ce the total current density due to drift and diffusion in semiconductors is given by Trt =I g+In + Ty dn dp Jat = (nel, + Petts), +0(#)-n() ees Einstein's Relation: The relation between D & is given by D= (Je (2.41) e where D: Diffusion coefficient K: Bottzmann constant ‘emperature in Kelvin thange of e~ 4 mobility V,; volt equivalent temperature =Vy (2.42) 29) HALL EFFECT Hall effect was discovered by E. H. Hall in 1879, According to Hall effect when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying conductor, a potential difference is developed between the points on opposite side of the conductor. This effect Bives information about the sign of charged carriers in electric conductor,axis, Let a current ‘i is passed in the conductor along X-axis and a magnetic field B is established g Y-axis. Due to the magnetic field, the charge carriers experience a force F perpendicular to . Due to this fact the upper side will be charged negatively while the lower side will be charged Positively. Thus a transverse potential difference is created. This e.m.f. is known as Hall e.m.f. If the fe carriers are positively charged particles like holes, the sign of e.m.f. is reversed. Thus we can potentiometer. Experiments showed that the charge carriers in metals are electrons, while the arge carriers in p-type semiconductors are holes. Holes behave like positively charged particles. ‘As discussed above, there is a displacement of charge carriers. This gives rise to a transverse field known as Halll electric field E,, as shown in Fig. 2.11. This field acts inside the conductor to oppose sideway drift of the charge carrier. When the equilibrium is reached, the magnetic deflecting ces on the charge carriers are balanced by the electric forces due to electric field. Magnetic deflecting force = e(v, x B) Hall electric deflecting force = eE,, 's the net force on the charge carriers become zero e(V, x B)=eE,, or E,, =—(V, x B)ting in terms of magnitude only E, =-V,B (2.43) ‘We know that drift velocity V, is related to the current density J by the following relation ie, (2.44) where 71 is the number of charge carriers per unit volume. Substituting V, value in eq, (2.43), we get 1 Ey, = (2) JB (2.45) ne if V,, be the Hall'voltage in equilibrium, then Ey =(Vy/d) (2.46) where dis the width of the bar, ‘Thus measuring the potential difference V,, between the two faces, E,,can be calculated using eq, (2.46). By measuring current ‘i’ in the slab, the current density can be calculated by using Ais the area of cross section of the slab. The magnetic field B can be measured by a Gauss-meter, So on substituting the values of E,J and B in equation (2.45), we can calculate the value of (Une). ‘The ratio of Hall electric field E,, to the product of current density J and magnetic induction B is known as Hall coefficient. This is denoted by R,,. So where (2.47) ‘The Hall coefficient is negative when the charge cartiers are electrons and positive when charge carriers are holes. Applications of Hall effect @ Hall effect gives information about the sign of charge carriers in electric conductor. It is found that most metals have negatively charged electrons, Hall effect is quite helpful in understanding the electrical conduction in: metals and semiconductors. Gi) (iii) Hall effect can be used to measure the drift velocity of the charge carriers. We know thativ, Measurement of Hall coefficient gives the number c of current carri i be the number of charge carriers per unit volume and A be the trues of pe then a i=neAv, Also v, =a a= innea (ft B Let b be the breadth and d be the width of face area of conductor, then A =b d. So isnebd () B B oe ebdE,, or Biiil]_ P-N JUNCTION DIODE AND ITS V-I CHARACTERISTICS When a p-type material is intimately joined to n-type material, a p-n junction is formed. In fact, merely joining the two pieces a p-n junction cannot be formed because the surface films and other irregularities produce major discontinuities in the crystal structure. ‘Therefore, a p-n junction is formed from a piece of semiconductor by diffusing p-type material to one half side and n-type material to the other half side. The plane dividing the two zones is known as a junction. The p-n junction diode is made from the semiconductor materials such as silicon, getmanium, and gallium arsenide. For designing the diodes, silicon is more preferred over ger- manium, The p-n junction diodes made from silicon semiconductors works at higher temperature when compared with the p-n junction diodes made from germanium semiconductors. We know that there are free holes which move about on p-type, of course, there are equal num- ber of negative acceptor sites keeping the charge balanced. Similarly, there are free electrons which move about on n-type, of course, there are fixed donor sites which keep the electric charge balanced. p-type and n-type semiconductor pieces before they are joined are shown in Fig. 2.12(a). Now let us consider that the two pieces are joined together as shown in Fig. 2.12(b). Due to diffusion, some of the electrons from n-region cross over to p-region where they combine with holes and become neutral. Similarly, some of the holes from p region cross over to region where they combine with electrons and become neutral.p-type neype Positively Oo 0 0 0 eee @, Negative chargedholes C40 9 0 6 eee eS 9 in majority electrons (a) Oo © 0 0 © © @ & inmajority prtype n-type @ Immobile+veion [> Go eee © immobile -ve ion eee b © Hole oo 0 (b) © Electron one -** Migrated electrons NN Migrated holes from n-type Wes from ptype Space change region tots Potential or depletion layer i Ad barrier a) (c) (a) p-type and n-type semicon: (b) p-njunction (after joining) (c) Potential barrier. Fis. 2.12. p-n junction diode \ductors (not joined) Thus a layer is formed which is known as depletion layer or charged free region or space charge region because there is no charge available for conduction. ‘The diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction continues till a potential barrier (Fig. 2.12(c)) is developed in depletion layer or space charge region which prevents further diffusion or neutralization, The potential barrier can be increased or decreased by applying an external voltage. Junction voltage When the depletion layer is formed there are Positive immobile ions in n-type semiconductor and negative immobile ions in p-type semiconduct ‘tor as shown in Fig, 2,13,type mtype | Immobile ie | Immobile negative ions positive ions fic.2.13 Junction voltage Now due to charge separation, a voltage, V, is developed across the junction under equilibrium conditions. This voltage is known as junction voltage or internal voltage. Forward bias in p-n junction diode When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to p-type semiconductor and negative terminal is connected to n-type semiconductor, then the junction is called forward biased and is shown in Fig. 2.14. The effect of the forward bias is to lower the potential barrier across the depletion layer. P N + = Holes > Electrons —— Electron flow mA Fis.214 Forward bias in p-n junction diode i aoe of the forward bias, the holes from p-type semiconductor are repelled by the positive a terminal towards the junction and simultaneously the electrons in n-type semi-conductor *epelled by negative battery terminal towards junction. Here battery voltage should be higho impart sufficient energy to these carriers to overcome the potential barrier at the junction able them to cross through it. Hence large current flows as long as the battery voltage is applieg ‘The current flow may be understood as follows: When an electron hole combination takes place near the junction, a covalent bond near the positive terminal of battery breaks down. This causes the liberation of an electron which enters the positive terminal. This action creates a new hole which moves towards the junction. For each electron in n region that combines with a hole from p region, an electron enters the crystal from the negative terminal of the battery. The constant movement of the electrons towards the positive terminal ang the holes towards the negative terminal produces a high forward current. As the applied voltage jg increased further, the electrons and holes having lower energy will be able to cross the potentia] barrier and the current will increase further. V-I characteristics of forward biased p-n junction diode The V-I characteristics or voltage-current characteristics of the p-n junction diode is shown in the below Fig. 2.15. The horizontal line in the below figure represents the amount of voltage applied across the p-n junction diode whereas the vertical line represents the amount of current flows in the p-n junction diode. If the external voltage applied on the silicon diode is less than 0.7 volts, the silicon diode allows only a small electric current. However, this small electric current is considered as negligible. Ie (MA) Silicon : VV) V, = 0.7volts (V) Fic. 2.15 V-I characteristics of forward biased p-n junction diodes ‘When the external voltage applied on the silicon diode reaches 0.7 volts, the p-n junction diodt starts allowing large electric current through it. At this point, a small increase in voltage increas the electric current rapidly. The forward voltage at which the silicon diode starts allowing large electric current is called cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage for silicon diode is approximately 0.7 V Similarly the cut-in voltage for Germanium diode is approximately 0.3 V.bias in p-n junction diode en the positive terminal of a battery is connected to n- is connected to p-type semiconductor, the junction is 2.16. The effect of reverse bias is to increase the potenti type semiconductor, and negative ter- called reverse biased and is shown in ial barrier, thus allowing a very little Potential barrier is increased + “ 1 [1 SS <-O-0 | T e+e <-O+ | | ee «ono | | ee Piype: N type | | iased, the electrons in n-type semiconductor and holes in p-type from the junction under the action of ‘applied voltage. Since there urrent is negligibly small, i., the junction has high ‘When the junction is reverse bi conductor are attracted away o recombination of electron-hole pairs, the c\ ce. ‘characteristics of reverse biased p-n junction diode ; se biased p-n junction diode, V,, represents the reverse voltage whereas I, represents the reverse current.Breakdown, . voltage Reverse saturation current |,(mA) Fic. 2.17 Reverse characteristics of diode Due to reverse biasing of p-n junction diode, width of the depletion region increases, The wide depletion region completely blocks the majority charge carrier current. However, it allows the minority charge carrier current. The free electrons (minority carriers) in the p-type semiconductor and the holes (minority carriers) in the n-type semiconductor carry the electric current. The electric current, which is carried by the minority charge carriers in the p-n junction diode, is called reverse current. : In n-type and p-type semiconductors, very small number of minority charge carriers is present. Hence, a small voltage applied on the diode pushes all the minority carriers towards the junction. ‘Thus, further increase in the external voltage does not increase the electric current. This electric current is called reverse saturation current. In other words, the voltage or point at which the electric current reaches its maximum level and further increase in yoltage does not increase the electric current is called reverse saturation current. ‘The reverse saturation current is depends on the temperature. If temperature increases the genet- ation of minority charge carriers increases. Hence, the reverse current increases with the increase in temperature. However, the reverse saturation current is independent of the external reverse voltage, Hence, the reverse saturation current remains constant with the increase in voltage. However, if the voltage applied on the diode is increased continuously, the p-n junction diode reaches to a state where junction breakdown occurs and reverse current increases rapidly. In germanium diodes, a small increase in temperature generates large number of minority ‘charge ers, The number of minority charge carriers generated in the germanium diodes is greater than Secican diodes. Hence, the reverse saturation current in the germanium diodes is greater than the silicon diodes.Vidvantages of p-n junction diode jp junction diode isthe simplest form of all the semiconductor devices. However, diodes plays a jor role in many electronic devices. «A p-n junction diode-can be used to convert the alternating current (AC) to the direct current (DC). These diodes are used in power supply devices. If the diode is forward biased, it allows the current flow. On the other hand, if it is reverse biased, it blocks the current flow. In other words, the p-n junction diode becomes on when it ze forward biased whereas the p-n junction diode becomes off when it is reversed biased (ie. it acts as switch). Thus, the p-n junction diode is used as electronic switch in digital logic circuits. ZENER DIODE AND ITS V-I CHARACTERISTICS ormal p-n junction diode allows electric current only in forward biased condition. When for- ard biased voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, it allows large amount of electric current d blocks only a small amount of electric current. Hence, a forward biased p-n junction diode offer ‘only a small resistance to the electric current. “When reverse biased voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, it blocks large amount of elec- ‘c current and allows only a small amount of electric current. Hence, a reverse biased p-n junction diode offer large resistance to the electric current. “if reverse biased voltage applied to the p-n junction diode is highly increased, a sudden rise in ent occurs, At this point, a small increase in voltage will rapidly increases the electric current. is sudden rise in electric current causes a junction breakdown called zener or avalanche break- wn. The voltage at which zener breakdown occurs is called zener voltage and the sudden increase current is called zener current. " Anormal p-n junction diode does not operate in breakdown region because the excess current ermanently damages the diode. Therefore, a normal p-n junction diode does not operate in reverse akdown region. Zener diodes are the basic building blocks of electronic circuits. They are widely Ticed in all Kins of electronic equipments. Zener diodes are mainly used to protect electronic cir- cd p-n junction diodes because of their narrow deple- ‘The zener breakdown occurs in heavily dope region. When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode is increased, the narrow depletion fegion generates strong electric field. ‘When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode reaches close to zener voltage, the electric field the depletion region i strong enough to pul electrons from thei valence band. The valence elec which gain sufficient energy from the strong electric field of depletion region will break the nding with the parent atom. These valance electrons will become free and carry electric current om one place to another place. At zener breakdown region, a small increase in voltage will rapidlythe electric current. Zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltage whereas avalanche lown occurs at high reverse voltage. Fig. 2.18 Representation of zener diode V-I characteristics of zener diode ‘The V-I characteristics of a zener diode is shown in the Fig. 2.19. When forward biased voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works like a normal diode. However, when reverse biased voltage is applied to the zener diode, it works in different manner. Breakdown voltage Va (V) Zener breakdown Reverse saturation current 1, (ma) Fic. 2.19 Zener breakdown ‘When the reverse biased voltage is applied to a zener diode, it allows only a small amount of leak- age current until the voltage is less than zener voltage. When the applied voltage to the zener diode reaches the zener voltage, it starts allowing large amount of electric current. At this point, a sma increase in reverse voltage will rapidly increase the electric current, Because of this sudden rise in electric current, breakdown occurs which is called zener breakdown. However, zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown that does not damage the device,vantages of zener diode + Power dissipation capacity is very high « High accuracy Small size + Low cost Applications of zener diode Zener diodes can be used as _+ voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators, switching operations lipping and clamping circuits. various protection circuits BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR A junction transistor is simply a sandwich of one type of semiconductor material between two lay- ss of the other type. Accordingly, there are two types of transistor: /1. N-P-N transistor and 2. P-N-P transistor. ‘When a layer of P type material, is sandwiched between two layers of N-type material the tran- ris known as N-P-N transistor. This is shown in Fig, 2.20(a). Similarly, when a layer of N-typeEMITTER COLLECTOR on je} wn Lg E c E c B BASE B (a) structure and symbol of N-P-N Transister EMITTER COLLECTOR o— Pp |n| p Loo E c E c B BASE B (b) structure and symbol of P-N-P Transister Fic. 2.20 N-P-Nand P-N-P transistor Although the two outer regions are of the sam e type but they cannot be interchanged. ‘The rea- son is that the two regions have different physical and electrical properties. The collector region is made physically larger than emitter regiot n. The base is very thin and lightly doped. The emitter is heavily doped while the doping of collector is between the heavy doping of emitter and light doping of the base. A transistor (N-P-N or P-N-P) has the following sections: (i) Emitter. This forms the left hand section or region of the transistor, The main function of this region is to supply majority charge carriers (either electrons or holes) to the base and hence it is more heavily doped in comparison to other regions. (ii) Base. The middle section of the transistor is known as base. This is ver very thin (10° m) as compared to either emitter or collector so that it may charge carriers to the collector. (iii) Collector. The right hand section of the transistor is called as collector. The main function of the collector is to collect majority charge carriers through the base. This is moderately doped. y lightly doped and is pass most of the injected As regards the symbols, arrowhead is always at the emitter. The direction indicates the conven: tional direction of current flow i.e,, in case of N-P-N transistor it is from base to emitter (base is positive with respect to emitter) while in case of P-N-P transistor it is from emitter to base (emitter is positive with respect to base). | ; ' In most of the transistors, the collector region is made physically larger than the emitter region. This is due to the fact that collector has to dissipate much greater power. Due to this difference, collector and emitter are not inter-changeable. For the sake of convenience, it is customary to show emitter and collector to be of equal size.jt should be remembered that a transistor is just like two diodes. The junction between emitter base may be called as emitter base diode or simply emitter diode. Similarly, the junction between. fase and collector may be called as collector base diode or simply collector diode. Drevicty ata ifransistor biasing, The transistor biasing is shown in Fig. 2.21. The emitter-base junction is always forward-biased while the collector base junction is always reversed biased. For this purpose ; battery V,, is connected between emitter and base while a For this Purpose a battery V.cis con- nected between collector and base. In Fig. 2.21(a), the emitter-base junction of P-N-P aaa js forward -biased by connecting the positive terminal of V,,to emitter and negative terminal a pase. Similarly, in Fig. 2.21(b), the emitter-base junction of N-P-N transistor is forward-biased by Veo (a) P-N-P Transister Biasing (b) A-P-N Transister Biasing .21 Transistor biasing ‘ Fig. 2.21(a), the collector-base junction of a P-N-P transistor is reverse-biased by connecting le negative terminal of V, to collector while positive terminal to base, Similarly, in Fig. 2.21(b), the llector-base junction of N-P-N transistor is reverse-biased by connecting the positive terminal of Collector while negative terminal to base. The forward biasing of emitter-base junction allows sistance for emitter circuit and reverse biasing of collector-base junction provides high resis- the collector circuit, Be tonave seen that forward-biased emitter-base junction has a low resistance path Whereas biased collector-base junction has high resistance path. In a transistor, a weak signal " introduced in low resistance circuit and the output is taken from the high resistance circu So, transistor transfers a signal from low resistance to high resistance. The prefix trans’ means the sig. * transfer property of the device while ‘istor’ classifies as a solid element in the same general family with resistors. Sign conventions. As a standard convention, a current entering into the transistor is taken as Osi. tive while a current flowing out is taken as negative. So, for a P-N-P transistor, Fig. 2.21(a), the emit. ter current is positive while the base and collector currents are negative. In case of N-P-N transistor, Fig. 2.21(b), the emitter current is negative whertas both the base current and collector current are Positive. BafH]_ OPERATION OF P-N-PTRANSISTOR Figure 2.22 shows a PNP transistor with emitter-base 2 junction as forward biased and collector-base junction as reverse biased. EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR Pp N P £4) Oro lo-+lo+o+| « O+ o> |o+| o+o+ oO 0+ | + 0] o +o COLLECTOR JUNCTION roe lec EMITTER JUNCTION Fic. 2.22 Operation of PNP transistor ‘The operation of PNP transistor is as follows : The holes of P Positive terminal of battery V,,, towards the base. The potential b: as it is forward bias and hence the holes cross this junction and tute the emitter current I. The width of the base region is very t only two to five percent of the holes recombine with the free el the base current I,, which, of course, is very small, The remaii drift across the base and enter the collector region. They are s age V,,. They constitute the collector current I, region (emitter) are repelled by the arrier at emitter junction is reduced penetrate into N region, This consti- thin and it is lightly doped and hence lectrons of N region. This constitute ining holes (95% to 98%) are able to wept up by the negative collector volt-‘As each hole reaches the collector electrode, an electron is emitted from the negative terminal of and neutralizes the hole. Now a covalent bond near the emitter electrode breaks down. The ited electron enter the positive terminal of battery V,, while the hole immediately moves towards emitter junction. ‘This process is repeated again and again. Here is should be remembered that: (i), Current conduction within PNP transistor takes place by hole conduction from emitter to oj collector, ie., majority charge carries in PNP transistor are holes. The conduction in the external circuit is carried out by electrons. ‘The collector current is slighty less than the emitter current. This is due to the fact that 2 to 5% of the holes are lost in recombination with electron in base region. Thus the collector current is slightly less than emitter current. ‘The collector current is a function of emitter current, i.e., with the increase or decrease in the emitter current, a corresponding change in collector current is observed. “Beside hole current, there is electron current which flows from base region to emitter region, ‘Thus current depends upon emitter base potential As the width of the base region is very small, the ratio of hole current to electron current is very small. So for all practical purposes, the electron ent may be neglected. Thus only the hole current plays an important role in the operation of PNP OPERATION OF N-P-N TRANSISTOR ihe biasing of a NPN transistor is shown in Fig. 2.23. The emitter junction is forward biased because lectrons are repelled from the negative emitter battery terminal V,,, towards the junction. The ollector junction is reverse biased because electrons are flowing away from the collector junction wards the positive collector battery terminal V_.. EMITTER BASE» COLLECTOR N P N mA EMITTER | COLLECTOR i JUNCTION JUNCTION —. “abut Hh cate Vee Veo 6, 2.23 Operation of N-P-N transistorelectron in the emitter region are repelled tter junction. Since the potential barrier gion is very thin and lightly doped, ine with the holes in P region and x region) readily swept up by he collector and entering the eration of NPN transistor is as follows : The inal of battery towards the emi j d due to forward bias and base re strons cross the P-type base region. A few electrons com’ are lost as charge carrier. Now the electrons in N region (collector the positive collector voltage Vc, For every electron flowing out t ositive terminal of battery V,,. an electron from the negative emitter battery terminal enters the emitter region. In this way electron conduction takes place continuously so long as the two junctions are properly biased. So the current conduction in NPN transistor is carried out by electrons. e negative termil junction is reduce ace nae SOLVED EXAMPLES 1. Calculate the number of donor atoms per m’ of n-type material having resistivity of 0.25 Q-m, the mobility of electrons is 0.3 m’/V-s. Solution: We know, Bip 1 o new, [Since n = number of free electron per m’~ number of donor atoms in n-type] 1 1 aD ti 18 pen, 0.25x1.6x10 x03 ear So 2. For an intrinsic semiconductor with gap width E_ = 0.7 eV, calculate the concentration of intrinsic charge carriers at 300 K assuming that m*= m, (rest mass of electron) Solution: Formula _of2amkTY” (-2, nal z ) exp | Ser (may" = ——— K 7X (6.62610