dı́ez et al., 2004; Terrab et al., 2001).
In general, oligosaccharides such as melezitose are absent in
unifloral honeys. On the other hand, honeydew honeys have high
concentrations of oligosaccharides (Bogdanov et al., 2004). In this
study, multifloral honey from Ifrane contained 40.80 g/kg of
oligosaccharides (Table 3); this value is similar to that reported by

p50.01); however, a strong correlation was also obtained
between the sum of the minerals and electrical conductivity
(r ¼ 0.788; p50.01; Table 3). In this study, proline and potassium
(r ¼ 0.582; p50.01) and proline and the sum of the minerals
(r ¼ 0.524; p50.01) were correlated (Table 3). Proline, electrical
conductivity (correlated with mineral content), free acidity, and
pH have been used to classify honeys; however, proline content is
an indicator of honey adulteration (Ruoff, 2006).
Sugar content
Fructose and glucose were the most predominant sugars in the
samples (Table 4). Fructose content ranged from 328.81 g/kg (in
multifloral honey from Ifrane) to 419.75 g/kg (in thyme honey
from Zaraphyt); thyme honey is a high-fructose type of honey
(Bogdanov, 2012). The lowest glucose content was obtained in
thyme honey from Zaraphyt (266.25 g/kg), whereas the highest
concentration was detected in citrus honey from the same location
(357.64 g/kg). The total fructose and glucose content ranged from
619.52 g/kg (in multifloral honey from Ifrane) to 772.23 g/kg (in
multifloral honey from Zaraphyt). According to the results, all
samples had the minimum permissible concentration (60%; Codex
Alimentarius, 2001; EU, 2002).
Sucrose content was within permissible limits (Codex
Alimentarius, 2001; EU, 2002). Sucrose content in some samples
was too low to be detected (multifloral honeys from Boulemane
and Zaraphyt, oregano and jujube honeys from Zaraphyt)
(Table 4). The structural isomer of sucrose, turanose, was also
detected in Moroccan honeys. Similar to sucrose, the levels of this
disaccharide varied from sample to sample. Additionally, the
levels of turanose were higher than those of sucrose. The lowest
(15.60 g/kg) and highest (42.22 g/kg) turanose levels were
obtained in thymus honey from Saouira and eucalyptus honey
from Zaraphyt, respectively.
Maltose was the most abundant disaccharide (Table 4). The
lowest (25.14 g/kg) and highest (48.61 g/kg) maltose levels were
obtained in harmal honey and eucalyptus honey from Zaraphyt,
Mateo & Bosch-Reig (1997) and Ruoff (2006) for heather and
chestnut unifloral honeys, respectively. However, the other two
multifloral honeys had significant lower concentrations of
melezitose (53 g/kg) and thyme honey had no melezitose.
Mateo & Bosch-Reig (1997) did not detect melezitose in
sunflower honey. Differences in the levels of oligosaccharides
emphasize the importance to characterize pollen in honey.
HMF content
Heat temperature and time, storage conditions, pH and floral
source affect HMF content in honey. HMF is absent in fresh
honeys; its level increases with processing and time. Therefore,
HMF content in honey is an indicator of freshness (Fallico et al.,
2006). International regulations have established a maximum
HMF content of 40 mg/kg (Codex Alimentarius, 2001; EU, 2002).
Three honey samples (black cumin, harmal and jujube from
Zaraphyt) had concentrations 440 mg/kg. Jujube honeys had
HMF contents ranging from 0.50 to 50.25 mg/kg (Table 5). The
highest HMF content was obtained in black cumin honey
(358.15 mg/kg). Inadequate processing and/or storage conditions
may have contributed to the high HMF levels.
Total phenol and flavonoid contents
Total phenol content varied from 163.82 mg GAE/kg (in citrus
honey) to 923.70 mg GAE/kg (in thyme honey from Rachidia).
Flavonoid content ranged from 4.26 mg QE/kg (in citrus honey) to
139.62 mg QE/kg (in black cumin honey; Table 5). Flavonoid
contents were within those reported by other authors (Escuredo
et al., 2011; Küçük et al., 2007; Meda et al., 2005; Rodrı́guez
et al., 2012). Phenols and flavonoids are responsible for the
antioxidant properties of honey.
Honey color and Maillard reaction products
Honey color is an indicator of the presence of compounds with
double bonds that absorb light in the visible range (A400 to A700),
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For personal use only.

Table 3. Pearson correlation coefficients among compounds, minerals, color and antioxidant activity.

Chelating
TEAC ORAC activity NO Color (A560  A720) Melanoidinas Phenols Flavonoids Ca Na Mg K Ca + Na + Mg + K
Phenols 0.476* 0.706** – 0.753** – 0.595** 1 0.526** 0.361** – – – –
Flavonoids – 0.558** – 0.526** – 0.871** 0.526** 1 – – – – –
DOI: 10.3109/09637486.2013.873888

Proline – – – – – – – – – – – 0.582** 0.524**

Melanoidins 0.380* 0.685** – 0.612** – 1 0.595** 0.871** – – – – –
Color (A635) 0.499** 0.657** – 0.635** – 0.874** 0.610** 0.811** – – 0.422** – –
Color (A560) 0.403* – – 0.517** 1 – – – – – – – –
Ca 0.435* – – – – – 0.361** – 1 – – – 0.379**
Na – 0.385** – 0.466** – – – – – 1 – 0.289* 0.422**
Mg – 0.547** – – – – – – – – 1 – 0.281*
K – – – – – – – – – 0.289* – 1 0.976**
Ca + Na + Mg + K – – – – – – – – 0.379** 0.422** 0.281* 0.976** 1

*Correlation is significant at the p50.05 level.

**Correlation is significant at the p50.01 level, – not significant.

Table 4. Sugar content (g/kg) in 17 commercial Moroccan honeys purchased to Zaraphyt enterprise or to beekeeper associations.

Sample Location Fructose Glucose Sucrose Turanose Maltose Trehalose Melizitose Glu + Fru
Carob Boulemane 402.15 ± 4.28bcde 332.44 ± 3.35bc 0.85 ± 0.06g 19.99 ± 0.75ghi 22.87 ± 1.30h 7.50 ± 0.52d 2.32 ± 0.61f 734.59 ± 6.87b
Eucalyptus Zaraphyt 377.40 ± 4.28gh 321.61 ± 3.35cd 3.72 ± 0.06a 42.22 ± 0.75a 48.61 ± 1.30a 8.45 ± 0.52cd 699.00 ± 6.87cd
Spurge Selimane 342.37 ± 4.28i 302.66 ± 3.35efg 2.26 ± 0.06c 16.70 ± 0.75jk 28.01 ± 1.30gh 6.94 ± 0.52d 8.60 ± 0.61cd 645.03 ± 6.87gh
Lavander Zaraphyt 399.58 ± 4.28cde 334.26 ± 3.35bc 1.64 ± 0.06d 28.03 ± 0.75bcd 37.22 ± 1.30de 10.10 ± 0.52abc 10.37 ± 0.61bc 733.84 ± 6.87b
Multifloral Ifrane 328.81 ± 4.28i 290.71 ± 3.35ghi 1.47 ± 0.06de 19.47 ± 0.75hij 34.87 ± 1.30def 11.55 ± 0.52ab 40.80 ± 0.61a 619.52 ± 6.87h
Multifloral Boulemane 364.00 ± 4.28h 283.60 ± 3.35i 25.59 ± 0.75de 39.91 ± 1.30cd 10.00 ± 0.52abc 2.33 ± 0.61f 647.59 ± 6.87fg
Multifloral Zaraphyt 394.11 ± 4.28defg 337.09 ± 3.35b 21.79 ± 0.75fgh 31.48 ± 1.30fg 9.62 ± 0.52bc 2.30 ± 0.61f 731.20 ± 6.87b
Black cumin Zaraphyt 335.68 ± 4.28i 315.73 ± 3.35de 1.16 ± 0.06f 17.13 ± 0.75ijk 26.75 ± 1.30gh 10.05 ± 0.52abc – 651.41 ± 6.87fg
Citrus Ifrane 415.09 ± 4.28abc 357.64 ± 3.35a 2.97 ± 0.06b 16.67 ± 0.75jk 35.07 ± 1.30def 6.73 ± 0.52d 6.37 ± 0.61de 772.73 ± 6.87a
Oregano Zaraphyt 393.45 ± 4.28defg 307.65 ± 3.35ef 28.78 ± 0.75bc 45.48 ± 1.30ab 11.26 ± 0.52ab – 701.10 ± 6.87cd
Harmal t Zaraphyt 380.99 ± 4.28fgh 287.97 ± 3.35hi 1.45 ± 0.06de 23.07 ± 0.75ef 25.14 ± 1.30h 8.31 ± 0.52cd 10.01 ± 0.61bc 668.96 ± 6.87efg
Thyme Rachidia 419.30 ± 4.28ab 279.89 ± 3.35i 0.85 ± 0.06g 21.99 ± 0.75fgh 31.56 ± 1.30fg 9.64 ± 0.52abc – 699.19 ± 6.87cd
Thyme Saouira 389.34 ± 4.28efg 300.91 ± 3.35fgh 1.33 ± 0.06ef 15.60 ± 0.75k 31.45 ± 1.30fg 8.16 ± 0.52cd 4.70 ± 0.61ef 690.24 ± 6.87de
Thyme Zaraphyt 419.75 ± 4.28a 266.25 ± 3.35j 1.18 ± 0.06fj 27.18 ± 0.75bcd 42.82 ± 1.30bc 11.72 ± 0.52a 3.09 ± 0.61f 686.01 ± 6.87de
Jujube Ben Selimane 385.27 ± 4.28efg 316.01 ± 3.35de 1.53 ± 0.06de 26.60 ± 0.75cd 36.21 ± 1.30def 11.13 ± 0.52ab 11.26 ± 0.61b 701.28 ± 6.87cd
Jujube Fes 408.03 ± 4.28abcd 314.91 ± 3.35de 1.57 ± 0.06de 29.85 ± 0.75b 39.52 ± 1.30cd 11.14 ± 0.52ab 7.28 ± 0.61d 722.94 ± 6.87bc
Jujube Zaraphyt 395.22 ± 4.28def 279.47 ± 3.35ij 22.96 ± 0.75efg 33.86 ± 1.30ef 11.42 ± 0.52ab 3.72 ± 0.61f 674.75 ± 6.87def

Values in the same column followed by the same letter are not significant different (p50.05) by the Tukey’s multiple range test.
Zaraphyt refers to an enterprise from where honeys were purchased.
Moroccan honey
5
 6 S. Aazza et al. Int J Food Sci Nutr, Early Online: 1–9

3.25 ± 1.41jkl

3.45 ± 1.41jkl
7.15 ± 1.41ijk
16.50 ± 1.41gh

22.00 ± 1.41fg
12.70 ± 1.41hi

1.80 ± 1.41kl
HMF (mg/kg)

7.85 ± 1.41ij
8.30 ± 1.41ij
e.g. polyphenols, flavonoids, terpenes, carotenoids and Maillard

126.45 ± 1.41b

14.95 ± 1.41h

50.25 ± 1.41d
67.35 ± 1.41c

38.05 ± 1.41e
23.00 ± 1.41f

0.50 ± 1.41l
358.15 ± 141a
Table 5. Honey color, melanoidins, phenol and flavonoid content, and HMF concentration obtained from 17 commercial Moroccan honeys purchased to Zaraphyt enterprise or to beekeeper associations. reaction products (Borrelli et al., 2002; Brudzynski & Kim, 2011;
Naab et al., 2008). Therefore, honey color is related to the plant

Values in the same column followed by the same letter are not significant different (p50.05) by the Tukey’s multiple range test. Zaraphyt refers to an enterprise from where honeys were purchased.
origin and storage conditions (Naab et al., 2008).
Citrus honey was the lightest and black cumin honey (from
Zaraphyt) was the darkest honey. Thyme honey ranged from
Flavonoid (mg QE/100 g)

amber to dark amber; jujube honey ranged from light amber (Ben
Selimane and Fes) to dark amber (Zaraphyt) (Table 5).
40.98 ± 1.63gh
41.81 ± 1.63fg

41.69 ± 1.63fg

35.48 ± 1.63hi

31.05 ± 1.63ij
71.49 ± 1.63d

100.41 ± 1.63b

4.26 ± 1.63k
97.99 ± 1.63b
76.82 ± 1.63d
139.62 ± 1.63a

91.36 ± 1.63c
88.73 ± 1.63c

64.75 ± 1.63e
47.54 ± 1.63f
32.94 ± 1.63i

25.19 ± 1.63j
Melissopalynological assessments were not performed in this
study. Therefore, there were considerable difficulties in estab-
lishing a correlation between honey color and floral origins.
Citrus, lavender and eucalyptus honeys were light in color as
reported by Kamboj et al. (2013).
Even though honey color is attributed to compounds that
absorb in the visible range (A400 to A700), there was no correlation
Phenol (mg GAE/100 g)

between the phenol or flavonoid content and A560, which suggests

691.50 ± 13.60cd

691.50 ± 13.60cd

659.86 ± 13.60de

649.80 ± 13.60de
that other compounds absorb at A560. However, there was a
163.82 ± 13.60h

846.30 ± 13.60b

396.75 ± 13.60g
631.65 ± 13.60e

637.78 ± 13.60e

910.33 ± 13.60a

904.81 ± 13.60a

923.70 ± 13.60a
736.03 ± 13.60c

614.96 ± 13.60e
518.92 ± 13.60f

532.90 ± 13.60f

486.66 ± 13.60f

correlation between A635 and phenol (r ¼ 0.610; p50.01) and

flavonoid (r ¼ 0.811; p50.01) contents (Table 3). Citrus honey is
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classified as white according to the Pfund scale; however, its

absorbance at 560 nm was the second highest.
Honey color is dependent on storage conditions. There was a
strong correlation between color (determined at A635) and
melanoidin content (r ¼ 0.874; p50.01). Positive correlations
Melanoidin content (A450  A720)a

were also obtained between A635 and phenol (r ¼ 0.595; p50.01)

and flavonoid (r ¼ 0.871; p50.01) contents. These results reveal
that polyphenols (especially flavonoids), and melanoidins, which
0.60 ± 0.03gh
1.08 ± 0.03de
0.96 ± 0.03ef
0.96 ± 0.03ef
0.65 ± 0.03g

1.61 ± 0.03b

1.61 ± 0.03b
0.72 ± 0.03g
0.49 ± 0.03h
1.16 ± 0.03d
1.36 ± 0.03c

2.73 ± 0.03a

1.30 ± 0.03c
1.34 ± 0.03c
1.37 ± 0.03c

are Maillard reaction products, play a role in honey color. The

0.88 ± 0.03f

0.17 ± 0.03i

dark colors of certain honey samples were mainly attributed to the

presence of melanoidins, which indicate long storage periods and/
For personal use only.

or heating times.
Honey color determined at A635 was better correlated with
phenol, flavonoid, and melanoidin content than honey color
determined at A560  A720, which revealed no correlations
(Table 3). Correlations between phenol and melanoidin
(r ¼ 0.595; p50.01) and flavonoid and melanoidin (r ¼ 0.871;
Color (A560  A720)a

p50.01) may be attributed to the fact that all these compounds

0.30 ± 0.01efg

0.29 ± 0.01ghi
0.28 ± 0.01hij
0.27 ± 0.01hij
0.32 ± 0.08ef
0.26 ± 0.01ij
0.14 ± 0.01k

0.15 ± 0.01k

0.65 ± 0.01b
0.37 ± 0.01d

0.16 ± 0.01k
0.15 ± 0.01k
0.72 ± 0.01a
0.33 ± 0.01e

0.47 ± 0.01c
0.24 ± 0.01j

0.24 ± 0.01j

absorb light in the visible range. Magnesium may contribute to

honey color because there was a positive correlation (r ¼ 0.422;
p50.01) between magnesium levels and honey color (determined
at A635; Table 3). González-Miret et al. (2005) reported positive
correlations between honey color and mineral levels. According
to the authors, the light and brown honeys such as citrus,
Light extra amber

rosemary, lavender, thyme, and eucalyptus, were strongly

Light amber

Light amber
Light amber
Dark amber
Dark amber

Dark amber

Dark amber

Dark amber
Dark amber

Dark amber

correlated with aluminium and magnesium content.

Amber

Amber

Amber

Amber
Amber
White

Proline and polyphenol contents were different according to

the floral source (Escuredo et al., 2011; Küçük et al., 2007;
Persano-Oddo et al., 2004). In this study, proline was not
correlated with phenol, flavonoid, or melanoidin contents.
97.80 ± 5.54cdefg
Pfund scale (mm)

94.10 ± 5.54defg
99.85 ± 5.54cdef
108.00 ± 5.54cde

86.80 ± 5.54efg

76.65 ± 5.54gh
115.60 ± 5.54cd
82.40 ± 5.54fg

Antioxidant activity
158.50 ± 5.54b
169.10 ± 5.54b

151.65 ± 5.54b

59.00 ± 5.54h
230.90 ± 5.54a

119.15 ± 5.54c
213.35 ± 5.54a
35.75 ± 5.54i

20.00 ± 5.54i

In this study, four antioxidant assays were performed. Three

assays assessed the capacity for scavenging free radicals (ABTS,
peroxyl, and NO) and one assay assessed the capacity for
chelating metal ions. The results are shown in Table 6.
Lavender and multifloral honeys from Zaraphyt and citrus
Ben Selimane

Ben Selimane
Boulemane

Boulemane

honey had low ABST scavenging activity (Table 6). Black cumin
Zaraphyt

Zaraphyt

Zaraphyt
Zaraphyt

Zaraphyt
Zaraphyt

Zaraphyt

Zaraphyt
Location

Rachidia
Saouira
Ifrane

Ifrane

Fes

honey had the highest peroxyl scavenging activity, whereas citrus

and jujube honeys from Fes had the lowest peroxyl scavenging
Absorption units.

activity (Table 6). The capacity to scavenge peroxyl radicals is

similar to those reported by Gheldof & Engeseth (2002), who
Black cumin

reported 3.1–16.3 mmol Trolox equivalent/g honey. Similar to the

Multifloral
Multifloral
Multifloral
Eucalyptus

Lavander

Oregano

findings reported by these authors, our results revealed linear

Sample

Harmal
Thyme
Thyme
Thyme
Spurge

Jujube
Jujube
Jujube
Citrus
Carob

correlations between phenol and flavonoid contents and ORAC

values.
a
 DOI: 10.3109/09637486.2013.873888 Moroccan honey 7

Thyme honey from Saouira and Zaraphyt had the highest NO
scavenging activity. On the other hand, citrus, jujube from Fes,
and unifloral honeys from Zaraphyt had the lowest NO
scavenging activity. Therefore, the poorest radical scavenging
activity was obtained in citrus honey, followed by multifloral
honey from Zaraphyt.
Jujube honey from Fes had the highest metal chelating activity,
whereas black cumin honey had the lowest ferrous chelating
activity (Table 6). The capacity to scavenge free radicals was
correlated with phenol content (Table 3). In contrast, the capacity
to chelate ferric ions was not correlated with phenol levels. The
capacity to scavenge ABTS and NO was also correlated with

Table 6. Antioxidant activities of 17 commercial Moroccan honeys purchased to Zaraphyt enterprise or to beekeeper associations.

Sample Location TEAC (IC50 ¼ mg/mL) ORAC (mmol TE/g) Chelating (IC50 ¼ mg/mL) NO (IC50 ¼ mg/mL)
Carob Boulemane 7.28 ± 0.59k 13.45 ± 0.61cd – 93.05 ± 2.85ab
Eucalyptus Zaraphyt 21.00 ± 0.62b 10.13 ± 0.61fg 22.62 ± 1.26f 67.58 ± 3.11b
Spurge Ben Selimane 16.18 ± 0.62c 9.88 ± 0.61fg 23.02 ± 1.26f 95.14 ± 3.11a
Lavander Zaraphyt – 13.43 ± 0.61cd 91.81 ± 1.26a 84.88 ± 3.11a
Multifloral Ifrane 5.03 ± 0.62g 16.08 ± 0.61ab 47.86 ± 1.26b 84.92 ± 3.11a
Multifloral Boulemane 11.42 ± 0.62de 14.92 ± 0.61abc 15.59 ± 1.26gh 31.38 ± 3.11cde
Multifloral Zaraphyt – 11.61 ± 0.61def 23.33 ± 1.26f –
Black cumin Zaraphyt 11.55 ± 0.59gh 17.14 ± 0.61a – 37.81 ± 3.11c
Citrus Ifrane – 8.07 ± 0.61g 36.71 ± 1.26e –
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Oregano Zaraphyt 4.63 ± 0.62g 16.05 ± 0.61ab 41.98 ± 1.26cd 32.17 ± 3.11cde
Harmal Zaraphyt 11.65 ± 0.62de 9.57 ± 0.61fg 37.00 ± 1.26de 90.81 ± 3.11a
Thyme Rachidia 4.49 ± 0.62g 14.57 ± 0.61bc 52.85 ± 1.26b 34.05 ± 3.11cd
Thyme Saouira 9.66 ± 0.62ef 12.73 ± 0.61cde 51.76 ± 1.26b 21.47 ± 3.11e
Thyme Zaraphyt 7.96 ± 0.62f 11.71 ± 0.61def 42.18 ± 1.26c 25.10 ± 3.11de
Jujube Ben Selimane 31.00 ± 0.62a 9.60 ± 0.61fg 50.02 ± 1.26b 62.33 ± 3.11b
Jujube Fes 13.50 ± 0.62d 8.78 ± 0.61g 13.29 ± 1.26h –
Jujube Zaraphyt 10.89 ± 0.62e 11.12 ± 0.61ef 18.95 ± 1.26fg 59.20 ± 3.11b

Values in the same column followed by the same letter are not significant different (p50.05) by the Tukey’s multiple range test. Zaraphyt refers to an
enterprise from where honeys were purchased.
–: The values of IC50 were not possible to determine due to the very weak activity.
For personal use only.

Figure 1. Dendrogram obtained from the cluster analysis of 17 samples of honey from Morocco. Samples were clustered using Ward’s technique with
the squared Euclidean distance measure.
 8 S. Aazza et al.
melanoidin content. However, there was no correlation between
the ABTS assay results and flavonoid content. There was a
correlation between flavonoid content and NO and peroxyl assay
results (Table 3). These results reveal the importance of
flavonoids in scavenging certain types of free radicals as reported
by Escuredo et al. (2013).
There was a correlation between honey color (determined at
A635) and antioxidant activity independent of the method used. At
A560, there was a correlation between the IC50 values, determined
for ORAC, and honey color. The correlations between melanoidin
content and antioxidant activity revealed the importance of this
Maillard reaction product in antioxidant capacity (Table 3).
Some authors have reported that proline is involved in the
antioxidant activity of honey (Alvarez-Suarez et al., 2013;
Escuredo et al., 2013; Meda et al., 2005; Rodrı́guez et al.,
2012). However, in this study and in Portuguese honey samples
(Aazza et al., 2013), there was no correlation between proline and
antioxidant activity (Table 3).
Escuredo et al. (2013) and Aazza et al. (2013) reported that
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there was a correlation between mineral content and antioxidant
activities in commercial Portuguese honeys. In this study, there
were correlations between ORAC values and magnesium and
TEAC values and calcium (Table 3). The sum of the minerals was
not correlated with the capacity to scavenge free radicals. The
negative correlation between sodium and ORAC values and NO
assay results revealed that this mineral has a negative effect on the
capacity to scavenge peroxyl and NO radicals (Table 3).
A combination of cluster analysis using Ward’s technique
(Figure 1) and discriminant analysis revealed the presence of three
principal clusters with respect to the phenol, flavonoid, melanoi-
For personal use only.
din, proline, mineral, and sugar contents, and free radical
scavenging capacity (Figure 2). Samples belonging to cluster 1
included jujube honeys from Fes, Ben Selimane, and Zaraphyt;
spurge honey from Ben Selimane; and lavender, black cumin, and
harmal honeys from Zaraphyt. Cluster 2 consisted of carob and
multifloral honeys from Boulemane; oregano and thyme honeys
from Zaraphit; thyme honey from Rachidia; and multifloral honey
Figure 2. Discriminant analysis scatterplot of 17 honey samples from
Morocco. Blue circles: cluster 1; green circles: cluster 2; brown color:
cluster 3. Blue squares: group centroid.
Int J Food Sci Nutr, Early Online: 1–9
from Ifrane. Cluster 3 consisted of eucalyptus and multifloral
honeys from Zaraphyt and thyme honey from Saouira.
The flower origin of the honey samples provided by Zaraphyt
is unknown. With the exception of Ifrane, the other two honey
origins were grouped in the same cluster (Ben Selimane and
Boulemane, independent of the flower origin). Jujube honeys,
which had different flower origins, were grouped in the same
cluster. In contrast, thyme honeys were grouped in two distinct
clusters, i.e. clusters 2 and 3. These results indicate that in
addition to the pollen that characterizes the floral origin, other
types of pollen were present in smaller percentages providing
a geographic ‘‘marker’’.
Conclusion
Almost all samples were within the limits established by the
European legislation. However, the relatively high HMF content
and low diastase activity are indicative of inadequate heating and/
or storage conditions. The antioxidant activity of the samples was
strongly dependent on the honey type: black cumin honey had the
highest peroxyl scavenging activity; oregano (Zaraphyt) and
thyme honeys (Rachidia) had the highest ABTS scavenging
activity; and thyme honey (Saouria) had the highest NO
scavenging activity. There was a positive correlation between
flavonoid content and antioxidant activity. Calcium and magne-
sium levels were correlated with the capacity to scavenge ABTS
and peroxyl radicals, respectively. However, there was a negative
correlation between sodium levels and peroxyl and NO scaven-
ging activities. Therefore, as sodium levels increased, the capacity
to scavenge free radicals decreased. When cluster and discrim-
inant analyses were performed, there were three distinctive
clusters with respect to phenol, flavonoid, melanoidin, proline,
mineral and sugar contents, and free radical scavenging capacity.
Declaration of interest
The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors are responsible for
the content and writing of the article.
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