hydrology
Article
Achieving Real-World Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity:
Practical and Theoretical Findings from Using an Exponential
One-Phase Decay Model
Amadou Keïta 1, *, Malicki Zorom 1 , Moussa Diagne Faye 1 , Djim Doumbe Damba 1 , Yacouba Konaté 1 ,
László G. Hayde 2 and Bruno Lidon 3
Citation: Keïta, A.; Zorom, M.; Faye,
M.D.; Damba, D.D.; Konaté, Y.;
Hayde, L.G.; Lidon, B. Achieving
Real-World Saturated Hydraulic
Conductivity: Practical and
Theoretical Findings from Using an
Exponential One-Phase Decay Model.
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235. https://
doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10120235
Academic Editor: Rusu Teodor
Received: 8 October 2023
Revised: 16 November 2023
Accepted: 20 November 2023
Published: 9 December 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology10120235
1 Institut International d’Ingénierie de l’Eau et de l’Environnement (2iE),
Ouagadougou 01 01 BP 594, Burkina Faso; malicki.zorom@2ie-edu.org (M.Z.);
moussa.faye@2ie-edu.org (M.D.F.); djim.damba@2ie-edu.org (D.D.D.); yacouba.konate@2ie-edu.org (Y.K.)
2 IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands; l.hayde@un-ihe.org
3 Independent Researcher, 1 rue Croix Saint Etienne, 58180 Marzy, France; bruno.lidon123@gmail.com
* Correspondence: amadou.keita@2ie-edu.org
Abstract: Obtaining accurate values of saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat ) is very important
for managing all natural or artificial processes involving water flow into soils. Double-ring infil-
tration (DRI) is one of the easiest-to-work-with techniques commonly used for Ksat determination.
Unfortunately, when improperly used, it leads to important variations and inaccurate results. This
study was designed to investigate the necessary conditions to reach the true-value or real-world
saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat-real-world ) in the field. For this purpose, the effects of two
factors—namely, the measured infiltration data type (cumulative, instant rate, and average rate)
and the related non-linear regression equation type—were analyzed. Measurements with DRI were
performed with samples from 106 locations in three West African countries, namely, Burkina Faso,
Mali, and Cote d’Ivoire. The soils were composed of loam, sandy loam, and sandy clay loam. The
results show that when infiltration rates are used rather than cumulative infiltration non-linear
regression curves, the variability between the measured Ksat and the real-world saturated hydraulic
conductivity (Ksat-real-world ) could reach from 2.2% to 58.8%. This variability was caused by the ap-
proximate amplification—according to the procedure used—of time-increment measurement errors.
Extending the test duration to more than 4 h, especially when clay soils were involved, and using
the exponential one-phase decay non-linear regression of the cumulative infiltration data based on a
clear measurement protocol provided the Ksat values that were closest to Ksat-real-world .
Keywords: exponential one-phase decay; infiltration; non-linear regression; saturated hydraulic
conductivity; West Africa
1. Introduction
Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat ) stands out as one of the most important char-
acteristics of soil, and its accurate determination is essential to the success of in-soil crop-
growing projects. The saturated hydraulic conductivity has an impact on both the ante- and
post-development stages of soil [1]. For example, the choice of irrigation system type—e.g.,
surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, or localized irrigation—and the associated cropping
pattern (rice, maize, vegetables) suitable for certain soils have to be preceded by measure-
ment campaigns to map Ksat values, which will help with decision making. However,
the pre-existence of certain types of vegetation or crop also induces changes and impacts
on the Ksat by changing the soil structure, as observed when a forest is replaced with an
agricultural area [2].
The top soil pounding infiltration technique has been extensively used for a long
time to determine agricultural and even urban soil properties. In history, the principle of
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Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 2 of 20

this technique has evolved into two types of equipment. The first was proposed to be a
“single ring” (SRI) and is considered by some studies to be as accurate as the second and
more common configuration, named “double ring” (DRI), as far as the determination of
saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat ) is concerned [3,4]. The usefulness of the technique
is now admitted. DRI has been used, for example, to evaluate the difference in infiltration
that would result from the decision to apply organic matter in soils [5]. In the Sudan
savanna, Ikazaki et al. [6] found, by using DRI, that minimum tillage (MT, a minimum
soil disturbance and soil cover technique) and sorghum residue mulching (a minimum
soil disturbance technique) without intercropping effectively reduced the annual soil loss
by 54%. The study was designed to assess the differential importance of each of the three
components of conservative agriculture, defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO) as being (i) minimum soil disturbance, (ii) soil cover, and
(iii) crop rotation/association. This result was explained by an improvement in the soil
hydraulic conductivity through the boring of termites and wolf spiders found under the
sorghum stover mulch. Aiming to assess the effects of agricultural wastes on the hydraulic
properties of loamy sand cropland in Turkey, Gülser and Candemir [7] used DRI and found
that a high carbon/nitrogen ratio in agricultural waste leads to a significant increase in
the initial infiltration rate of loamy sand soil. Exploring the impact of irrigation water’s
chemical composition on saline–sodic and normal soils, a study implemented both in the
laboratory and on fields in India using DRI concluded that saturated hydraulic conductivity
could drastically change in soils with a light texture as they were irrigated by chemical
water [8]. None of these studies targeted the accuracy of DRI.
Other investigations examined the factors that may have an impact on the mea-
surements carried out via DRI. Such factors included the diameter of the inner ring; the
depth at which both rings are driven into the soil; the single-ring and double-ring com-
parative effect; the temperature; the water viscosity; and the time of measurement. In
China, in an in situ study using different double-ring infiltrator diameters—20 cm, 40 cm,
80 cm, and 120 cm—and in three types of texture (loamy sand, silt, and silt loam) covering
seven measurement sites, through performing numerical simulations using the software
HYDRUS-2D model (Version 2.0), Lai and Ren [9] found that the size of the inner ring
during DRI significantly alters the measured hydraulic conductivity of heterogeneous soil.
The field test used a constant-water-level double-ring infiltrator. The results showed that
the variability in the measured hydraulic conductivity was greater for smaller inner rings.
The field tests reported that a steady flow state was reached within 90 min on average and
that the criterion to terminate the test was that the volume infiltrated in 5 min “remains
constant for a 30 min period”. In another study performed through simulation using the
HYDRUS-2D model, Lai and Ren [10] investigated how the depth at which the double-ring
infiltrator is driven into the soil could impact the hydraulic conductivity measurements.
The results showed that the inner ring depth had a greater impact on Ksat than the outer
ring and that a depth of 5–15 cm, as is traditionally used in infiltration measurements,
was acceptable, as further pushing down would result in soil and hydraulic conductivity
disturbances. The duration of infiltration was 120 min in all the simulations.
Several investigations were performed to compare the accuracy of the instant infil-
tration rate when using a single-ring infiltrometer (SRI) or a double-ring infiltrator. Wu
et al. [11] used simulations based on numerically solving the axisymmetric form of the
Richard equation. They considered one-dimensional infiltration as the referential value
and compared this with results obtained with an SRI (diameter: 20 cm), a double-ring
infiltrator (inner ring: 30 cm; outer ring: 30 cm), and other diameters. The purpose of the
study was not specifically to obtain the value of saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat ).
The simulations yielded variations in the relative infiltration rate—expressed as the ratio of
instant infiltration over Ksat (i/Ksat )—as a function of time. The values of Ksat were read
from the literature for the three types of soils used in the simulations. Among other things,
the study concluded that the DRI rates were about 80% of the one-dimensional infiltration
vertical infiltration rates, while the infiltration rates of the SRI were f times greater than the
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 3 of 20

one-dimensional infiltration rates, with f being a correction factor dependent on soil initial
boundary conditions and ring geometry. Lewis et al. [3] conducted a study to compare the
results of a single-ring infiltrometer (SRI) and a DRI. The measurements were performed
on four sites in situ, with 4 replicates of 13 different experimental conditions or factor
levels [12], which yielded 52 pairs of experimental units. The results showed that SRI and
DRI lead to similar saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat values for a wide range of soil
conditions. The duration of the SRI tests was from 20 min to 90 min while DRI tests lasted
from 30 min to 180 min. Interestingly, this study concluded that “the high variability of
infiltration measurements by either method should be factored into study design when
assessing infiltration rates”. Therefore, one should search for the variability causes through
the measurement protocol and data-processing method.
Temperature and the daytime-measurement impacts on DRI measurements for sat-
urated hydraulic conductivity were investigated by Clancy and Alba [13]. This study,
implemented in the United States, rightly noted that the main issue with the in situ mea-
surement of Ksat was its prominent variability. The study performed 67 Ksat measurements
on sand and loamy sand soils across a temperature ranging from 5 ◦ C to 35 ◦ C. The refer-
ences used for comparison were the values of Ksat , expressed as a function of water viscosity.
The results showed that Ksat for sandy soils was from 2.0 to 2.9 times higher than the values
predicted by the Ksat (viscosity) formula. The criterion for terminating the test was that the
infiltration remained constant after three time increments of 5 min. The duration of the
tests was, on average, 75 min. One of the main findings was that the time of day chosen to
perform the tests affects the values. Morning measurements were found to be two times
higher than the Ksat function of the viscosity, while afternoon measurements were nearly
three times higher.
All the above investigations made substantial contributions to the use of the DRI
technique to determine soil’s saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat . Nevertheless, one
cannot determine from the results whether the real-world Ksat-real-world was reached, for
at least three reasons. Firstly, the duration of the tests was relatively short, generally not
exceeding 90 min, while in cohesive soils, especially when clay is involved, it may take
days and sometimes weeks to reach saturation. Secondly, none of the mentioned studies
discussed the infiltration physical process pathway to select a suitable equation that would
yield, after a confrontation with field measurement results, the Ksat-real-world . Finally, the
measurement protocol (in terms of data collection and processing methods), although
recognized to impact the reliability of the results, changes from author to author, and thus
may hinder efforts to reach Ksat-real-world . The current study, implemented in three West
African countries and covering 106 measurement sites, was designed to contribute to filling
these gaps. In short, the aim of this study was to build a methodology based on theory and
practice in order to obtain the true in situ saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat-real-world .

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Investigation Sites
Aiming to ensure potential usefulness for subsequent broader regional rural develop-
ment activity, the sites of this study were selected for an accurate determination of their
saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat based on three main criteria. These criteria were: (i) a
regional scope, with at least three countries whose economy is tightly linked to agriculture,
(ii) the availability of different soils within or between the sites, and (iii) the existence of an
irrigation project.
The three countries were Burkina Faso, Mali, and Cote d’Ivoire (Figure 1). Burkina
Faso is a landlocked country in West Africa with an area of 274,200 km2 . Its economy
is largely based on agriculture, which employs 80% of the workforce [14]. Mali is also a
landlocked country in West Africa, with an area of over 1,240,000 km2 . The country has a
traditional economic system in which the majority of the population engages in subsistence
agriculture confined to the riverine area irrigated by the Niger River [15]. Cote d’Ivoire is a
 with occurrences of sandy clay loam and loam [17,18]. The three sites in Mali—namely
BaguinedaUp, BaguinedaDwn, and Moria—received 61 measurement points. Their soils
are mainly composed of sandy clay loam, with occurrences of loam and sandy clay. Fi-
nally, Sema was the unique site selected in Cote d’Ivoire, with 22 measurement points,
covering soil made of sandy clay loam, with occurrences of loam.
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 4 of 20
The sites were either in use or destined for agricultural irrigation. The three sites of
Burkina Faso were in use for localized irrigation, microsprinkler irrigation (Kamboinsé),
and gravity irrigation (Goupana and Rakaye). In Mali, gravity irrigation was also either
practiced
coastal (BaguinedaUp
country and BaguinedaDwn)
in West Africa, km2or
covering 322,463[19] planned
. Cote for is
d’Ivoire implementation (Mo-
heavily dependent
ria).
on Gravity irrigation
agriculture was
and related planned
activities for implementation in the Sema site in Cote d’Ivoire.
[16].

Figure1.1.The
Figure Theseven
seveninvestigation
investigation locations
locations within
within three
threecountries
countries(Burkina
(BurkinaFaso,
Faso,Mali,
Mali,and
andCote
Cote
d’Ivoire).
d’Ivoire).

TableThe soillocations
1. Site types are related
and to the sites selected in each country (Table 1). The three sites
main soils.
of Burkina Faso—namely Kamboinsé, Goupana, and Rakaye—had, respectively, 2, 1 and
20 measurement points. Project
These sites of soils that are essentially madeDominant
Nbrhave Soil
of sandy loam,
HWSD/USDA-Soil Tex-
Country Sites Long (DD) Lat (DD) Area A Meas. Loca-
with occurrences of sandy clay loam and loamture [17,18]. The three Drainage Class
sites in Mali—namely
(30 cm Top Soil)
BaguinedaUp, BaguinedaDwn, (ha) andtionsMoria—received 61 measurement points. (SlopeTheir
0.0–0.5%)
soils
are mainly composed of sandy clay (Total:
loam,106)
with Dominant Occurrence
occurrences of loam and sandy clay. Finally,
Burkina sandy clay Poor
Sema was the unique site selected in Cote d’Ivoire, with 22 measurement to covering
points, moder-
Kamboinsé -1.54856 12.46087 1 2 sandy loam
Faso soil made of sandy clay loam, with occurrences of loam. loam ately well
sandy clay Poor to moder-
Goupana -1.58650 12.61785and main
Table 1. Site locations 1 soils. 1 sandy loam
loam ately well
Nbr of Dominant Soil
Long Project HWSD/USDA-Soil
Country Sites Lat (DD) Meas. Drainage Class
(DD) Area A (ha) Texture (30 cm Top Soil)
Locations (Slope 0.0–0.5%)
(Total: 106) Dominant Occurrence
Burkina sandy clay Poor to
Kamboinsé −1.54856 12.46087 1 2 sandy loam
Faso loam moderately well
sandy clay Poor to
Goupana −1.58650 12.61785 1 1 sandy loam
loam moderately well
sandy clay Poor to
Rakaye −1.58912 11.82085 5 20 sandy loam
loam moderately well
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 5 of 20

Table 1. Cont.

Nbr of Dominant Soil

Long Project HWSD/USDA-Soil
Country Sites Lat (DD) Meas. Drainage Class
(DD) Area A (ha) Texture (30 cm Top Soil)
Locations (Slope 0.0–0.5%)
(Total: 106) Dominant Occurrence
Baguineda sandy clay Imperf. to
Mali −7.77955 12.63260 1347 25 loam
Up loam moderat. well
Baguineda sandy clay Imperf. to
−7.71999 12.65166 1733 24 loam
Dwn loam moderat. well
Moria sandy clay Imperf. to
−10.16961 13.64926 60 12 loam
(Badoumbe) loam moderat. well
Cote sandy clay
Sema −8.07688 7.83360 100 22 loam Moderat. well
d’Ivoire loam
Nota: DD stands for decimal degrees; Imperf. for imperfectly, moderat. for moderately.

The sites were either in use or destined for agricultural irrigation. The three sites of
Burkina Faso were in use for localized irrigation, microsprinkler irrigation (Kamboinsé),
and gravity irrigation (Goupana and Rakaye). In Mali, gravity irrigation was also either
practiced (BaguinedaUp and BaguinedaDwn) [19] or planned for implementation (Moria).
Gravity irrigation was planned for implementation in the Sema site in Cote d’Ivoire.

2.2. Double-Ring Infiltrometer

The double-ring infiltrometer is a well-known device to determine the soil infiltration
curve and the saturated hydraulic conductivity. It has been used for various purposes
related to saturated hydraulic conductivity, such as the determination of soil matrix in-
filtration in forest soils [20], simulations aiming to predict soil hydraulic parameters [21],
or in comparing various infiltration devices’ biases [22]. Although sometimes automated
and expensive [23], the basic device is essentially made of an inner ring and an outer ring
(Figure 2). For the current investigations, the material was made of an inner ring with a
diameter of 20 cm on the PVC pipe segment, and an outer ring with a diameter of 40 cm,
also in the PVC pipe segment, with both having a height of 30 cm (Figure 2). However, as
shown by Boivin [24], the size of the equipment—if not too small—has very little impact
on the measurements. Before starting the measurement, the sites must be selected, and
the number of sites will depend on the study area’s size. At least 9 measurement sites are
required to study the soil parameters of 1.0 ha agricultural land. In this investigation, this
figure was applied. Some 24 h before the real measurements started on a specific site, the
soil was wetted by slowly pouring several bucket contents of water on the soil in order
to raise the moisture toward saturation, thus reducing the testing time before saturation
was reached. The wetting had another purpose: the inner and outer rings were pushed
5 cm into the soil using a plastic head hammer. This ensured that water would not circulate
from the inner ring toward the outer ring, and from the outer ring to the surrounding soil
surface; therefore, vertical flow would not occur at the soil surface. Afterward, a 40 cm
height ruler was fastened to the wall of the inner ring so that water-level measurements
could be carried out at the same location (Figure 2). The operator also used a stopwatch.
After the installation of the device, the measurements were performed according
to a precise procedure. The procedure was as follows: (i) both the inner and the outer
rings were filled with water to the edge; (ii) the stopwatch was started by the operator
for a chosen measurement time increment. Based on pretests in the field, the time incre-
ments were generally set at 10 min for the first 3 measurements, 20 min for the following
3 measurements, 30 min for the third 3 measurements, and so forth. However, depending
on how fast or slow the infiltration was occurring, the number of measurements at each
time increment could be increased or reduced. After the preset time increment was reached,
the stopwatch was stopped, and both the time increment ∆tmi and the related infiltrated
water layer ∆hmi were measured (read) by the operator. Then, the water level in both rings
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 6 of 20

was refilled to the edges, and the chronometer was initialized and run again. After a preset
time increment elapsed, a new measurement of the quantities (∆hmi , ∆tmi ) was performed.
In this study, the operator knew that the saturation zone was reached by calculating the
infiltration rate ∆hmi /∆tmi of the measured water layer increment ∆hmi and the related
measured time increment ∆tmi , and by noticing that this rate no longer changed for three
consecutive measurements. The constancy of the rate denoted that the soil moisture had
Hydrology 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
reached the saturation zone from which the saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat6could of 21

be drawn.

Figure
Figure2.2.Double
Doublering
ringfor
forsoil infiltration
soil measurements.
infiltration Note:
measurements. both
Note: rings
both are pushed
rings 5 cm5 into
are pushed the
cm into
soil.
the soil.

2.3.Measured
2.3. MeasuredVariables
Variables
Among the field
Among field measurement
measurementdata, data,three
threevariables
variables areareparticularly important
particularly importantbecause
be-
they are used to make a comparison between the expressions
cause they are used to make a comparison between the expressions modeling the infiltra- modeling the infiltration
process
tion and to
process anddetermine the saturated
to determine infiltration
the saturated rate Ksatrate
infiltration of the
Ksatsoil. These
of the three
soil. variables
These three
are the measured
variables cumulative
are the measured cumulative ht,cum-,meas (mm)
infiltrationinfiltration (see(mm)
ht,cum-,meas Equation (2)), the measured
(see Equation (2)), the
instant infiltration
measured rate iinst-measrate
instant infiltration (mm h−1 )(mm
iinst-meas (see Equation (3)), and the
h−1) (see Equation (3)),measured
and the average
measured in-
filtration rate i (mm h − 1 ) (see Equation (4)). Before these variables were determined,
average infiltration rate iavrg-meas (mm h ) (see Equation (4)). Before these variables were
avrg-meas −1

the primary the

determined, dataprimary
measured datainmeasured
the field were in thethe infiltrated
field were the water layerswater
infiltrated and their
layersrelated
and
time values, as expressed in Equation (1):
their related time values, as expressed in Equation (1):
Δht ,meas
∆ht,meas = = ht ,meas−-hht−t−1,meas
ht,meas , ,
1,meas (1)
(1)

where Δht,meas
where ∆h t , meas
(mm) is the
the incremental
incrementalwater
waterlayer,
layer,computed
computed asas
thethe difference
difference between
between the
water level ht,meas (mm) measured at time t and the water level ht−1,meas (mm) measured at
the water level ht , meas (mm) measured at time t and the water level ht −1, meas (mm) meas-
time t−1. The index “meas” is related to the measured data.
ured at time
The t−1. Thecumulative
measured index “meas” is related
infiltration is to the measured
expressed by: data.
The measured cumulative infiltration is expressed by:
ht,cum−meas = ht−1,cum−meas + ∆ht,meas , (2)
ht,cum−meas = ht−1,cum−meas +Δht,meas , (2)
where h −meas (mm) is the cumulative water layer infiltrated from the beginning of
where ht,cum
t ,cum − meas
(mm) is the cumulative water layer infiltrated from the beginning of the
the test to the instant current time t. This time t is actually the sum (so a cumulation) of
test to the instant
individual current time
time increments ∆tt.meas
This time t is actually
corresponding to ∆hthe sum (so a cumulation) of indi-
t,meas , the incremental infiltrated
vidual
water time determinedΔin
layerincrements tmeasEquation
corresponding Δht ,meas , the
to quantity
(1). The ht−incremental
1,cum−meas isinfiltrated water
the cumulative
water layer infiltrated at the previous time t − 1. The index “meas” is related to the
layer determined in Equation (1). The quantity ht −1,cum − meas is the cumulative water layer
measurement data.
infiltrated at the previous time t−1. The index “meas” is related to the measurement data.
The measured instant infiltration rate was given by:
Δ h t , m eas
i inst − m ea s = , (3)
Δt
where iinst − meas is the instantaneous infiltration rate measured at instant t, expressed as
the ratio of Δht , meas as determined in Equation (1), with the time increment Δt being the
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 7 of 20

The measured instant infiltration rate was given by:

∆ht,meas
iinst−meas = , (3)
∆t
where iinst−meas is the instantaneous infiltration rate measured at instant t, expressed as
the ratio of ∆ht,meas as determined in Equation (1), with the time increment ∆t being the
duration between the measurements of the water level ht,meas (mm) and the water level
ht−1,meas .
The measured average infiltration rate was provided by:

ht,cum−meas
i avrg−meas = , (4)
t

where i avrg−meas (mm h−1 ) is the average infiltration rate measured, expressed as the ratio
of the cumulative infiltrated water layer ht,cum−meas (mm) determined in Equation (2) and
the elapsed time t (h) (from the beginning of the test).
The couples of measured data—(ht,cum−meas , t); (iinst−meas , t); (i avrg−meas , t)—would
be plotted against their non-linear regression [12,25] counterparts (cf. Section 3.2) to
determine which model will yield a Ksat result that is as close as possible to the real-world or
true value.

2.4. Processed Variables

Similar to the measured variables, three processed variables are of special importance
because they can be used to determine which among the measurement expressions and
mathematical models would lead to the closest real-world saturated infiltration Ksat values.
Conversely to the measurement, the first variable to be considered here is the instant
infiltration rate because it better analytically models the infiltration process. The evolution
of infiltrated water layer speed follows a process that is regularly found in nature [26]:
a certain quantity varies at a speed that is proportional to the remaining amount of that
quantity. In the case of soil infiltration measurement with a double ring, the infiltration
speed depends on the standing water layer in the inner ring (Figure 2). Analytically, this
relationship is expressed by Equation (5):

dh
it (t) = , (5)
dt

where it (t) (mm h−1 ) is the instant infiltration rate; dh (mm) and dt(h) are, respectively,
water-level variation and the related duration.
Many processes occurring in nature follow the pattern described in Equation (5).
For example, the determination of soil infiltration rate, the decay of radioactive isotope
atoms [27,28], and the turnover of blood cells in HiV-1 infection [29].
It can be shown that the exponential one-phase decay function is a solution of
Equation (5). Therefore, the instant infiltration equation is rewritten, yielding the first
processed variable:

dh
it (t) = = Regr iinst−meas = k sat + (i0 − k sat )e−bt , (6)
dt

where t(h) is the elapsed time, k sat (mm h−1 ) is the saturated infiltration rate toward which
the instant infiltration rate will tend as time increases; i0 (mm h−1 ) is the initial infiltration
rate at the beginning of the tests; b is a coefficient of decay that can be determined through
non-linear regression applied to the infiltration data collected from a double-ring test.
In other words, the three parameters (k sat , i0 and b) of Equation (6) can be completely
determined by running a non-linear regression on the field data (∆ht,meas , ∆t) measured
for Equation (3). The resulting equation is Regr inst-meas , in which numerical values are
assigned to k sat , i0 , and b.
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 8 of 20

The cumulative form is obtained from Equation (6) by the following analytical sum-
mation:
dh −bt ⇒ dh = k dt + (i − k ) e−bt dt ⇒
dt = k sat + (i0 − k sat ) e sat 0 sat
hR
cum t t
. (7)
dh = k sat dt + (i0 − k sat )e−bt dt
R R
h0 t0 t0

This computation yields the second processed variable:

1
hcum = Regr hcum−meas = k sat · t + (i0 − k sat ) · (1 − e−bt ), (8)
b
where the three parameters (k sat , i0 and b) of Equation (6) can be completely determined by
running a non-linear regression on the field data (ht,cum−meas , t), measured for Equation (2).
Two things are worth noting when considering Equations (6) and (8). The first is that
ksat , drawn from Equations (6) and (8), is exactly the same variable, since one equation is
derived from the other. Hence, the values of ksat drawn from field data by either method
(instant infiltration or cumulative infiltration) should be exactly the same, theoretically.
Discrepancies observed between both would mean that errors occurred and must be
elucidated. A second aspect that is worthy of notice is that both non-linear equations
include a linear part in their curve: (i) for Equation (6), this linear portion is a horizontal
line whose value is equal to ksat , while (ii) for Equation (8), this linear portion is an oblique
line whose slope is equal to the same saturated hydraulic conductivity ksat . Therefore, being
able to identify the moment when the linear portion of each of the curves—materialized by
a straight line—appears will be crucial in the determination of the appropriate time to stop
the measurements because ksat is reached.
The third processed variable is the average infiltration rate, obtained by running a
non-linear regression analysis on the average data iavrg-meas determined in Equation (4), as
follows:
Regr i avrg−meas = k sat + (i0 − k sat )e−bt , (9)
It is worth noting that the three parameters (k sat , i0 and b) obtained from the three
regressions Equations (6), (8), and (9) are not necessarily expected to be the same. This
point was analyzed by plotting the following variables alongside the remaining data:
(Regr iinst−meas , t), (Regr hcum−meas , t), and (Regr i avrg−meas , t).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. How False Saturated Infiltration Values Are Measured with Various Soil Types
The sample presented in Figure 3 provides insights into several important aspects of
the infiltration process. In graphs a–d in the three countries, namely Burkina Faso, Mali,
and Cote d’Ivoire, the plots of the cumulative infiltration measured in the field (1) and
the related fitted non-linear regression curve (2), the rate of infiltration measured in the
field (4), and the related fitted non-linear regression curve (5) are presented. Even based
only on visual inspection (the fit parameters are reported in Section 3.2), these figures
show, in general, a good fit for the cumulative infiltration data (Figure 3a–d(2)), while the
fits of the instant rate of infiltration indicate important gaps compared to the field data
(5a–d). For all measurements related to the instant infiltration rate (Figure 3a–d(5)) in the
three countries, discrepancies persistently occur at the beginning of the field measurements.
This observation points to the volatility of the instant infiltration rate quantity ∆h/∆t
because of the higher soil water absorption rate at the beginning [30], causing errors in the
measurement of ∆h, but with a greater impact from errors related to the denominator ∆t.
This hectic start influences the measured values and the regression fits that are produced
based on the instant infiltration rate. The Ksat values obtained from the two processes—
the one from the non-linear regression of the cumulative infiltration and the one from
the instant rate of infiltration, respectively—are not equal. The results yield for Kamb-1,
6.2 mm h−1 versus 11.1 mm h−1 ; for Moria-P01, 7.7 mm h−1 versus 4.2 mm h−1 ; for Moria-
P07, 8.2 mm h−1 versus 12.4 mm h−1 ; and for Sema-P05-RCI, 1.8 mm h−1 versus 2.0 mm
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 9 of 20
Hydrology 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21

h−1 . Although the Ksat value for cumulative infiltration cannot be ascertained to be the best
assessment(see
(rightness) (rightness)
Section (see Section
3.2) of 3.2) of theKreal-world
the real-world Ksat-real-world
sat-real-world [31], it appears[31], it precise
more appears(accu-
more
precise
racy) (accuracy)
because because
of the of the
systematic systematic
better better
goodness goodness of fit.
of fit.

Cumulative
Figure 3.3.Cumulative
Figure infiltration
infiltration (1 and
(1 and 2) versus
2) versus instantinstant infiltration
infiltration rates (4rates
and 5).(4 Measured
and 5). Mea-data
have
surednodata connecting
have nolines (1 and 4),
connecting while
lines non-linear
(1 and regression
4), while curves
non-linear (2 and 5)curves
regression have connected
(2 and 5)
markers. Numbers
have connected (1)–(5) refer
markers. to the individual
Numbers graphs
(1)–(5) refer in the
to the figure. The
individual lettersina–d
graphs therefer to a spe-
figure. The
cific site.
letters Therefer
(a–d) equation and relative
to a specific curve
site. The (3) are
equation notrelative
and used because
curve (3)itare
does
notnot bring
used new itinsight.
because It
does not
expressed instant infiltration as the derivative of the cumulative infiltration
bring new insight. It expressed instant infiltration as the derivative of the cumulative infiltration curve. curve.
iiinst = d(Regr hcum−−mmeas
inst = d(Regr hcum
) / dt
eas ) /dt.

The comparison
The comparison between
between the the average
averageinfiltration
infiltrationrate
rateand
andthethemeasured
measuredinstant
instantinfil-
infil-
tration rate also reveals gaps, whose analysis leads to important
tration rate also reveals gaps, whose analysis leads to important clarifications. The two clarifications. The two
processes are
processes are illustrated
illustrated in in Figure
Figure 4. Three observations
4. Three observations can can bebe made. First, the
made. First, the instant
instant
infiltration rate data (Figure 4a–d(4)) tend to be systematically smaller
infiltration rate data (Figure 4(4a–d)) tend to be systematically smaller than the average than the average
infiltration rate
infiltration ratedata
data(Figure
(Figure4(6a–d)).
4a–d(6)).Therefore,
Therefore, oneone would
would expect
expect a lower
a lower saturated
saturated hy-
hydraulic conductivity Ksat from the instant infiltration rate measurements. It could be that
draulic conductivity Ksat from the instant infiltration rate measurements. It could be that
the average infiltration equation (Equation (4)) denominator, deduced from measurements
the average infiltration equation (Equation (4)) denominator, deduced from measure-
from the beginning of the test to a certain elapsed time t (the sum of the incremental ∆t)
ments from the beginning of the test to a certain elapsed time t (the sum of the incremental
is marked by errors that tend to minimize the real duration related to the absorption of
Δt) is marked by errors that tend to minimize the real duration related to the absorption
the water height h −meas . This involuntary shortening of the duration would lead to
of the water heightcum hcum-meas. This involuntary shortening of the duration would lead to
higher average infiltration rates. In fact, the same type of error occurs in incremental ∆t
higher average infiltration rates. In fact, the same type of error occurs in incremental Δt
measurements related to the instant infiltration rate in Equation (3), but its magnitude is
measurements related to the instant infiltration rate in Equation (3), but its magnitude is
much smaller than the one related to measurements of the average infiltration rate after
much smaller than the one related to measurements of the average infiltration rate after 3
3 h or 5 h. The second observation from the processes depicted in Figure 4 is that, from
h or 5 h. The second observation from the processes depicted in Figure 4 is that, from
graphical inspection, it can be seen that the goodness of fit of both infiltration processes is
graphical
rather bad, inspection, it can
at least until thebemidpoint
seen thatofthe thegoodness
test. Theofmidpoints
fit of bothofinfiltration processes
the presented sample is
rather bad, at least until the midpoint of the test. The midpoints of
are 25 h for Kamb-1, 9 h for Moria P01, 5.5 h for Moria P07, and 4 h for Sema P05. It is onlythe presented sample
are
near25theh for
end Kamb-1, 9 h for Moria
of the process that theP01, 5.5good.
fit is h for This
Moria P07, and 4 supports
observation h for Sema P05.
the It is only
assumption
near the end of the process that the fit is good. This observation
that the saturated hydraulic conductivity is better measured and modeled by non-linear supports the assumption
that the saturated
regression when the hydraulic conductivity
soil moisture tends is bettersaturation
toward measured [26,32].
and modeled by non-linear
The third and final
regression when the soil moisture tends toward saturation [26,32].
observation is related to the fact that, as one would expect, instant infiltration rate The third anddata
finalwith
ob-
servation is related to the fact that, as one would expect, instant
shorter intervals of measurement are much more hectic than the average infiltration rateinfiltration rate data with
shorter intervals
data. Hence, oneof measurement
would be prone are much more
to conclude thathectic thanwould
the latter the average
yield ainfiltration
more accurate rate
data. Hence, one would be prone to conclude that the latter would
Ksat than the former [33]. However, for the reasons provided in the previous observation, yield a more accurate
K sat than
that is notthe
theformer [33].
case (see However,
further for the
in Section reasons
3.2). The Ksatprovided in the previous
values yielded observation,
by the average versus
that is not the case (see further in Section 3.2). The Ksat values yielded by the average versus
instant infiltration rates for the four sample sites are, respectively, 12.2 mm h−1 versus 11.1
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 10 of 20
Hydrology 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21

instant infiltration rates for the four sample sites are, respectively, 12.2 mm h−1 versus
11.1
mm mm h−Kamb-1;
h−1 for 1 for Kamb-1; 24.2−1mm h−1 versus 14.2
24.2 mm h versus 14.2 mm h−1 for mm h−1 for Moria-P01;
Moria-P01; 18.7 mm h18.7 h−1
mm 12.4
−1 versus

versus − 1 − 1 − 1
mm h−112.4for mm h forand
Moria-P01; Moria-P01;
6.3 mm h and 6.3 mm
−1 versus 2.0hmmversus
h−1 for2.0 mm h Finally,
Sema-P05. for Sema-P05.
as ex-
Finally, as explained in the comments relating to Figure 3, the instant infiltration
plained in the comments relating to Figure 3, the instant infiltration rate does not lead rate does
to
not lead to the real-world K
the real-world Ksat-real-world value.
sat-real-world value.

Figure 4. Average infiltration (6 and 7) versus instant infiltration rates (4 and 5). Measured data have
no connecting lines (4 and 6), while non-linear regression curves (5 and 7) have connected connected markers.
markers.
Numbers (1) to (7) refer to the individual graphs in the figure. The letters (a–d) refer to a specific site.
Numbers (1) to (7) refer to the individual graphs in the figure. The letters a–d refer to a specific site.
The equation
The equation and
and relative
relative curve
curve (3)
(3) are
are not
not used
used because
because it it does
does not
not bring
bring new
new insight.
insight. It
It expressed
expressed
instant infiltration
instant infiltration as the of the
as the derivative derivative
cumulativeof the curve.
infiltration cumulative
iinst = d(infiltration
Regr hcum−meascurve.
)/dt.
iinst = d(Regr hcum−meas ) / dt .
With 2.5% organic matter content, Saxton [34] made the following classification of
soils With
on the2.5%
texture triangle:
organic loam
matter for KsatSaxton
content, from 8.6
[34]tomade
46.9 mm/h; clay loam
the following for Ksat from
classification of
2.01
soils on the texture triangle: loam for Ksat from 8.6 to 46.9 mm/h; clay loam for KsatItfrom
to 7.79 mm/h; and sandy clay loam for Ksat between 3.94 and 20.06 mm/h. can
be
2.01noted that
to 7.79 theseand
mm/h; three types
sandy of soil
clay loamhave overlapping
for Ksat between areas in terms
3.94 and 20.06 of Ksat,Itand
mm/h. canfor
be
each type of soil, a whole range of Ksat exists. For example, the 6.2 mm h −1 of the site
noted that these three types of soil have overlapping areas in terms of Ksat, and for each
Kamb-1 is compatible with a loam, a clay loam, or even a sandy clay−1loam. Only a grain
type of soil, a whole range of Ksat exists. For example, the 6.2 mm h of the site Kamb-1
size analysis [35] will allow for a precise classification of the soils, though this does not
is compatible with a loam, a clay loam, or even a sandy clay loam. Only a grain size anal-
hinder the importance of obtaining a real-world Ksat that could be used, for example, to
ysis [35] will allow for a precise classification of the soils, though this does not hinder the
design sprinkler irrigation systems [36].
importance of obtaining a real-world Ksat that could be used, for example, to design sprin-
klerWhat
3.2. irrigation
Field systems [36]. Reveal about Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
Investigations
3.2.1. Tracking the Real-World Ksat Value
3.2. What Field Investigations Reveal about Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
The graphs displayed in Figure 5 are related to data samples collected and processed
3.2.1. 12
from Tracking
differentthetesting
Real-World
sites outKsatofValue
the 106 addressed by this investigation. As shown in
TableThe graphs
1, many of displayed in Figure 5 sites
the 106 investigation are related to data on
were located samples
similarcollected
soils. Inand
eachprocessed
of the 12
from 12 the
graphs, different
data aretesting sites out
displayed, withof identifying
the 106 addressed
numbers byandthisgraph
investigation.
markersAs shown in
provided
Table
the 1, many
legend of the
at the 106 investigation
bottom of the graph. sites
These were located
numbers areonassimilar soils.
follows: “1”Infor
each
the of the 12
cumula-
graphs,
tive the data
infiltrated are displayed,
water with identifying
layer—Equation numbers
(2); “4” for and graph
the measured markers
instant provided
infiltration rate—in
the legend(3);
Equation at and
the bottom
“6” for ofthethe graph. These
measured numbers
average are asrate—Equation
infiltration follows: “1” for(4).theBased
cumula-
on
tive infiltrated
these three series water layer—Equation
of data, (2); “4” for
a non-linear regression the measured instant infiltration
computation—Equations (6), (8), andrate—
(9)—
Equation
was (3); and
performed, and“6”the
forresults
the measured average
are presented infiltration
in three rate—Equation
other graphs, connected (4).with
Based on
lines.
These graphs
these three are identified
series of data, a by the following
non-linear numbers:
regression “2” for the non-linear(6),
computation—Equations regression
(8), and
related
(9)—was to performed,
the measured andcumulative
the resultsinfiltration hcum−inmeas
are presented , “5”other
three for the non-linear
graphs, regression
connected with
lines. These graphs are identified by the following numbers: “2” for the non-linear regres-
sion related to the measured cumulative infiltration hcum-meas, “5” for the non-linear
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 11 of 20
Hydrology 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21

performed on the instant infiltration rate data, and “7” for the non-linear regression run
regression performed
on the average on therate
infiltration instant
data.infiltration
To show rate data, and “7” expressions
the mathematical for the non-linear
of the re-
36
gression
regressionrun on theinaverage
curves infiltration
Figure 5, rate data.
12 exponential To show
one-phase the mathematical
decay expressions
regression equations [32]
of
arethe 36 regression
presented curves
in Table in this
2. In Figure 5, 12
table, exponential
only one-phase
one infiltration test decay regression
site was selectedequa-
from
tions [32] are presented in Table 2. In this table, only one infiltration test site was selected
each country.
from each country.

Figure 5. Cont.
Hydrology 2023,
Hydrology 10, x235
2023, 10, FOR PEER REVIEW 1212ofof21
20

Figure5.
Figure Infiltrationmeasurement
5.Infiltration measurementresults resultsfor for12
12locations
locationsin
inBurkina
BurkinaFaso,
Faso,Mali,
Mali,and
andCote
Coted’Ivoire.
d’Ivoire.
Comparing(i)
Comparing (i)measured
measureddata data(1,(1,4,4,6)6)
vs.vs. their
their corresponding
corresponding non-linear
non-linear regression
regression fits5,(2,7),5,(ii)
fits (2, 7),
the non-linear regression fits, and (iii) the asymptotic saturated hydraulic conductivity
(ii) the non-linear regression fits, and (iii) the asymptotic saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat values. K sat values.
Measured
Measured data dataare
arenot
notconnected
connectedwith withdrawing
drawinglines.
lines.Numbers
Numbers(1)–(7)
(1)–(7)refer
referto
tothe
theindividual
individualgraphsgraphs
in the figure. The letters a–l refer to a specific site. The equation and relative
in the figure. The letters (a–l) refer to a specific site. The equation and relative curve curve (3) are(3)notareusednot
because it does not bring new insight. It expressed instant infiltration as the derivative of the cumu-
used because it does not bring new insight. It expressed instant infiltration as the derivative of the
lative infiltration
cumulative iinst =iinst
curve. curve.
infiltration d(Regr hcum−hmcum
= d(Regr ) / dt
eas −meas.) /dt.

Table 2. Nine non-linear regression infiltration equations from three sites in Burkina Faso, Mali, and
Table 2. Nine non-linear regression infiltration equations from three sites in Burkina Faso, Mali, and
Coted’Ivoire.
Cote d’Ivoire.

Kamb-1-BurkinaKamb-1-Burkina
Faso Faso
Regr hcum−meas = 6.2226 · t + 0.1582 1
× (25.7001 −0.1582 × t )
1 − 6.2226) · (1 − e
Regr h
Regr iinst−meas = 11.1024 = 6.2226 ⋅ t +
+ (203.3767 − 11.1024) · e
cum - meas × (25.7001
− 8.1298 × - t 6.2226) ⋅ (1 - e-0.1582 × t )
0.1582
Regr i avrg−meas = 12.2147 + (46.5730 − 12.2147) · e−0.4092 × t -8.1298 × t
Regr i = 11.1024 + (203.3767 - 11.1024) ⋅ e
BaguinedaUp-Mali inst − meas
Regr i · t =+12.2147 +1 (46.5730 - 12.2147) ⋅ e-0.4092 × t −33110999671443.200 × t )
Regr hcum−meas = 3.133 33110999671443.200 × (33110999671443.200 − 3.133) · (1 − e
avrg − meas

Regr iiinst−meas = 3.1544 + (17.7268 − 3.1544) · e − 3.4731 × t

3.8315 + (13.3064 − 3.8315) · e−1.3625 × t

Regr i avrg−meas =BaguinedaUp-Mali
Sema-P1-Cote d’Ivoire 1
Regr hcum−meas = Regr hcum-meas
2.3506 · t=+3.133 1 ⋅ t +
1.0383 × (45.3827 − 2.3506) · ×(1(33110999671443.200
− e−1.0383 ×t ) - 3.133) ⋅ (1 - e-33110999671443.200× t )
33110999671443.200
− 1.0340 × t
Regr iinst−meas = 12.4172 + (52.1118 − 12.4172) · e -3.4731 × t
iiinst − meas = 3.1544 + (17.7268 - 3.1544)
Regr i avrg−meas =Regr
8.0863 + (46.5435 − 8.0863) · e−0.5700 ⋅×et
Regr iavrg − meas = 3.8315 + (13.3064 - 3.8315) ⋅ e-1.3625 × t

As can be clearly seen from the asymptotic lines of the non-linear regression curves
Sema-P1-Cote d'Ivoire
shown in Figure 5 and the sample extracts in Table 2, for the same infiltration measurement
1 ×t
Regr hcum-meas = 2.3506site,⋅ the
t + saturated× (45.3827
hydraulic- 2.3506) ⋅ (1 - e-1.0383
conductivity Ksat )is different for the three regression processes,
1.0383
and sometimes the difference ist rather significant. Based on Table 2, for example, Ksat is
-1.0340 ×
Regr iinst − meas = 12.4172 + (52.111 8 - 12.4172) ⋅ e
6.2 mm h−1 at Kamb-1-Burkina Faso if cumulative infiltration measurement data are used,
Regr iavrg − meas = 8.0863 + (46.5435 - 8.0863) ⋅ e-0.5700 × t
while it would be, respectively, 11.10 mm h−1 and 12.21 mm h−1 if instant and average
infiltration measurement data were used. The results for the site of BaguinedaUp-Mali
are very
As can close, even though
be clearly seen from thethe value obtainedlines
asymptotic fromofthethecumulative infiltrationcurves
non-linear regression curve
is the smallest. a Ksat − 1
shown in Figure 5Theandresults
the sample for this site yield
extracts in Table of 3.1
2, for the mm
sameh infiltration
when cumulative
measure-
infiltration measurement data are used, and 3.1 Kmm −1 and 3.8. mm h−1 , respectively,
ment site, the saturated hydraulic conductivity sat ishdifferent for the three regression
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 13 of 20

if instant and average infiltration measurement data are used. However, the difference
becomes significant again for the site of Sema-P1-Cote d’Ivoire: 2.3 mm h−1 with cumulative
infiltration data, and 12.4 mm h−1 and 8.0 mm h−1 , respectively, when instant and average
infiltration measurement data are used.

3.2.2. The Best Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity Results

Considering the graphs shown in Figure 5, two important questions need to be ad-
dressed to derive useful conclusions about the saturated hydraulic conductivity mea-
surement process: (i) What can be considered real-world Ksat-real-world ? (ii) Which of the
three procedures—deriving Ksat from non-linear regressions of hcum−meas , iinst-meas , and
iavrg-meas —is better in terms of reaching Ksat-real-world ? In real field experiments, when the
soil moisture is brought close to saturation before the double-ring infiltration test starts,
the cumulative infiltration curve remains a straight line, as can be seen in Figure 5e. It
was noticed that, under these conditions, the values of the three regression lines were
generally close, as for BaguinedaUp-Mali. From the graphs in Figure 5, it can also be
deduced that two factors are very important: (a) the measurement of time increments ∆t
(particularly in the curvature zone), and (b) the number of available data for the asymptote
branch of the curve. When ∆t is constant and ∆h is constant, measurements are generally
inaccurate and Ksat will not be valid. To follow the real-world process of infiltration, the
operator must exponentially dilate either ∆t or decrease ∆h to capture the filling of the
exponential decrease in infiltration. When the linear segment of the infiltration rate curves
is reached, then the ratio ∆h/∆t must remain constant, regardless of the values of ∆h and
∆t. Therefore, when the ratio (∆h/∆t)meas —computed directly from the measured data
in the field—remains constant for three consecutive measurements, the soil saturation is
reached and this constant value of (∆h/∆t)meas can be considered the real-world saturated
hydraulic conductivity Ksat-real-world . Reaching this value can be time-consuming in practice,
especially when dealing with clayey soils. This is why regression analysis is very relevant:
its prediction allows for the determination of a Ksat that is as close as possible to Ksat-real-world.
In order to answer the question “Which of the three procedures—deriving Ksat from
non-linear regressions of hcum−meas , iinst-meas , and iavrg-meas —is better in terms of reaching
Ksat-real-world ?”, comparative figures of Ksat are shown in Table 3. In the table, three quantities
assessing the goodness of fit of non-linear regression are shown in columns 6–8. These are
as follows: (i) R2 , the coefficient of determination (the closer to 1, the better), (ii) SSE, the
error sum of squares (the smaller, the better) [37], and (iii) MSE, the mean of squared error
(the smaller, the better) [38]. In the ninth column, the values of the saturated hydraulic
conductivity Ksat —derived from their respective non-linear equations—are shown for each
of the 12 individual sites and each of the three procedures. In the 10th column that follows
Ksat , the average of the last three measurements (∆h/∆t)meas is presented. These values, as
explained in the previous paragraph, can be considered the real-world or true saturated
hydraulic conductivity Ksat-real-world . The gap or discrepancy between Ksat and Ksat-real-world is
shown in the last column of the table. For all 12 sites, it appears that the procedure that best
estimates the saturated hydraulic conductivity is the one using the cumulative infiltration
measurement data (Table 3(1–12a)). The gaps in absolute values vary from 2.2% to 58.8%.
The worst estimation procedure is the averaging one, with a maximum gap reached on
the site of Sema of 444.4%. The instant infiltration procedure is located between the two
previous ones. Therefore, it can be stated that the cumulative infiltration measurement
data procedure is the best way to estimate the saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil
Ksat . Once that is stated, the question is: how is the cumulative infiltration procedure more
accurate than the instant infiltration rate procedure? A discussion based on both analytical
expressions and graphics will help in answering this question.
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 14 of 20

Table 3. Comparing three procedures of non-linear regression for real-world Ksat from three countries.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ksat Avrg3 GapKsat
Nb
Nb Model Site Time (h) R2 SSE MSE (mm [(∆h/∆t)] (Ksat vs.
Obs
h−1 ) (mm h−1 ) Avrg3 )

1a Reghcum Kamb-1-BF 36 48.50 0.998 919.94 27.88 6.2 4.7 33.3%

1b Regi-inst 0.530 2227.75 67.51 11.1 138%
1c Regi-avg 0.844 627.54 19.02 12.2 162%
2a Reghcum Kamb-2-BF 28 58.67 0.999 169.87 6.79 5.8 5.7 2.9%
2b Regi-inst 0.850 98.84 3.95 6.2 10.3%
2c Regi-avg 0.957 27.57 1.10 7.4 29.9%
3a Reghcum Goupa-1-BF 46 82.10 0.999 1260.05 29.30 5.9 7.1 −16.4%
3b Regi-inst 0.522 2457.98 57.16 10.0 40.0%
3c Regi-avg 0.849 733.01 17.05 10.4 45.5%
4a Reghcum Rakaye-1-BF 12 5.00 1.000 38.88 4.32 53.3 54.5 −2.2%
4b Regi-inst 0.851 1225.04 136.12 51.1 −6.3%
4c Regi-avg 0.952 219.78 24.42 58.2 6.8%
5a Reghcum BaguiUp-1-MLi 9 6.42 0.989 3.91 0.65 3.1 2.9 9.2%
5b Regi-inst 0.908 6.67 1.11 3.2 9.9%
5c Regi-avg 0.977 1.50 0.25 3.8 33.5%
6a Reghcum BaguiDwn-2-MLi 7 4.50 0.999 0.06 0.01 1.9 2.0 −3.3%
6b Regi-inst 0.990 0.15 0.04 1.9 −4.2%
6c Regi-avg 0.998 0.02 0.01 2.5 25.5%
7a Reghcum Moria-P01-MLi 24 17.75 0.995 561.49 26.74 7.7 5.7 34.6%
7b Regi-inst 0.953 3773.87 188.69 14.2 148.6%
7c Regi-avg 0.949 4643.88 232.19 24.2 324.4%
8a Reghcum Moria-P02-MLi 22 14.50 0.995 393.31 20.70 8.4 6.4 32.6%
8b Regi-inst 0.954 3605.94 200.33 15.3 140.1%
8c Regi-avg 0.950 4300.50 238.92 26.1 309.4%
9a Reghcum Moria-P07-MLi 18 10.75 0.997 135.11 9.01 8.2 6.8 21.4%
9b Regi-inst 0.963 798.38 57.03 12.4 83.1%
9c Regi-avg 0.959 941.30 67.24 18.7 176.1%
10a Reghcum Moria-P09-MLi 18 8.50 0.999 18.48 1.23 9.4 8.3 12.6%
10b Regi-inst 0.963 798.38 57.03 12.4 48.5%
10c Regi-avg 0.959 941.30 67.24 18.7 123.9%
11a Reghcum Sema-P01-RCI 16 7.50 0.998 10.09 0.78 2.4 1.5 58.8%
11b Regi-inst 0.976 69.32 5.78 2.4 63.3%
11c Regi-avg 0.994 11.50 0.96 8.1 446.4%
12a Reghcum Sema-P05-RCI 16 7.50 0.996 8.93 0.69 1.8 1.5 19.4%
12b Regi-inst 0.972 56.48 4.71 2.0 31.2%
12c Regi-avg 0.992 13.13 1.09 6.3 314.6%

3.3. Searching for the Equation That Yields more Accurate Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
It is helpful to use the cumulative infiltration curve as the basis to assess which of the
two non-linear regressions, Equations (6) and (8), will yield the most accurate saturated
hydraulic conductivity. In Figure 6, it can be seen that errors occur during both the water-
height interval measurements ∆hmi and the time interval measurements ∆ti . Therefore,
each individual segment of the measurement curve can be computed using the Pythagorean
theorem [39] for rectangular triangles, as shown in Equation (10):

∆Ci 2 = ∆hi 2 + ∆ti 2 , (10)

where ∆Ci is the length of individual segments of the measurement curve; ∆hi is the
infiltrated water increment; and ∆ti is the time increment.
 height interval measurements Δhmi and the time interval measurements Δti. Therefore,
each individual segment of the measurement curve can be computed using the Pythago-
rean theorem [39] for rectangular triangles, as shown in Equation (10):
Δ C i2 = Δ hi2 + Δ ti2 , (10)
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 15 of 20
where ΔCi is the length of individual segments of the measurement curve; Δhi is the infil-
trated water increment; and Δti is the time increment.

errors’ impact
Figure 6. Time errors’ impact on
on the
the fittings
fittings of
of the
the measured
measured and
and regressed
regressed cumulative
cumulative infiltration
curves.
curves.

Time and
Time andwater
waterheadheadare
are independent
independent variables
variables at macroscopic
at the the macroscopic scale,scale, and,
and, as as
such,
can
such,becan
measured
be measuredsimultaneously with with
simultaneously an arbitrary
an arbitraryaccuracy
accuracy[40].[40].
However,
However, in practice,
in prac-
water headhead
tice, water measurement
measurement errors are much
errors moremore
are much easilyeasily
minimized
minimizedby a by
good operator
a good and
operator
an
andaccurate limnimetric
an accurate device
limnimetric (Figure
device 2). Therefore,
(Figure it is assumed
2). Therefore, that most
it is assumed errorserrors
that most only
occur during
only occur the cumulative
during time interval
the cumulative measurements
time interval measurements ∆tmi . With
Δtmi .these
Withhypotheses,
these hypothe-the
positive error ε ci between each individual segment ∆ck of the measurement curve when
ses, the against
plotted positivetheerror ε ci betweenregression
corresponding each individual segment(Figure
curve segment Δck of 6) the
can measurement
be calculated
using
curve Equation (11):against the corresponding regression curve segment (Figure 6) can be
when plotted
calculated using Equation (11): ε Ci = (ε ti−1 + ε ti ), (11)
where ε ci is the error in absolute value (hence, εCi = (εpositive)
ti−1
+ ε ti ) ,or the gap between each individual
(11)
segment of the measurement curve and the (theoretically adjusted) non-linear regression
curve, ε ci isε the
where while t1 , ε terror
2 , ε t3 ,in
are the curve
absolute segment
value (hence, errors induced
positive) bygap
or the timebetween
errors during the
each indi-
measurements of time increments ∆tm1 , ∆tm2 , ∆tm3 , such as
vidual segment of the measurement curve and the (theoretically adjusted) non-linear re-
gression curve, while εt , εt , εt
1 2 3
the=curve
, aretmi ti + ε tsegment
i
, (12)
errors induced by time errors
duringt theismeasurements
where the cumulativeofmeasured
time increments Δ tstands
time (“m” m 1 Δ t m 2for
, , Δmeasured);
t m 3 , such as t is the theoretical
mi i
(true) cumulative time; ε ti is the time measurement error.
From the construction graph in Figure 6, the following can be derived:

ε ti = ti − (tmi−1 + ∆tmi ), (13)

By inserting Equation (13) into Equation (11):

ε Ci = (ti + ti−1 ) − (tmi−1 + tmi−2 ) − (∆tmi + ∆tmi−1 ), (14)

Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 16 of 20

The structure of Equation (14) shows two important aspects that can help to ensure
more accurate infiltration measurements. First, as in any time series [41–43], the error ε Ci at
time step i depends on the errors in current measurements tmi , but also on measurements
at previous times steps tmi−1 and tmi−2 . As written by Montgomery [41], in time series,
a future observation depends on the current and the past observations, i.e., adjacent
observations are dependent. There is an autocorrelation in the data. Secondly, the second
and the third terms on the right side of Equation (14) constitute the random part of the
error [41], with the deterministic part being ti + ti−1 , and show that the greater the interval
between two measurements, the larger the gap between the real-world measurement and
the regression curves. This result was expected since the straight line forming the curve
segment ∆Ci will be longer and difficult to fit into a curved segment of the regression line.
Therefore, ideally, to minimize the gaps between the two curves by altering ∆ti , one would
(i) proceed with independent measurements of time intervals by bringing the chronometer
(and refilling the infiltrometer to reset the water head) to zero at each new measurement
and (ii) choosing smaller time intervals. This last point, i.e., shortening the time interval,
leads to two important proposals. The first is related to when it is better to keep short time
intervals during the measurements. Field data (Figure 5) indicate that the change in the
direction of the cumulative curve is faster at the beginning of the measurements and during
the 4–5 following hours (depending on the soil type) than later on. This means that to keep
the measurement curve as close as possible to the non-linear regression curve, one needs to
use short time intervals ∆tmi at the beginning. However, while the soil becomes more and
more saturated, the change in the direction of the cumulative regression curve slows down
and the curve moves toward a straight line, with a constant slope, providing the expression
of the saturated hydraulic conductivity:

Ksat = ∆hmsat /∆tmsat , (15)

where Ksat is the saturated hydraulic conductivity; ∆hmsat is the infiltrated water layer
measured while the straight-line zone is reached; and ∆tmsat is the time interval related to
∆hmsat .
Hence, when the soil gets closer to saturation [44], longer time intervals are suitable to
ensure an accurate fitting between the measurement curve and the non-linear regression
curves (Figure 6).
From the elements of analysis presented in Figure 6 and Equation (6), one can also see
how drawing the saturated hydraulic conductivity from the instantaneous infiltration rate
measurements would lead to inaccurate results. In effect, each point of the infiltration rate
is obtained by the slope:
imi = ∆hmi /∆tmi , (16)
in which imi is the “measured” (in reality, “calculated”) instant infiltration rate; ∆hmii is, the
measured infiltrated water layer; and ∆tmi is the time interval related to ∆hmi .
The related error ε i mi is calculated (rather than measured) by applying the differential
computation to Equation (16), which is a quotient, yielding:

ε hi · ∆tmi − ∆hmi · ε ti
ε i mi = , (17)
∆tmi 2

As shown in the expression of Equation (17), the smaller the time interval of mea-
surements ∆tmi , which is suitable at the beginning of the infiltration measurements, as
previously stated, the greater the error ε i mi in the soil infiltration rate data, resulting in
important changes in the direction of the measurement curve. Due to these changes, the
fitting between the infiltration rate measurement data and the related non-linear regression
curve is generally worse than the discrepancies observed with the cumulative infiltration
curves. As a result, the saturated infiltration value Ksat obtained from the measured data
and the regression equation present important, irreducible gaps.
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 17 of 20

Therefore, even though authoritative standardization institutions such as ASTM [45]

suggest deriving the permeability (saturated hydraulic conductivity) from infiltration rate
data, this method usually leads to erroneous values. Hence, it is not surprising that, in its
standard sheet D 5093-02 related to double-ring infiltration measurements, the values of
Ksat for i are usually so scattered that ASTM did not provide any estimate of the errors.

3.4. A Protocol for Accurate In Situ Measurement of Soil Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity Ksat
When making infiltration measurements, it is always critical to determine when the
investigation should be terminated [9,13]. As shown in Equation (15) and Figure 5, the satu-
rated hydraulic conductivity Ksat is reached when the ratio of the hydraulic head variation
and the related measured time interval becomes constant, or when the cumulative curve
starts to change into a straight line. However, based on the experiments implemented in the
three countries in this study, the figures indicate that when three consecutive computations
of this ratio provide a constant, same value, the measurements could be stopped and Ksat
can be derived from Equation (8). Therefore, a full procedure—considering the necessity
of (i) having shorter time intervals at the beginning of the measurements and longer time
intervals near the saturated zone, (ii) ending the trials at the right time when the infiltration
process reaches saturation—is proposed in Tables 4 and 5.

Table 4. Double-ring infiltration protocol of accurate Ksat measurement.

Steps Operation
Step 1 Wet the floor for at least 2–3 h and 24 h in advance
Set up two concentric rings by driving them 5–10 cm on wet ground and keeping them horizontal at a mason’s
Step 2
level. Water must not be able to circulate from one ring to another or leak outside the guard ring.
Tracing with an indelible marker, mark the place where all the water-level descent measurements ∆h will be
Step 3
made with a small line.
Step 4 Fill the two rings with water to the brim
Start the stopwatch and make the first measurement of the series I by stopping the stopwatch after ∆t = 10 min
Step 5
and reporting the corresponding ∆h (mm)
Immediately refill the two rings to the brim (to reduce the dead time error between two measurements to
Step 6
almost zero)
Step 7 Repeat sequences 5–6 for the second then the third 10 min of series I
Apply sequences 5–7 for series II (with ∆t = 20 min), then for series III (with ∆t = 30 min), and so on until
series VI, VII, and VIII. One can increase the number of measurements in a series or skip a series depending on
Step 8
the rate at which the water infiltrates. For example, one can repeat 20 min four times in series II, or go from
series I to series III
The tests are stopped when a quick calculation shows that three successive values of the ratio ∆h (mm)/∆t (h)
Step 9 are equal or constant. This means that the permeability Ksat-real-world has been reached, which must be
confirmed by the non-linear regression curve.

The way to proceed with the field operation is described in Table 4, while the data
should be written as shown in Table 5. The time measurements are clustered into series
from I to V (Table 5) allowing for a well-organized and accurate experiment. In each series,
the time interval is constant. For example, in series I, this is 10 min, in series II, this is
20 min, in series III, this is 30 min, etc. In a real field experiment, only time intervals
(3rd column) are measured and the values of the cumulative time T(h) in hours
(4th column) are deduced from the intervals. In the 5th column, the infiltrated water
head increments are measured and correspond to the time intervals of the 3rd column. The
cumulative infiltrated water head values in the 6th column are computed from the values
in the 5th column. Finally, only data from column 4 and column 6 are used to plot the
measurement curve and compute, and, against those data, a non-linear regression curve is
plotted using, for example, Minitab [46] or XLSTAT 2014.5.03 software [47].
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 18 of 20

Table 5. Protocol of time series for infiltration measurements with examples of data.

1 2 3 4 5 6
Cumul. Experiment Cumul. Water Head h
Infiltrated Water
Name of the Cumul. Time Time Interval ∆t Time T(h) since the (mm) or Sum of the
Head Increment
Series (min) (min) Beginning of the ∆t ∆h since the
∆h (mm)
Measurements Beginning
10 10 0.17 8 8
I 20 10 0.33 4 12
30 10 0.50 7 19
50 20 0.83 4 23
II 70 20 1.17 3 26
90 20 1.50 2 28
120 30 2.00 1 29
III 150 30 2.50 0.8 29.8
180 30 3.00 0.5 30.3
220 40 3.67 0.4 30.7
IV 260 40 4.33 0.3 31
300 40 5.00 0.2 31.2
350 50 5.83 0.10 31.3
V 400 50 6.67 0.08 31.38
450 50 7.50 0.05 31.43

4. Conclusions
Targeting accuracy in the measurement of saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat , this
study used data collected from 106 measurement locations in three West African countries.
This showed how inaccurately Ksat is measured in many studies when (i) the test duration is
too short, (ii) the infiltration rate and average infiltration rate data, rather than cumulative
infiltration data, are used, (iii) non-linear regression equation of infiltration rates instead
of cumulative infiltration data are used, and (iv) the criterion for the test termination is
not clearly specified. The measurement duration varied in this study from 4 to 50 h, while
most of the tests found in the literature would not last more than 3 h, not allowing for the
infiltration rate to reach Ksat , especially when clay is involved. When infiltration rates are
used instead of cumulative infiltration non-linear regression curves, the gap between the
measured Ksat and the real-world saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat-real-world was found
to vary from 2.2% to 58.8%, even reaching 444.4% when average infiltration rate data were
used. Using differential mathematical analysis, the study explained how operator errors in
time measurement affect the infiltration rate more than cumulative infiltration curves and
led to the conclusion that the cumulative infiltration measurement data procedure is the
best way to estimate the saturated hydraulic conductivity of a soil Ksat . The study proposed
a clear investigation protocol that would help to achieve real-world saturated hydraulic
conductivity Ksat-real-world during investigations.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.K., M.Z., M.D.F. and B.L.; formal analysis, A.K., M.Z.
and B.L.; investigation, A.K. and B.L.; methodology, A.K., M.Z., M.D.F. and D.D.D.; writing—review
and editing, A.K., M.Z. and Y.K.; visualization, A.K., M.Z. and D.D.D.; review and editing, A.K.,
L.G.H. and Y.K.; funding acquisition, D.D.D. and Y.K. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was financially supported by the World Bank through its Excellency Centre in
Africa (CEA), a partner of the International Institute for Water and Environmental Engineering (2iE).
Hydrology 2023, 10, 235 19 of 20

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study will be made available upon request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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