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Thermal Processing of Milk

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Recent Technologies in Dairy Science (2019): 39-66

Editors : Rekha Rani, Bhopal Singh, Chetan N Dharaiya, Hanslal and Arghya Mani
Today & Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi - 110 002, India

3
THERMAL PROCESSING OF MILK
Ronit Mandal*, Subrata Kumar Bag and
Anubhav Pratap Singh

ABSTRACT
Thermal processing as a food preservation method is being practiced
since the beginning of the modern food industry. During the late 1800s
the thermal processing paved its way for application in the food sector,
after heating of foods was proved to destroy pathogenic and spoilage
causing microorganisms. Milk is believed to be a wonderful medium
for microbial growth, owing to its high water activity and microbial
growth supporting factors. Resultantly milk manifests huge microbial
load, if contamination occurs. Due to its perishable nature, it is required
to carry out heat treatment of milk to destroy the microorganisms as
soon as it is received in the dairies. However, heat treatment of milk
also brings about some chemical changes which may be desirable or
undesirable. Undesirable changes may include alterations in the sensory
properties and depletion of nutrition value of milk. So careful
optimization of thermal processes is needed to maximize microbial
inactivation and minimize the undesirable ones. Based on these the
dairy industry has adopted several thermal processing methods. This
chapter elucidates the various pros and cons of thermal processing by
throwing light into the basics of heat transfer phenomena, reaction
kinetic study of the processes. The heat transfer equipment used in the
dairy industry and various heat treatment methods have been discussed
in details.

Keywords: Milk, pasteurization, thermal processing, heat exchangers

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Thermal processing of food products have been practiced since a
long time for their preservation, and extension of their shelf-life. The heat
treatment was introduced in food industry as a method of preservation,
after being inspired by the early works of Nicholas Appert (1749-1841)
40

and the renowned scientist Dr. Louis Pasteur (1822–1895). In late 1790s,
Appert began experimenting to preserve food products in closed container.
He was the pioneer of the canning technology and called ‘Father of canning’.
In his honour, canning is also called appertization. On the other hand Dr.
Pasteur studied and proved the role of heat in the destruction of
microorganisms. In 1864, he introduced a novel method to control abnormal
fermentation in wine and its spoilage by destroying the causal organisms
by heating to about 60 °C. This led to the coining of the term ‘pasteurization’
in his honour. Heating as a process of milk preservation was studied by
John B. Meyenberg (1847-1914) during 1883. He demonstrated that heating
of evaporated milk can enhance its shelf life. Later in 1886, renowned
German scientist Dr. Franz Ritter von Soxhlet (1848-1926) proposed
pasteurization process as a method of milk preservation when he found a
method to thermally process the milk for consumption by infants (De, 2012).
Milk is an excellent medium for microbial proliferation and it supports
growth of numerous microorganisms (whether pathogenic or spoilage
causing). Some of the groups of microorganisms associated with disease
outbreak and spoilage of milk and milk products are given in the Table 1.
Untreated or raw milk consumption is harmful for our health. There have
been numerous reports of outbreak of harmful diseases due to consumption
of raw milk. Diseases like typhoid and tuberculosis have been reported to
spread by milk. On the other hand, the spoilage of milk occurs in various
forms like souring and curdling due to lactic acid production by
microorganisms which break down milk sugar (lactose). Microorganisms
also hydrolyse proteins and fat, or other components present in the milk by
producing enzymes to yield products for their growth, leading to off-
flavours and other irreversible transformations in the process (Walstra et
al., 2006). Right after milking, milk remains fresh at ambient conditions
for about two hours due to its natural inhibitory factors like lactoferrin,
lysozyme. Thereafter, the milk starts being acted upon by microorganisms.
Thus, this necessitates the processing and preservation of milk within two
hours of milking for enhanced shelf life and safe consumption, preventing
spoilage and manufacturing various dairy products. Henceforth, thermal
processing has emerged in the dairy industry as a principal method to
preserve milk and extend its shelf-life.
 41

Table 1 Disease and spoilage causing microorganisms associated with milk and milk
products
Pathogenic microorganisms Spoilage causing microorganism
Microorganism Disease Microorganism Spoilage
Enterobacteriaceae Spore formers
Escherichia coli Gastroenteritis Bacillus cereus Sweet curdling, bitty
cream in pasteurizedmilk
and cream
Salmonella Gastroenteritis, Bacillus subtilis Spoil sterilized milk
typhoid fever
Shigella Gastroenteritis Bacillus Spoil evaporated milk
stearothermophilus
Other Gram- Clostridium Late blowing in cheese
negative bacteria tyrobutyricum
Brucella abortus Brucellosis Coliforms
(abortion)
Campylobacter jejuni Gastroenteritis Escherichia coli Spoil milk and cheese
Gram-positive spore Klebsiella Spoil milk
formers aerogenes
Bacillus cereus Intestinal Lactic acid bacteria
intoxication
Clostridium Gas gangrene Lactobacillus Sour milk
perfringens species
Clostridium botulinum Botulism Lactococcus lactis Sour milk
Gram-positive cocci Streptococcus Sour milk
thermophiles
Staphylococcus aureus Emetic Psychrotrophs
intoxication
Streptococcus Sore throat Pseudomonas Hydrolyze protein and fat
agalactiaea in cold-stored milk
Streptococcus Scarlet fever, Thermoduric
pyogenes sore throat bacteria
Miscellaneous Micrococcus Can grow in pasteurized
Gram-positive species products
bacteria
Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Yeasts Spoil cheese, butter,
tuberculosis sweetened condensed
milk
42

Mycobacterium Johne’s disease Molds Spoil cheese, sweetened

paratuberculosis (only ruminants) condensed milk
Listeria Listeriosis
monocytogenes
Rickettsia
Coxiella burnetii Q fever
Viruses
Enterovirus, rotavirus Enteric infection
Fungi
Molds Mycotoxicoses
Protozoa
Entamoeba histolytica Amoebiasis

(Source: Walstra et al. (2006). Dairy science and technology (2nd ed.), CRS Press)

The manufacture of all milk and milk products like market milk
(for daily consumption), butter, cheese, cultures products, ice-creams, dried
milk powder etc. require heat treatment at one stage or the other in their
processing lines. This heat treatment serves the principal function of
inactivation of microorganisms. Microbial inactivation occurs as a result
of denaturation of proteins in cell body, rupture of cell membrane and
hampering of important physiological reactions in the cell. Furthermore, it
has auxiliary functions like inactivation of enzymes, imparting some
chemical changes and usage in pre-treatment. For instance, enzyme
inactivation is necessary in case of homogenization of milk where milder
heat treatment (55°C) is used to inactivate lipase enzyme. Filtration,
clarification and cream separation processes require pre-heating of milk at
35-40°C for efficiency. Pre-heating is also carried out for milk in cheese-
making and cultured dairy foods manufacturing to stimulate the growth of
microorganisms in starter cultures. Nevertheless, the desired results rely
mainly on the intensity of the heat treatment that is temperature-holding
time combination. Heat treatment also has some associated undesirable
effects like overcooking, cooked flavour development, browning, fouling
or deposition on equipment, degradation of nutrients, hampering of
rennetability of cheese milk due to whey protein-casein interactions. In
some products however this changes may have desirable effect like, slight
cooked flavour and browning in heat desiccated products (khoa) and coffee
creamers (de Jong, 2008), as well as whey protein denaturation and
increased water-binding capacities leading to lowered syneresis of whey
 43

in case of cultured products like dahi (Indian variant of yoghurt made with
mesophilic cultures) and yoghurt. This implies that heat treatment should
be carefully optimized as per the processing method of different milk
products (Bylund, 1995; Walstra et al., 2006; de Jong, 2008).
This chapter aims to define the fundamentals of heat transfer,
kinetic aspects of thermal processing of milk, objectives of thermal
processing in the dairy industry, the various physico-chemical changes
occurring at high temperatures and finally, practical aspects of thermal
processing.
2.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer is an important unit operation during the thermal
processing of milk in the dairy industry. The quantity of heat (Q) that has
to be transferred for heating a milk sample from temperature Tm1 to Tm2 per
unit time is given by Equation 1.

Q  Vc p (Tm 2  Tm1 ) (1)

Where, V = milk flow rate (m3s1), cp = specific heat of the milk (kJ kg-1 K-
1
), and ρ = milk density (kg m-3 ). For example, heating whole milk
(assuming, ρ = 1032 kg m-3) from 10°C to 72°C at a flow rate of 7200 L h1
consumes about 500 kW (from Figure 2).
Let us say, milk is heated by using hot water in a plate type
exchanger. Heat from bulk of water transfers to the layers adjacent to plate
by convection and it is conducted by the plate; again heat from plate is
transferred into the bulk of milk by convection. Typical representation is
given in the following figure (Figure 1). Taking following parameters for
heat transfer:
 hw = Convective heat transfer coefficient (water side) (W m-2 K-1)
 k = Thermal conductivity of plate material (W m-1 K-1) (for Stainless
steel material, k = 17 W m-1 K-1 (Walstra et al., 2006))
 d = Plate thickness (m)
 A = Plate area (m2)
 hm = Convective heat transfer coefficient (milk side) (W m-2 K-1)
44

Figure 1 Heat transfer from water to milk in a plate heat exchanger

Since the heat is transferred from hot water to the milk, by involving
convection and conduction, it is represented by overall heat transfer
coefficient for the combined convection and conduction process. Overall
heat transfer equation is given by Equation 2.

Q  U o ATlm (2)

Where, Uo = Overall heat transfer coefficient, W m-2 K-1, Tlm = log mean
temperature difference (LMTD). LMTD is calculated by considering inlet
and outlet temperature differences (i and o) between the hot water and
milk.

(a) (b)
Figure 2 Inlet and outlet temperature differences (a) Parallel flow and (b) counter
flow

LMTD is calculated by using following expression as in Equation 3.

i  o
 Tlm 

ln i …….............................................. (3)
o
 45

In case, i = o then, average is taken.

i   o
Tlm  ..…………. .……. ……. (4)
2
Uo is calculated by following expression as in Equation 5.

1 1 d 1
  
U o hw k hm ……………………………… (5)

In case of tubular heat exchangers with inner and outer diameter of inner
tube being di and do respectively, the Uo is calculated using the following
equation.

d o ln d o
1 1 di do
   …………………(6)
U o hw 2k d i hm

For Uo value of 500 W/m2K; if ΔTlm is 20 K, then in the example heat

transfer area of 50 m2 would be required. The value of Uo for several
conditions is given in Table 4.
The values of cp, k and ρ are temperature-dependant. But the
convective heat transfer coefficients (hm and hw) values depend strongly on
heating/cooling fluid and milk as well as flow regime (laminar and
turbulent) (as in Table 3). In case laminar flow, hm and hw assume smaller
values because heat transfer through the fluids is by thermal diffusion. But
in turbulent flow, high hm and hw values are obtained due to higher Reynolds
number (Re). The convective heat transfer coefficients can be estimated
from Nusselt number (Nu) by Equation 10. Nu correlations for the turbulent
flow of fluids passing over a flat plate (Re > 3  105), and through a tube
(Re > 10000) are given by Equations 7 and 8, respectively and values of hm
and hw can be estimated. In case of heating milk in a tubular heat exchanger
hot water flows over inner tube (through which milk passes). In such a
situation, water side convective heat transfer coefficient (hw) for flow of
hot water over the tube can be estimated for flow over tube by correlation
in Equation 9.

… … … … … … … … … … … … (7)
Nu  0.664 Re 0.5 Pr 0.3
46

Nu  0.027 Re 0.8 Pr n ….………………………(8)

Nu  0.3 Re 0.6 ………………………………… (9)

Where, n = 0.4 for heating and 0.3 for cooling of milk, Pr = Prandtl number
Nusselt number (Nu) is given by,

hm l
Nu  ….…………………………………. (10)
k
Where, l = characteristic length (it can be δ (gap between plates in plate
heat exchanger), di, or L (length of tube)).
Re and Pr are given by Equations 11 and 12, respectively.

lv
Re  …………………………………….. (11)


c p
Pr  .. …………………………………… (12)
k
Where, v = average flow velocity, and μ = viscosity of the liquid (Pa-s).
Convective heat transfer coefficients can be calculated by using these
equations together with tabulated data.
Table 2 Effect of composition and temperature on thermal conductivity (k) [W m-1
K-1], specific heat (cp) [kJ kg-1 K-1] and viscosity (μ) [Pa-s] of water and various milk
products
Product 0°C 20°C 80°C
k m (µ) cp k μ k μ
Water 0.57 1.79 4.2 0.60 1.00 0.66 0.36
Skim milk — 3.45 3.8 0.54 1.68 0.63 0.56
Whole milk 0.45 — 3.9 0.52 1.93 0.61 —
Concentrated milk (1:1.9) — — 3.5 0.48 3.1 0.56 —
Concentrated milk (1:2.5) — — 3.2 0.45 6.3 0.53 —
Cream (25 % Fat) 0.32 — 3.5 0.37 4.2 — —
Cream (45 % Fat) 0.28 — 3.2 0.32 13.5 — —
Milk fat 0.13 — 2.2 0.17 71 — —
nd
(Source: Walstra et al. (2006). Dairy science and technology (2 ed.), CRS Press)
 47

Table 3 Convective heat transfer coefficients, h (W m-2 K -1) for some media under
various conditions
Medium Conditions h
Air Flowing 10–100
Water Flowing 600–6000
Water Boiling 2000–7000
Steam Condensing 6000–17000
Whole milk < 38 °C; Re = 104 800
< 38 °C; Re = 10 5
2900
< 70 °C; Re = 104 500
< 70 °C; Re = 105 2000
Cream (25% Fat) < 38 °C; Re = 10 4
650
< 70 °C; Re = 104 450
(Source: Walstra et al. (2006). Dairy science and technology (2nd ed.), CRS Press)

Table 4 Overall heat transfer coefficient (Uo) [W m-2 K -1] values for various conditions
Heating/ cooling Milk product Condition Uo
medium
Surrounding air Whole milk Double jacketed (empty) 3
Tank, no stirrer
Water Water Jacketed tank, stirrer and scraper 640
Water Soured cream Jacketed tank, stirrer and scraper 215
(35.5 % Fat)
Water Cream Jacketed tank, stirrer and scraper 350
(35.5 % Fat)
Water Cream Jacketed tank, stirrer but no scraper 230
(35.5 % Fat)
Water Yogurt Jacketed tank, stirrer but no scraper 290
Water Yogurt Jacketed tank, stirrer rate halved and 140
no scraper
Water Water Plate heat exchanger, regeneration 3200
section
Water Water Plate heat exchanger, heating section 4900
Water Water Plate heat exchanger, cooling section 3500
48

Steam Whey Evaporatora 40 °C 1400

a
Steam Whey Evaporator 70°C 3300
Steam Concentrated Evaporatora 40°C 750
whey (50 %
dry matter)
Steam Concentrated Evaporatora 70°C 2600
whey (50 %
dry matter)
Steam Skim milk Evaporator a, first effect 2300–
2600
Steam Skim milk Evaporator a, second effect 1900–
(concentrated) 2200
Steam Skim milk Evaporator a, third effect 1000–
(concentrated) 1200
Steam Whole milk Evaporator a, first effect 2000–
2200
Steam Whole milk Evaporator a, second effect 1700–
(concentrated) 1900
Steam Whole milk Evaporator a, third effect 900–
(concentrated) 1100
a
Falling film type

(Source: Walstra et al. (2006). Dairy science and technology (2nd ed.), CRS Press)

3.0 CHANGES DURING THERMAL PROCESSING OF MILK

Several heat-induced reactions or changes in milk occur due to applied
temperature-time combinations and most of these may be inter-related.
Major heat-induced changes that occur during heat treatment of milk can
be listed as follows (Walstra et al., 2006):
(a) Removal of gases (O2, CO2).
(b) Increase in colloidal phosphate and decrease in [Ca2+].
(c) Lactose isomerizes and partly degrades to lactulose and organic
acids.
(d) Hydrolysis of phosphoric esters in casein to increase inorganic
phosphate.
(e) Decrease in pH of milk due to (b), (c), and (d).
(f) Whey proteins get denatured and become insoluble.
 49

(g) Interaction of -lactoglobulin and K-casein which impairs

rennetability of cheese milk.
(h) Enzymes get inactivated (lipase, alkaline phosphatase,
lactoperoxidase).
(i) Sugar-amine reaction and onset of Maillard browning leading to
loss of lysine (an essential amino-acid).
(j) Free sulphydryl groups are formed and induce cooked flavour in
heated milk.
(k) Aggregation of casein micelles and coagulation.
(l) Formation of lactones and methyl ketones from fatty acids.
(m) Degradation of Vitamin B1 and C.
(n) Inactivation of bacterial growth inhibitors like lactoferrin,
immunoglobins, lactoperoxidase as well as development of growth
stimulants like formic acid which can induce bacterial growth.
(o) Decrease in nutritive value due to loss of lysine, vitamins;
summarized in Table 7.
(p) Viscosity increases mainly due to whey protein denaturation and
casein aggregation. Latter is more pronounced in case of
sterilization of concentrated milk.
(q) Flavour changes occur: mild heating (75°C for 20 s) changes
flavour of raw milk to flat flavour. Intense heat treatment like 80-
100°C develops cooked flavour in milk due to H2S formation.
Lactones from fats and maltol, isomaltol produced due to Maillard
browning also change flavour.
(r) Colour changes occur: during moderate heat treatment whey
proteins insolubilize and denature, which increase scattering of
light and milk appears whiter. At highly intense treatments, slight
brown discoloration is observed due to Maillard browning.
(s) Creaming decreases in milk leading to cream line reduction due to
denaturation of agglutinin (immunoglobin, IgM).
(t) Heat treatment of milk prior to concentration has tendency to
prevent age gelation and heat coagulation in sweetened condensed
milk and evaporated milk, respectively.
50

4.0 REACTION KINETIC ASPECTS OF THERMAL PROCESSING

The heating process can be considered as a chemical reactor in
which the microbial inactivation, as well as chemical changes in nutrients
and other components have to be balanced. Figure 3 explains the
optimization of the heating process in the reactor. Reaction rate of every
chemical change is temperature dependant, which differs in the degree; an
optimal temperature profile in the reactor may be established. It will
maximize desired changes and minimize undesirable ones. In the Figure 3
curve A shows microorganism inactivation (desirable) and curve B, a
nutrient degradation (undesirable), a high temperature-short time processing
will result in a better end product.

Figure 3. Optimization of heat treatment

Figure 4 represents the effect of the temperature-time combination

on the milk components and microorganisms. Therefore changes in major
components have to be evaluated for efficient heating process design.
.

Figure 4 Temperature–time dependency of several chemical reactions based on model

calculations and applied heating processes in the dairy industry. (D = decimal reduction
time) (Source: de Jong (2008). Advanced dairy science and technology, Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.)
 51

Of all the major changes in milk, the important one is heat

denaturation of proteins in milk. Denaturation leads to unfolding of
polypeptide chains exposing reactive side groups which may undergo
irreversible reactions. Denaturation, as well as the microbial inactivation
is modelled as per rate kinetics study. Both microbial inactivation and
protein denaturation show first-order reaction kinetics (Walstra et al., 2006),
as in Equation 13.

dC
  KC ……………………………… …(13)
dt
Where, C = Concentration, t = time, K= rate constant (s-1). On integration
from initial concentration Co to final concentration C, we get,

Co
ln( )  Kt …………………………………(14)
C
Or,

C  C o e  Kt ……………………………………(15)
Duration of heat treatment (t’) is another important parameter referring to
the time necessary for achieving certain change like 99 % reduction in
enzyme activity.

(ln C o )
t  C …………………………………(16)
K
When, C o /C is 10, i.e. 90 % reduction in microorganisms or 90 %
denaturation, the time t’ required is called decimal reduction time (D).

D  (ln 10)
K ……………………………… (17)
Initial steps of reactions like Maillard reaction, auto-oxidation of fat show
zero-order kinetics, as the initial concentration of products are absent. Later
on, due to accumulation of end-products, the reaction proceeds as per first-
order kinetics. Zero-order kinetics is given by Equation 18.

dC
 K ………………………………….. (18)
dt
52

On integration,

C  Kt  Co ………………………………. (19)
Where, Co  0. The temperature dependence of a reaction is said to follow
the Arrhenius relationship given by Equation 20.

 E 
K (T )  K o exp  a  …………………. (20)
 RT 
Where, T = absolute temperature (K), Ko = initial rate constant
corresponding to Ea  0, s-1, Ea = the molar activation energy, J mol-1, R =
universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol-1 K-1).
The temperature dependence is also expressed in terms of Q10 value
(Equation 21), which denotes the consequence on reaction rate by 10°C
temperature rise.

K T 10
Q10  …………………………….(21)
KT

The values of Ea and Q10 or several reactions are given in Table 5.

Table 5 Values of activation energy, Ea [kJ mol-1] and Q10 value for several reactions
Chemical reactions Ea Q10 value
Many chemical reactions 80–125 2–3
Most enzyme-catalyzed reactions 35–55 1.6–2.2a
Heat denaturation of proteins 150–500 4–75
Enzyme inactivation 450 50
Maillard reactions 100–180 2.4–5
Autoxidation of lipids 40–100 1.7–3.8a
Killing of vegetative bacteria 200–500 6–75
Killing of spores 250–330 9–18
a
Measured at 25 °C
(Source: Walstra et al. (2006). Dairy science and technology (2nd ed.), CRS Press)

5.0 THERMAL PROCESSING APPLICATIONS IN DAIRY

INDUSTRY
Heating is applied in dairy industries according to treatment and end-
 53

results desired. Mainly the focus is shifted towards destruction of

pathogenic and spoilage causing microorganisms and inactivation of
enzymes for enhancement of shelf-life. However, intricacies related to
thermal destruction of nutrients cannot be overlooked, which have been
summarized in Table 7. Practically, heat treatment is classified in the dairy
industry as per different heating intensities [Temperature (T)-time (t’)
combinations]. Comparison of the different heating processes has been
given in Table 6.
5.1. THERMIZATION
This is a low intensity heat treatment of milk. It is intended for
milk which is to be stored and not undergo processing immediately after
reception. So, a mild heat treatment is applied before storing and further
processing. Typical temperature-time combinations used for the process
are 68°C for 10 s or 65°C for 20 s (de Jong, 2008). After heat treatment,
milk must be rapidly chilled to 4°C or less to prevent growth of aerobic
spore-formers (Bylund, 1995). However, milk before processing into
products needs to be further heat treated. The main purpose of the process
is to kill psychrotrophs, majority of which produce heat-resistant lipases
and proteinases that can degrade quality of milk products. There is partial
inactivation of some enzymes; however alkaline phosphatase is not
inactivated. Also, no irreversible change is brought to milk. Thermization
aims to reduce the number of microorganisms by 3-4 logs (1 log reduction
is equivalent to 90% reduction in microorganisms; 3-4 logs imply 99.9-
99.99% reduction). No practical measurement technique to assess the
efficacy of thermization exists as of now.
5.2. PASTEURIZATION
Pasteurization is a less intense heat treatment aimed at reducing
the number of vegetative pathogenic microorganisms, to a significant level
which does not contribute to any health risk. Pasteurization can be carried
out in two modes: batch process (Low temperature-long time (LTLT) or
holder pasteurization) in which, milk is heated and held in an enclosed
vessel for desired temperature-time combination or continuous process
(High temperature-short time (HTST) pasteurization) in which the product
is passed through a heat exchanger where it is heated by a heating medium
and then held in a holding tube for the required time (FAO, 2005).
Pasteurization process is designed to effectively inactivate the most heat-
resistant microorganisms present in milk viz. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(Rowe et al., 2000; Klijn et al., 2001) and Coxiella burnettii. C. burnettii
is taken as the index organism of pasteurization process. Pasteurization is
54

suitably applied to achieve a minimum of 5 log reduction of C. burnettii in

whole milk (Codex Alimentarius, 2003; FAO, 2005). International Dairy
Federation (IDF) defined pasteurization as:
‘Pasteurization is a process applied to a product with the objective of
minimizing possible health hazards arising from pathogenic
microorganisms associated with milk by heat treatment which is consistent
with minimal chemical, physical and organoleptic changes in the product’
In practice, LTLT or batch pasteurization is carried out at 63°C for
30 min and HTST pasteurization is carried out at 72°C for 15s. Almost all
pathogenic microorganisms, including yeasts and molds are killed in the
process. But mainly Mycobacterium species are not inactivated (Walstra
et al., 2006). There is no change in flavour and denaturation of whey
proteins (immunoglobins or agglutinin) (Walstra et al., 2006). More intense
heating at 75°C for 20s however can hamper flavour, denature
immunoglobins (agglutinin) which can substantially reduce the creamline
(which is reduced at 72.2°C/15s treatment) (Walstra et al., 2006; De, 2012).
Pasteurization efficacy is assessed by measuring the residual alkaline
phosphatase enzyme levels in milk according to Scharer (1938). Effectively
pasteurized milk shows negative test or has maximum 10 μg p-nitrophenol
equivalent per mL (FAO, 2005). However, such pasteurized milk has to
show positive lactoperoxidase test. Lactulose has to be below the detection
limit and non-denatured β-lactoglobulin has to be more than 2600 mg L-1
for pasteurized milk (Mortier et al., 2000).
High fat content products like cream and cultured products require
higher intensity treatments (high pasteurization) as fat increases microbial
resistance (Kessler, 1981), since fat is a poor conductor of heat and
reactivates alkaline phosphatase enzyme within a short time (Bylund, 1995).
Cultured products also require high temperature for denaturation of whey
proteins (Bylund, 1995). These are generally heat treated at 85°C or higher
for 20 s, which virtually kills all vegetative microflora and inactivates heat-
resistant lactoperoxidase enzyme. But milk proteinase (plasmin) and
bacterial proteinases and lipases still prevail. Denaturation of whey proteins
occurs and a distinct cooked flavour develops. There is some loss of vitamin
C (Walstra et al., 2006). Lactoperoxidase test given by Storch is applicable
for highly pasteurized milk which has to be negative (Bylund, 1995).
Lactulose content is maximum 50 mg L-1 and non-denatured β-lactoglobulin
has to be more than 2000 mg L-1 for highly pasteurized milk (Mortier et
al., 2000).
 55

5.3. STASSANIZATION
It is a modification of HTST pasteurization process in which milk
is heated up to 74°C for 7 s and immediately cooled to 14-15°C (Lutterbach,
1936; De, 2012). It was named after its inventor, French scientist Dr. Henry
Stassano. A triple concentric tube heat exchanger is used to heat the milk
by passing it between the two water-heated pipes through a narrow space
of 0.6-0.8 mm.
5.4. ULTRA-PASTEURISATION
Ultra-pasteurisation is a heat treatment method that lies between
the conventional HTST pasteurization and ultra-high temperature (UHT)
processing (Deeth, 2017). The main aim is to enhance the shelf life of milk
substantially up to 90 days under refrigerated condition (temperature not
more than 7°C). However, no firm temperature-time combination for this
heat treatment exists as of now. Typical temperature combination for ultra-
pasteurization varies from 120-135°C for 1-4 s for producing an enhanced
shelf life product (Kapadiya et al., 2015). According to US regulations
ultra-pasteurization for commercial processing is carried out at 138°C for
2 s (Deeth, 2017). The resultant enhanced shelf life of product lies between
the HTST pasteurized milk and UHT milk and it has been named as
Extended Shelf Life (ESL) milk. However, ESL milk has also been reported
to be obtained by heat assisted microfiltration and bactofugation (removal
of bacteria using centrifugal technique) processes (de Jong, 2008; Kapadiya
et. al., 2015; Deeth, 2017). Mainly the ESL milk or ultra-pasteurized milk
is obtained by inactivation of all vegetative bacteria and spores of
psychrotrophic bacteria (Bacillus cereus) which can grow at < 7°C; and
secondly, minimization of denaturation of β-lactoglobulin (denaturation
of β-lactoglobulin is linked to cooked flavour generation due to production
of volatile sulphur compounds like H2S). Bactericidal effect (B*) > 0.3 is
necessary for spores of thermophiles [B* =1 for 9-log reduction in spores]
(Deeth, 2017). On the other hand, maximum 50 % denaturation of β-
lactoglobulin is mandated (Deeth, 2017). Key to ESL milk is utmost
hygiene. Milk after heat treatment has to be aseptically packaged and kept
under refrigerated conditions.
5.5. STERILIZATION
The process of sterilization as the name suggests is to render milk
sterile that is. free of all vegetative cells and bacterial spores. Commercially,
sterilization is practiced as in-container sterilization at 115–120°C for 15-
30 minutes. Milk is initially preheated and homogenized and then heated
56

again to about 80°C. Then it is hot-filled into plastic or glass bottles, metal
cans. Cans or bottles are then transferred into autoclaves or retorts in batch
operation or to a hydrostatic tower in continuous operation. Typically, in-
container sterilization process is based on inactivation of spores of anaerobic
microorganism Clostridium botulinum. In case of low acid foods (pH >
4.5) like milk, 12 log reduction of C. botulinum has to be achieved to
attain commercial sterility. The sterilized milk has a shelf life of several
months under ambient conditions. The efficacy of milk sterilization is
assessed by turbidity test given by Aschaffenburg (1947). It is based on
the fact that properly sterilized milk has total denaturation of albumin
protein. Any residual albumin (in case of improper sterilization) would
give positive turbidity test. Sterilization is a severe form of heat treatment
and causes extensive undesirable changes in organoleptic properties in
milk. Browning is evident due to Maillard reactions and some development
of sterilized milk flavour. It is due to this problem that sterilized milk
comes with flavour (De, 2012). Nutritionally there is loss of available
lysine and vitamin degradation (50% of vitamin C and 33% of vitamin B).
There is also slight reduction in biological value of proteins (De, 2012).
There is also a decrease in the milk pH by about 0.2 unit (Walstra et al.,
2006). Sterilized milk has a lactulose concentration > 600 mg L-1 and non-
denatured β-lactoglobulin concentration < 50 mg L-1 (Mortier et al., 2000).
5.6. UHT PROCESSING
Ultra-high heat treatment (UHT) is a method of preservation
comprising of short duration intense heating. It is continuous flow type
thermal processing where milk is heated in a closed system either in direct
heating mode or indirect mode. Direct mode comprise heating of milk by
direct contact with steam, whereas, indirect heating mode comprises heating
of milk by heating medium using heat exchangers. The temperature-time
combination used for UHT processing is around 135–150°C for shorter
holding times (in order of fraction of a second) necessary to achieve
commercial sterility (Burton, 1994). UHT processing aims to achieve
inactivation of most heat resistant spores of Bacillus subtilis (10-12 logs)
and Bacillus stearothermophilus (8 logs) (Kessler, 1981). The heat treated
sterile product is then packed aseptically in sterile packaging materials.
The treated and packaged products are microbially shelf-stable at room
temperature and keeps well up to 6 months. For UHT milk the lactulose
content is < 600 mg L-1 and the non-denatured β-lactoglobulin concentration
> 50 mg L-1 (Mortier et al., 2000). UHT milk colour is slightly whiter, and
weak cooked flavour is developed. Plasmin enzyme (imparts bitterness
and age gelation during storage of UHT milk) and some bacterial lipases
 57

and proteinases are unaffected by UHT (Walstra et al., 2006).

5.7. INNOVATIVE STEAM INJECTION (ISI) TECHNOLOGY
Innovative steam injection (ISI) technology is an extension of
conventional UHT treatment by using direct heating with steam. Very high
temperatures combined with even shorter holding time is employed: 150–
200°C for < 0.1 s at (Huijs et al., 2004). Heating is followed immediately
by cooling in a flash vessel maintained under vacuum. ISI aims to achieve
significant inactivation of heat-resistant spores by keeping the functionality
of nutrients intact. Mere 20–25% of β-lactoglobulin is denatured. However,
plasmin enzyme remains unaffected even after such intense treatment (FAO,
2005). Plasmin induces bitterness during storage at room temperature and
a lesser shelf life. Thus ISI milk initially requires an additional preheating
step for plasmin inactivation (de Jong, 2008). However, if stored at 7°C,
no bitterness is developed as plasmin activity is very low at such temperature
(de Jong, 2008; Deeth, 2017). This gives it a longer shelf-life up to 60 days
under refrigerated storage and eliminates the necessary preheating step
(Deeth, 2017).
Table 6 Comparison between different heating processes
Particulars Thermization HTST Ultra- In- UHT
pasteuri- pasteuri- container
zation zation sterili-
zation

Phosphatase + - - - -

Lactoperoxidase + + - - -

Storage conditions Chilled storage Refrigerated Refrigerated Room Room

tempera- tempera-
ture ture

Packaging - Clean Aseptic Bottle/ Aseptic

cans

Shelf-life Few hours 10-14 days 30-90 days Few 6 months

months

Flavour - Little cooked Mild cooked Highly Slight

flavour cooked cooked
flavour

Lactulose(mg L-1) < 10 < 10 20-40 > 600 < 600

Furosine(mg/ 100g < 10 < 20 200 200-500 100-250

protein)

α-lactalbumin - ~5 ~5 100 30-80

denaturation(%) a
58

β-lactoglobulin - ~13 ~22 > 90 60-80

denaturation (%)b
Immnoglobulin - ~67 ~100 100 100
denaturation (%)
a
Assuming initial concentration: 1200 mg L-1
b
Assuming initial concentration: 3000 mg L-1
(Source: Kapadiya et al., 2015; Mallick et al., 2015)

Table 7 Nutritional losses during thermal processing

Treatment Available Vitamin B1 Vitamin B6 Vitamin B9 Vitamin Vitamin
Lysine (Thiamin) (Pyridoxal) (Folic Acid) B12 C

Pasteurization 0 5–10 0–5 3–5 3–10 5–20

UHT sterilization 0 5–15 5–10 10–20 10–20 10–20
(Direct)
UHT sterilization, 2 10–20 20–50 30–100 20–50 30–100
after 3 months
storage at 25 °C
In-bottles 5–10 20–40 10–20 30–50 30–60 30–60
terilization

(Source: Walstra et al. (2006). Dairy science and technology (2nd ed.), CRS Press)

6.0 THERMAL PROCESSING EQUIPMENT

In the dairy industry, thermal processes are carried out in several
ways by employing various equipment and machineries. However, several
considerations have to be kept in mind before choosing specific equipment
for a specific process.
6.1 CONSIDERATIONS
Prerequisites and considerations for thermal processing may be
enlisted as follows:
(a) Achievement of required temperature– time combinations with
proper process control and uniform heating.
(b) Required capacity of the equipment.
(c) Reaching at desired microbial inactivation (sterilizing effect).
(d) Negligible undesirable changes like off-flavour development,
colour changes, degradation of nutritive components, protein
 59

coagulation etc.
(e) Operational and maintenance cost of machinery.
(f) Provision of recovery of heat recovery system like regeneration
section, which leads to considerable energy savings (Burton, 1994).
(g) Extent of fouling which affects heat transfer.
(h) Properties of product to be treated: thermal conductivity, specific
heat, effect of viscosity on the heat transfer rate.
6.2 HEATING MODES
There are two modes in which heat is transferred in the dairy
industry. These are direct and indirect heating. These are based on the way
heat-exchange takes place with the heating medium in the system.
6.2.1 Direct heating system
Direct heating involve direct contact by mixing of the heating
medium (steam) with the product. Heat is transferred directly by conduction
from steam to the product by physical contact mainly by conduction. The
direct method of heat transfer is efficient for higher heating rate (10–100
K s-1) (de Jong, 2008). This system is used to sterilise milk based on two
mixing method: steam injection or infusion technique (section 6.3 and
6.4). Steam gets condensed and transfers its latent heat of vaporization to
the milk and itself gets added to the milk. This added condensate is removed
by subsequent flash cooling in a vacuum chamber. However, this system
may expose the product to high localized heating conditions and there is
also the chance of introduction of foreign matter into the products (Bylund,
1995).
6.2.2 Indirect heating system
Indirect heating methods of thermal processing are undoubtedly
the most prevalent in the dairy industry. These systems do not involve
direct contact between the heating medium (hot water or steam) and the
product. The heating medium and cold product are separated from each
other by a wall or partition (heat exchangers). The heat is transferred from
the heating medium into the product through this wall or partition and
generally involves phenomenon of conduction and convection. Heating
rate is lower (0.01–10 K/s-1) in these systems (de Jong, 2008). These indirect
systems are further classified based on the type of heat exchanging partition.
(a) Plate heat exchanger: where plates act as partition
60

(b) Tubular heat exchanger: where a tubular pipe separates heating

medium and product
In the plate heat exchanger, there are hydrodynamic and thermal
boundary layers on each side of the plate (Figure 5). The liquid at the
boundary layer is almost stagnant i.e. velocity at the boundary layer (Vb) is
almost zero due to friction with the partition. The layer adjacent to the
boundary layer is slowed down by the boundary layer and also has low
velocity. Then the velocity increases up to centre of channel where liquid
has maximum velocity (Vmax). Similar temperature profile exists for the
liquid. The heat is transferred to the boundary layer (on heating medium
side) by convection and conduction. Transfer of heat within the boundary
layer through the plate to the boundary layer on the milk side is mainly by
conduction. Then, the heat from boundary layer to centre of channel on
milk side takes place by both conduction and convection.

Figure 6 Velocity and temperature profile in a plate heat exchanger

6.3 STEAM INJECTION SYSTEM (STEAM-INTO-MILK)

In this type (Figure 7a), steam of high purity, at a pressure higher
than that of the milk, is injected into the preheated (80°C) milk stream
through a suitable nozzle. The steam condenses instantaneously and milk
reaches the required temperature (135-150°C). Significant back pressure
has to exist within the system (2 bar for 135°C and 3.75 bar for 150°C)
(Kessler, 1981). After mixing, the milk becomes diluted with the condensing
steam. Milk is held at the desired temperature for required time and moved
 61

into a flash vessel at reduced pressure (pressure corresponding to the vapour

pressure of condensate added to milk). Here almost instantaneous
evaporation of added condensate occurs, leading to a rapid cooling. There
is some protein coagulation during the heating. A downstream aseptic
homogenizer re-disperses the coagulum without which the milk would give
sediment-like mouth feel. The milk is cooled using hot water and then
packaged aseptically.
6.4 STEAM INFUSION SYSTEM (MILK-INTO-STEAM)
This type is almost similar to injection method (Figure 7b). But in
this case a vessel is pressurized with steam. The preheated milk is injected
into the vessel, and it mixes with the steam. The steam transfers its energy
to the milk and condenses; the diluted milk is then moved into the flash
vessel where cooling takes place and condensate evaporates. Treated milk
is cooled and packed aseptically.

(a)

(b)
Figure 7 Direct heating system (a) steam injection and (b) steam infusion

6.5 VAT HEATING SYSTEM

Vat processing was previously used for pasteurization of milk
(LTLT or holder). However, this system has become obsolete nowadays.
62

The vats are generally jacketed for flowing of heating medium (hot water
or steam) and cooling medium. There are some mountings like watch glass,
air vent, provisions for temperature sensors. Agitators are provided for
continuous stirring of milk. Although simple in design, heating and cooling
times are long. Moreover, regeneration is not possible. Schematic drawing
of a vat pasteurizer is given in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Schematic diagram of vat pasteurizer

6.6 PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER

In these systems, series of plates are stacked together in parallel
manner, fitted with rubber gaskets and clamped in a frame. The gaps
between the adjacent plates form the flow channel for the milk or heating
medium. Milk and the heating medium flow in alternate channels
simultaneously. Typical plate heat exchanger is shown in Figure 9. The
milk and the heating medium flows as a thin film and the medium transfers
its heat to the milk through the thin plate. Normally, the surface of the
plates are corrugated or made into patterns for imparting turbulence to
flow and substantially increases the heat transfer. Plate heat exchangers
are very advantageous as they provide a large heating surface for a small
floor. Also they provide large surface area per unit volume of milk to be
treated. Due to this a smaller temperature difference (2-3°C) between milk
and heating medium can suffice. Process of heating and cooling is also
rapid and there is also regeneration of heat, where hot pasteurized milk
transfers heat to the cold raw milk. In the process hot milk itself gets
cooled and raw milk is then heated by hot water or steam in the heating
 63

section. After heating, the milk is passed through the holding tube for
required time. Flow is in counter manner and the temperature difference
between the milk and heating medium remains constant. Exchangers have
some disadvantages. The main disadvantage of plate heat exchangers is
leakage due to worn-out gaskets. Hence, pasteurized milk side is kept at
higher pressure compared to raw milk side. Also, the viscous and particulate
liquids cannot be treated.

Figure 9 Typical representation of a plate heat exchanger

6.7 TUBULAR HEAT EXCHANGER

The tubular heat exchangers (Figure 10) are mainly of two types:
concentric tube (or tube-in-tube) exchangers and shell-and-tube heat
exchangers. The heating medium flows through the outer tube and milk
through the inner tube. The specific heat exchange area (area per unit
volume) is smaller than that of plate heat exchangers (Walstra et al., 2006;
de Jong, 2008). Consequently, the temperature difference between heating
medium and milk is more than the plate heat exchangers (around 5°C).
Tubular exchangers are mainly characterized by turbulent flow due to a
high Reynolds number which gives a high heat transfer coefficient. Tubular
heat exchangers can readily reach high temperatures of up to 150°C. For
this reason they are suitable for indirect UHT plants. The temperature
difference is however not constant between heating medium and milk.
Tubular heat exchangers are also able to recover heat from hot milk and up
to about 90% regeneration is possible (Walstra et al., 2006).
64

Figure 10 Tubular heat exchanger

6.8 STERILIZATION SYSTEM

Sterilization is generally done in batch autoclaves or sterilization
towers. The product is packaged in tin cans, glass bottles, tins and plastic
bottles. Heating is carried out in batch system inside autoclaves. The
products bottles or cans are stacked inside the autoclave and the steam is
purged inside the autoclave. High pressure steam (around 15 lb in-2 (psi)
pressures, corresponding to 121.1°C saturation temperature) is used, which
transfers the heat to the cans or bottles and heat their content. The autoclaves
can be rotated or agitated for improving the heat transfer rate. However,
process is rigorous and regeneration is not possible. There are also chances
of undue browning and nutrient degradation in the product.
Continuous hydrostatic sterilization towers (Figure 11) tackle one
or the other problems associated with batch autoclaves. They allow
considerable regeneration too. The towers are more than 10 m high and
divided into heating and cooling sections. These towers utilize water column
to maintain the pressure in sterilization zone and level of water regulates
the pressure. Packaged product bottles or cans are conveyed through the
tower. Water column is present at the supply side through which bottles or
cans are moved and their temperature rises. Then as they go up and then
come down in the central part of the tower consisting of a steam zone, they
get heated by the steam up to temperatures of 115-130°C for the desired
time. Bottles or cans again rise up the conveyor in the water column and
cooling commences. Cooled bottles move out through the discharge side.
 65

Figure 11 Schematic of a hydrostatic sterilization tower

CONCLUSIONS
It was discovered in late 1800s that heat treatment can be an aid to
preserve the food products due to its action of killing the pathogenic and
spoilage causing microorganisms. Milk is almost the nature’s most complete
food, with nearly all the life-supporting nutrients. But it also supports the
growth and development of spoilage causing and pathogenic
microorganisms in case any cross-contamination occurs. Hence, it is
required to thermally process the milk after milking. However, there can
be some chemical changes, both desirable and undesirable due to heating.
While desirable changes can add value to the product but unfortunately,
undesirable changes may induce changes in the sensory quality and nutrition
profile. Thus it is required to carefully optimize the thermal processes
needed to maximize microbial destruction and minimize the undesirable
ones. On the basis of heat transfer phenomena, reaction kinetic study of
the thermal processes, time-temperature combinations etc., the dairy
industry practices several thermal processing methods, in several modes
and equipment. Research is also being done to introduce innovative thermal
processing methods.
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