The role of composting in recycling manure nutrients

Francis J. Larney1, Dan M. Sullivan2, Katherine E. Buckley3, and Bahman Eghball4†

1Agriculture
and Agri-Food Canada, 5403 1st Ave. S., Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada T1J 4B1 (e-mail:
larneyf@agr.gc.ca); 2Department of Crop and Soil Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331-
3002, USA; 3Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, P.O. Box 1000A, Brandon, Manitoba, Canada R7A 5Y3;
4USDA-ARS, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0934, USA. Lethbridge Research Centre
contribution no. 38705052. Received 23 September 2005, accepted 11 April 2006.

Larney, F. J., Sullivan, D. M., Buckley, K. E. and Eghball, B. 2006. The role of composting in recycling manure nutrients. Can.
J. Soil Sci. 86: 597–611. Recently, composting has been gaining increased attention as an alternative means of handling manure
Can. J. Soil. Sci. Downloaded from cdnsciencepub.com by 41.249.169.225 on 02/19/24

generated by the livestock industry. Composting is not a new technology, it merely controls what is a natural decomposition
process. A major advantage of composting is reduced mass, volume and water content compared with fresh manure which in turn
reduces transportation requirements. Concomitant benefits include elimination of pathogens, parasites, weed seeds and odour
emissions on land application. However, carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) losses and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are associated
with composting. Nutrients are stabilized during composting which slows their release once soil-applied. Compost also enhances
soil physical and biological properties and has a disease suppression effect. Where the supply of manure currently exceeds land
availability for application, or in some future scenario, if producers need to comply with stricter manure application rate regula-
tions, composting may be an option to encourage nutrient export from high-loading watersheds to soils that may benefit from nutri-
ent and organic matter inputs. Composting may be seen as a means of maximizing the potential for recycling manure nutrients by
soils and crops while protecting surface and groundwater resources from manure-related contamination.

Key words: Manure, compost, nutrients, cropping systems, soil quality

Larney, F. J., Sullivan, D. M., Buckley, K. E. et Eghball, B. 2006. Rôle du compostage dans le recyclage des éléments nutri-
tifs du fumier. Can. J. Soil Sci. 86: 597–611. Depuis peu, le compostage retient de plus en plus l’attention comme solution de
rechange à la manutention du fumier venant de l’élevage. Le compostage n’est pas une nouvelle technologie. Cette technique ne
fait que réguler le processus naturel de décomposition. Un de ses atouts majeurs est de réduire la masse, le volume et la teneur en
eau du fumier frais, avec les économies que cela suppose au niveau du transport. Les avantages concomitants comprennent l’élim-
ination des microorganismes pathogènes, des parasites, des semences de mauvaises herbes et des odeurs au moment de l’épandage
sur les terres. Toutefois, on associe au compostage des pertes en carbone (C), en azote (N) et en gaz à effet de serre (GES). Le
compostage stabilise les éléments nutritifs, ce qui en ralentit la libération après application au sol. Le compost rehausse également
les propriétés physiques et biologiques du sol, et a tendance à combattre la maladie. Quand la quantité de fumier dépasse la super-
ficie des terres sur lesquelles on pourrait l’étendre et que l’agriculteur doit composer avec des règlements plus sévères quant aux
taux d’application, le compostage pourrait favoriser le transfert des éléments nutritifs des bassins hydrographiques surchargés vers
les sols susceptibles de profiter d’un apport d’éléments nutritifs et de matière organique. On pourrait voir dans le compostage un
moyen pour maximiser la capacité de recyclage des nutriments par le sol et par les cultures, mais aussi de mettre les eaux de sur-
face et souterraines à l’abri de la contamination par les effluents du fumier.

Mots clés: Fumier, compost, éléments nutritifs, systèmes agricoles, qualité du sol

The livestock industry represents a large segment of the agri-
cultural economies of the United States and Canada. For most
of farming history, livestock and the manure they produced
were seen as necessary components for maintenance of soil
quality and crop productivity (Janzen 2001; McNeill and
Winiwarter 2004). During the 20th century, specialization
made farms less diverse and increasing numbers of livestock
are now raised in confined feeding operations on land bases
that are often too small to accommodate the large volumes of
manure produced (Ribaudo et al. 2003; Larney et al. 2004).
This has created a dichotomy, where manure is either a lead-
ing source of agricultural pollution if mismanaged or a valu-
able fertilizer and soil amendment if handled properly.
Due to its high water content (WC) of up to 99% (wet
weight) for liquid manure and 70% for solid manure, long-
†Deceased.
597
range haulage of fresh manure from a livestock operation is
uneconomical. Therefore, most manure is land-applied at
high application rates close to source, thereby diminishing
its potential use as a soil amendment. High application rates
are unsustainable in the long-term and lead to degradation of
soil (Hao and Chang 2003), water (Chang and Entz 1996;
Chang and Janzen 1996) and air quality (Chang et al. 1998)
as well as public perception issues (Pell 1997). Chemical,
physical and biological properties of fresh manure are also
highly variable, making its use in cropping systems more of
a challenge than commercial fertilizers (Laguë et al. 2005).
Abbreviations: DM, dry matter; EC, electrical conductiv-
ity; GHG, greenhouse gas; PAN, plant-available nitrogen;
PG, phosphogypsum; SBM, straw-bedded manure; TC,
total carbon; WBM, wood-bedded manure; WC, water con-
tent
 598 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
Composting has gained increased attention as a means of
reducing the environmental impact of livestock manure
(Kashmanian and Rynk 1996, 1998). Composting benefits
the environment because manure nutrients are converted to
more stable forms and are less likely to reach groundwater
or move in surface runoff. Compost can be stored until land
application conditions are suitable or, compared with fresh
manure, can be more economically transported to water-
sheds with low nutrient loadings. While some livestock
operations in Canada and the United States have invested in
composting, mainly for their own end-use, others have con-
tracted out to commercial composting companies. This dis-
penses with the need for individual farms to invest in
compost turning equipment. In most cases, the farm supplies
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the fresh manure to the contractor at no cost. The manure is
composted on-farm by the contractor, who then owns and
distributes the final product for agricultural land application,
the urban market or the soil reclamation industry. However,
the proportion of the total manure that is composted remains
small. In southern Alberta, only about 5–10% of beef feed-
lot manure is composted (Larney, unpublished data).
Stewart et al. (2000) reported that although composting of
feedlot manure on the US Great Plains began in the 1960s
and had increased by the 1990s, statistics were not available,
although the proportion of total manure composted was
believed to be low.
The objectives of this paper are (1) to present an overview
of current composting practices for livestock manure, and
their effects on nutrients; and (2) to outline other benefits of
composting which complement its role in nutrient recycling.
MANURE COMPOSTING PARAMETERS
Composting is not a new technology (Rynk 1992). It is an
aerobic biological process where microorganisms convert
organic materials (manure, sludge, leaves, paper, food
wastes) into a humus-like material called compost. The
microorganisms consume oxygen while feeding on the
organic matter and in the process generate carbon dioxide
(CO2), heat and water vapour. Composting is essentially the
application of controlled conditions (e.g., optimum recipe of
organic materials, aeration, turning and mixing, time) to
enhance a natural decomposition process.
Manure composting was practiced as far back as biblical
times and up until the mid 20th century when it fell out of
favour, following increased mechanization and the intro-
duction of chemical fertilizers. In the 1980s, interest in com-
posting was rekindled, initially by municipalities (municipal
solid waste compost) as a means of diverting organic mate-
rials from shrinking landfill space. Nowadays, in an era of
increased environmental awareness, composting is very
much part of the “Three Rs” (reduce, reuse, recycle) philos-
ophy of modern society. It is viewed as a way of turning
organic materials, including livestock manures, into value-
added products that can be recycled back to soil.
Windrow composting is generally used for solid livestock
manures. The word “windrow” is “wind” + “row” i.e., the
placement of wet material into long narrow rows to facilitate
drying by wind. Windrows are generally established on an
open-air earthen pad close to the livestock facility. In-vessel
composting refers to methods which confine manure within
a building, container or vessel and relies on forced aeration
and mechanical turning. In-vessel systems are used on some
hog and dairy farms to compost the solid manure fraction
(after separation of the liquid component of manure slurry).
While the composting process is explained in greater
detail by Haug (1993), Epstein (1997), Keener et al. (2000),
Stoffella and Kahn (2001) and Peigné and Girardin (2004),
some of the more important parameters pertaining to com-
posting of livestock manure are outlined below.
Feedstocks
Cereal straw has been traditionally used as a bedding mate-
rial for feedlot cattle on the Canadian prairies, resulting in a
material at pen cleaning which is roughly 80% manure and
20% bedding (dry wt. basis). However, forest product com-
panies are promoting the use of wood residuals (mixture of
bark, post peelings and sawdust) as an alternative bedding
source (McAllister et al. 1998). Use of wood rather than
straw creates feedstocks with higher initial C:N ratios.
Most compost recipes seek to minimize nutrient losses,
particularly N, so that they are retained in the final product.
Phosphogypsum (PG) is a by-product of phosphorus (P) fer-
tilizer manufacture. Zvomuya et al. (2005) added PG to
fresh manure at four rates and co-composted the materials.
They found reduced N losses with additions of PG, e.g.,
19.3% N loss (as a percent of initial) for a control treatment
vs. 0.3% N loss with a PG rate of 70 kg Mg–1. This may be
related to lower pH values associated with PG addition.
There is a well-established link between N loss via ammo-
nia (NH3) volatilization and pH, with volatilization losses
decreasing as pH decreases (Al-Kanani et al. 1992).
Phosphogypsum also added sulphur (S) resulting in a more
balanced nutrient source, especially for S-deficient soils.
Amendment of poultry manure with elemental S and zeo-
lite reduced NH3 loss during composting by 60% compared
with 33.5% with wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) straw and
25.8% with peat moss amendments (Mahimairaja et al.
1994).
Aeration
Since composting is an aerobic process, the means by which
air is introduced to the substrate often defines the compost-
ing technology. With windrow composting, air is introduced
and porosity is maintained by frequent turning, with either
conventional farm equipment (tractor and front-end loader,
skid-steer loader) or specialized windrow turning equip-
ment. With passive aeration (often called aerated static
piles), air enters via a system of open-ended perforated pipes
placed under the windrow (Sartaj et al. 1995; Burton and
Turner 2003). Even though passive aeration dispenses with
the need for turning and lowers energy costs, Larney et al.
(2000) found that aeration by turning works best for large
volumes of windrowed manure. Passive aeration resulted in
partially composted material, especially in the centre of the
windrow, due to the lack of mixing. However, Solano et al.
(2001) found that passive aeration resulted in less N loss
compared with turning and forced aeration of sheep manure.

Temperature and Microbial Activity
Temperature is one of the main parameters influencing the
success of windrow composting (Rynk 1992) and is espe-
cially important in eliminating pathogens and viable weed
seeds. Heat is produced as a by-product of the microbial
breakdown of organic material during composting. Initially,
winter air temperatures were thought to be too low in south-
ern Alberta to maintain thermophilic activity in compost
windrows. However, results from Larney et al. (2000)
showed that this was not the case as peak temperatures of
65°C were recorded for both active and passive aeration
treatments on day 6 of a winter (October to March) com-
posting study. Temperatures dropped to near ambient imme-
diately after each turning event on the active treatment but
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returned to thermophilic conditions within 2 d. The mini-
mum ambient air temperature during the study was –39°C.
Overall, during the 132 d winter composting period, there
were 12 d when the minimum air temperature was < –30°C
and 33 d when it was < –20°C. This was much colder than
the winter temperatures (–27 to +15°C) reported by Lynch
and Cherry (1996) for successful overwinter composting in
Idaho.
The amount of heat produced depends on the size of the
windrow, its WC, aeration, and C/N ratio (De Bertoldi et al.
1983). The microbes affect their own destiny during compost-
ing by producing heat which in turn dictates the microbial pop-
ulations (Epstein 1997). There is an initial phase of rapid
microbial growth during which the most readily available sug-
ars and amino acids are consumed (Phase a, Fig. 1). This phase
is initiated by mesophilic organisms, which generate heat by
their metabolism and raise the temperature to a point where
their own activities are suppressed. Then thermophilic fungi
(e.g., Rhizomucor pusillus) and several thermophilic bacteria
continue the process, raising the temperature of the material to
70–80°C (Phase b, Fig. 1) within a few days. During this phase
all the mesophilic organisms and the initial thermophilic fungi
are destroyed or inactivated. A prolonged high-temperature
phase favours the development of other thermophilic species.
A few thermophilic prokaryotes can continue to grow during
peak-heating and persist during the prolonged high-tempera-
ture plateau, when the temperature is maintained at between
40 and 60°C (Phase c, Fig. 1). Chang and Hudson (1967)
found that thermophilic or thermotolerant fungi could increase
in a compost pile even as the compost temperature decreased
from 70 to 50°C. By their combined activities, these fungi pro-
mote a major phase of decomposition (e.g., plant cell-wall
materials such as cellulose and hemicellulose), so that the dry
weight of the compost can be halved during a relatively high
temperature phase which may last 20 d or more after peak
heating. Eventually, as temperature declines, mesophilic
organisms recolonize the compost and displace the ther-
mophiles (Phase d, Fig. 1). However, some heat-tolerant
species such as Aspergillus fumigatus (a very common and
important member of the high-temperature compost commu-
nity with a temperature range from 12–55°C) can continue to
grow.
Beffa et al. (1996a, b) provided evidence of a high diver-
sity of thermophilic bacteria thriving in compost at temper-
atures of 65 to 82°C. A functional bacterial population
LARNEY ET AL. — MANURE COMPOSTING 599
operating at temperatures > 70°C increases the likelihood of
better destruction of potential human pathogens and aller-
genic moulds as well as phytopathogens and weed seeds. A
study with separated dairy manure solids containing wood
shavings as bedding indicated that when temperatures were
highest early in the composting period, the thermophilic
community may not have been well established (Carpenter-
Boggs et al. 1998). Using phospholipid fatty acid profiles as
indicators of microbial communities, they observed that
composts maintaining temperatures of > 40°C for a longer
duration allowed the growth of thermophilic organisms.
Water Content
Water management during composting involves a delicate
balance between two functions: encouraging optimum
microbial activity and permitting adequate oxygen supply.
Water is essential in the decomposition process and exces-
sive loss is one of the most common problems associated
with poor composting (Smith 1978). Manipulation of sub-
strate density and particle size may alleviate situations with
non-optimal water content (Richard et al. 2002). More fre-
quent windrow turning to reduce bulk density and facilitate
evaporation benefits high-moisture materials.
Optimum water levels are also important in the economics
of the composting system. Ekinci et al. (2004) modelled com-
posting rate as a function of initial WC and temperature in a
bench-scale incubator-bioreactor system. They found that
broiler litter amended with paper mill sludge achieved maxi-
mum decomposition at 44% WC and a temperature around
58°C. Optimizing an aerated composting system to achieve a
temperature of 60°C reduced fan energy cost by 31% com-
pared with allowing decomposition to take place at 50°C.
A drawback with summer windrow composting is water
loss by evaporative drying especially with high turning fre-
quencies. This necessitates haulage and addition of water
which is an added expense. Water mass loss with winter
composting (44% of initial) was significantly lower than
that for summer composting (83%) (Larney et al. 2000).
However, summer composting resulted in higher volume
reduction (72% of initial) than winter composting (51%),
resulting in lower haulage requirements for the finished
compost.
CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING COMPOSTING
Since composting is a stabilization process, the nutrients in
finished compost are more stable and less plant-available
than in fresh manure. However, composting leads to nutri-
ent losses and recent composting research has aimed to min-
imize these losses in order to (1) reduce their environmental
impact, e.g., loss of N as NH3 or nitrous oxide (N2O), which
is a GHG; and (2) retain nutrients in the compost so as to
maximize its value for crop production. Management (turn-
ing regime, presence or absence of bulking agents) and envi-
ronmental conditions (e.g., season) affect nutrient losses
during composting (Barrington et al. 2002; Parkinson et al.
2004).
While knowledge of concentration changes due to com-
posting is important for land application of nutrients, it
offers no indication of nutrient mass losses during the
 600 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
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Fig. 1. Changes in temperature, and populations of mesophilic and thermophilic fungi in a wheat straw compost. [Adapted from Chang and
Hudson (1967)].

process itself. Comparing final to initial concentrations of

nutrients can be misleading (Breitenbeck and Schellinger
2004) because of simultaneous dry matter (DM) losses
(Eghball et al. 1997; Tiquia et al. 2002). For example, an
identical N concentration of 15 g kg–1 in initial manure and
subsequent final compost does not mean zero N loss during
composting. Assuming a 30% DM loss (1000 kg manure
DM becomes 700 kg of compost DM), there is 15 kg of ini-
tial manure N (15 g N kg–1 × 1000 kg) and only 10.5 kg of
final compost N (15 g N kg–1 × 700 kg), representing an N
mass loss of 30%.

Carbon
Since microorganisms consume C during the composting
process, C concentrations decrease and C mass losses (mainly
as CO2) may be substantial. In southern Alberta, Larney et al.
(2001) reported that total carbon (TC) concentration was 314
g kg–1 with straw-bedded manure (SBM) and 358 g kg–1 with
wood-bedded manure (WBM) on day 0 of a feedlot manure
composting experiment (Fig. 2) and this difference was non-
significant. However, on all 16 subsequent sampling dates, TC
concentration of WBM was significantly higher than that of
SBM. Total C content decreased as composting progressed for
both bedding types with an initial more rapid decrease for
SBM. By day 10, TC concentration had dropped by 70 g kg–1
for SBM and by only 25 g kg–1 for WBM. This was due to
faster microbial decomposition of C and release as CO2 from
straw compared with wood materials. Carbon compounds in
wood are bound by lignins, which are highly resistant to bio-
logical degradation, while C in straw (which is mainly cellu-
lose) is less resistant. Carbon concentrations stabilized after
day 45, e.g., TC declined by only 14 g kg–1 from day 45 (199
Fig. 2. Effect of bedding type on total C concentration during com-
posting of beef feedlot manure at Lethbridge, Alberta. Bedding
type effect significant (P = 0.05) on all sampling dates except day
0 (Larney et al. 2001).
g kg–1) to day 108 (185 g kg–1) for SBM, and by only 6 g kg–1
during the same period for WBM.
Larney et al. (2006) reported significantly higher (P =
0.007) C losses with composting (66.9%) than stockpiling
(37.5%), due to greater decomposition. Tiquia et al. (2002)
found C losses of 64% for turned compost windrows, which
was significantly higher than 50% for unturned windrows of
solid pig manure. Carbon losses from other composting

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Fig. 3. Effect of bedding type on plant-available N (PAN, expressed as a percent of total N) for fresh manure and finished compost at
Lethbridge, Alberta, 1998–2000. Bedding effect significant at *5% level; ***0.1% level; ns = non-significant (Larney et al. 2002b).
studies include: 45–62% for feedlot manure in Nebraska
(Eghball et al. 1997); 45–74% from sawdust- and 54–79%
from straw-amended dairy manure in Ohio (Michel et al.
2004); and 44% (Sommer and Dahl 1999) and 40–49%
(Sommer 2001) for deep litter dairy manure in Denmark.
Nitrogen
Total N concentrations generally remain fairly constant as
fresh manure is composted which means that N loss ≈ DM loss
(expressed as percent of initial mass). Increases in TN con-
centration during composting show that N loss < DM loss,
which is favourable. On the other hand, declines in N concen-
tration result in N loss > DM loss, which is undesirable.
The form of inorganic N also changes during composting.
In the early stages most of the inorganic N is present as
NH4-N with very little as NO3-N. In the latter stages of com-
posting, nitrification leads to a decline in NH4-N levels and
an increase in NO3-N. Hence NH4-N: NO3-N ratio is often
used as an index of compost maturity, with lower values (<
10) indicating stable product (Bernal et al. 1998). Larney et
al. (2002b) reported that NO3-N increased from 1 to 430 mg
kg–1 during active composting while NH4-N decreased from
1950 to 590 mg kg–1. They also found that plant-available
nitrogen [PAN = (NH4-N + NO3-N)/TN × 100] decreased
with composting. The sharpest decrease was for SBM,
which fell from 43.7% PAN in fresh material to only 4.6%
for compost (Fig. 3). This much lower value should be taken
into account when compost is used in cropping systems as a
source of plant nutrients. Additionally, Larney et al. (2002b)
reported that PAN in finished compost varied from 4.6 to
6.3% of TN for SBM and from 6.8 to 11.0% for WBM.
Nitrogen loss during composting is mostly due to NH3
volatilization. Møller et al. (2000) reported N losses of
15–42% during a 143 d composting period for hog manure
in Denmark. Sawdust-amended freestall dairy manure lost
8–26% of its initial N whereas straw-amended manure lost
15–43% N (Michel et al. 2004).
LARNEY ET AL. — MANURE COMPOSTING 601
Tiquia et al. (2002) found that C:N ratio of the initial raw
material was the most critical factor affecting N loss. Lower
ratios mean that the microbes utilize all the C before N is
stabilized, resulting in N losses mostly as NH3. DeLaune et
al. (2004) reported that alum (aluminum sulphate) addition
reduced NH3 volatilization from composting poultry litter
by 76% while phosphoric acid reduced it by 54%.
Hansen et al. (1993) reported that the quantity of NH3 lost
during poultry manure composting was affected by process
conditions including C:N ratio, turning frequency, and par-
ticle size of amendments. Approximately 85% of the NH3
was emitted during the first 5 d of composting, and cumula-
tive mass emitted was over three times greater with a C:N
ratio of 15:1 than 20:1. Addition of biodegradable C to
achieve a C:N ratio of 30:1 minimized NH3 loss, but
increased material handling costs.
Phosphorus
Unlike N, P losses during composting are usually low unless
the windrows are subjected to runoff (rainfall or snowmelt).
Total P concentrations generally increase, e.g., from an
average of 4 g kg–1 in fresh manure to 5.3 g kg–1 in finished
compost (Larney et al. 2002a). Since P losses are minimal,
the increased P concentration is due largely to DM losses, as
essentially the same mass of P is present in less DM mass.
Likewise, in a Danish composting study, Sommer (2001)
found that P losses from dairy manure and straw mixtures
were low. During 132 d, 2% of total P was lost in runoff.
In contrast, under UK conditions, Parkinson et al. (2004)
reported P losses of 12–28% where leachate had been gen-
erated from open-air compost stacks by rainfall amounts of
400–500 mm over 16–19 wk periods.
Salts
Salt concentrations increase during composting as organic
matter is lost by decomposition and salt mass remains more
or less constant. Limitations on compost use imposed by salt
 602 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
concentrations can be determined by compost testing
(Sullivan and Miller 2001). For potting media, electrical
conductivity (EC) > 3 dS m–1 is often phytotoxic. In com-
post, chloride >350 mg L–1 or boron >1 mg L–1 in a saturat-
ed paste extract can be toxic to sensitive crops. Seed
germination tests can also be used to assess potential salt
toxicity of manure composts. Reducing salt intake in live-
stock diets is effective in reducing salt levels in manure and
hence in finished compost.
COMPOSTING AND
GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
Greenhouse gas emissions are associated with livestock pro-
duction (Sommer et al. 2004). Methane (CH4) is emitted
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directly from the animals while N2O is emitted from manure
bedding packs, stockpiles and compost windrows (Peigné and
Girardin 2004; Sommer and Møller 2000) and after applica-
tion of manure and composts to soil (Yang et al. 2002).
Under southern Alberta conditions, the effects of aeration
method (Hao et al. 2001), pen bedding material (Hao et al.
2004) and PG addition (Hao et al. 2005) on GHG emissions
during composting of feedlot manure have been examined.
For a passive aeration treatment (no turning), C lost as CO2
was 73.8 kg C Mg–1 manure and as CH4, 6.3 kg C Mg–1
(Hao et al. 2001). Equivalent values were 168 and 8.1 kg C
Mg–1 manure for an active treatment (turned six times). The
N loss in the form of N2O was 0.11 kg N Mg–1 manure for
the passive treatment and 0.19 kg N Mg–1 for the active
treatment. Fuel consumption to turn and maintain the
windrow added a further 4.4 kg C Mg–1 manure for the
active aeration treatment. Since CH4 is 21 times more harm-
ful, and N2O 310 times more harmful than CO2 in their
global warming effects, GHG emissions expressed as CO2-
C equivalents were 240 kg C Mg–1 manure for passive and
401 kg C Mg–1 manure for active aeration. The lower emis-
sion associated with the passive treatment was mainly due to
the incomplete decomposition of manure and a lower gas
diffusion rate. In addition, the turning action affected N
transformation and transport in the windrow profile, which
contributed to higher N2O emissions for the active aeration
treatment. Hao et al. (2001) concluded that gas diffusion is
an important factor controlling GHG emissions. Higher
GHG concentrations in the pore space within compost
windrows does not necessarily mean higher emission rates
at the windrow surface.
For GHG emissions during composting of SBM and
WBM, most C was lost as CO2 (> 94%) with CH4 account-
ing for < 6% (Hao et al. 2004). However, the net contribu-
tion to GHG emissions was greater for CH4 since its global
warming potential is greater than CO2. Nitrous oxide emis-
sions were 0.077 kg N Mg–1 manure for SBM and 0.084 kg
N Mg–1 for WBM, accounting for 1 to 6% of total N loss.
Total GHG emissions as CO2-C equivalent were not signif-
icantly different between SBM (368.4 ± 18.5 kg Mg–1) and
WBM (349.2 ± 24.3 kg Mg–1).
In another study, Hao et al. (2005) found that PG addition
reduced GHG emissions (CO2-C equivalent) during com-
posting of livestock manure by at least 58%, primarily due
to reduced CH4 emission.
Gaseous emissions of N and C from dairy manure with
straw bedding were quantified in a Danish study (Sommer
2001). Less than 0.3% of the TN loss was emitted as N2O,
and CH4 emission was between 0.01 and 0.03% of the C in
the composted material. Most of the total N loss (28%) dur-
ing composting was attributed to volatilization of ammonia.
Covering the compost with a porous tarpaulin or compact-
ing the compost reduced emission losses to 12–18% of TN.
PHYSICAL CHANGES DURING COMPOSTING
In Alberta composting studies with feedlot manure, WC
dropped from 70% (wet wt.) at pen cleaning to 35% for fin-
ished compost (Larney et al. 2000). Water mass loss from
feedlot manure was up to 80%. Composting a mixture of
swine manure and wood shavings resulted in a reduction in
WC from an initial level of 62%, to a final level of 46.8%
with continuous aeration, and 55.3% with intermittent aera-
tion (Keener et al. 2001). Moisture had to be added to the
continuously aerated vessel at day 21 of the 28 d compost-
ing period to maintain optimum moisture. Windrow turning
of the same initial material decreased WC to 42.5%.
However, in high rainfall areas, finished compost may have
a higher total mass than the initial fresh manure due to reten-
tion of moisture, even though the DM loss may be substan-
tial (Michel et al. 2004).
Dry matter losses are expected during composting as the
feedstocks are subjected to microbial decomposition. In
Alberta, DM mass reductions with composting were in the
range of 20–30% (Larney et al. 2000) while losses of up to
58% have been reported in Manitoba (Larney et al. 2006). A
Nebraska study found that DM losses of feedlot manure var-
ied from 14.9 to 20% depending on climatic conditions, ini-
tial C level and amount of soil mixed with the manure
(Eghball et al. 1997). For composting of deep litter from
dairy cows, Sommer and Dahl (1999) reported DM losses of
39–43% in Denmark.
Housing grower or finisher pigs on solid bedding in low-
cost wooden or canvas structures (hoop shelters) is becom-
ing an increasingly popular alternative to liquid manure
collection in conventional hog barns (Wastell and Lubischer
2000). Turning a swine manure-corn (Zea mays L.) stalk
bedding mixture from a hoop shelter with a manure spread-
er resulted in DM losses of 63%, compared with 42% using
a loader (Richard and Smits 1998). The High-Rise™ hog
building, where manure is collected on an absorbent mater-
ial under slatted floors is another housing option (Sun et al.
2003). Swine manure-wood shaving mixtures collected
from a High-Rise™ facility and composted in aerated ves-
sels for 4 wk had DM losses of 30.5% (continuous aeration)
to 33.5% (intermittent aeration). Open windrow composting
of the same mixture for 106 d resulted in less DM loss as
estimated by a lower ash content (Keener et al. 2001).
Dry bulk density increased from 0.10 to 0.36 Mg m3 for
active (seven turnings) and 0.10 to 0.18 Mg m3 for passive
summer composting of feedlot manure (Larney et al. 2000).
Volume reduction (as a percent of initial) was 66% for the
active and 44% for the passive treatment (Fig. 4). The influ-
ence of amendment type on initial bulk density is an impor-
tant consideration for compost operation management and

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Fig. 4. Volume reduction during composting of beef cattle feedlot
manure at Lethbridge, Alberta (Larney et al. 2000).
facility design. Although amendment of freestall dairy
manure with straw or sawdust led to manure volume and
weight reduction, straw resulted in a larger volume decrease
than sawdust, due to greater changes in bulk density and free
air space (Michel et al. 2004).
Physical changes during composting (mass and volume
reductions) help increase the transportability of the final
product compared with fresh manure. Less water is trans-
ported in compost, and its higher bulk density than fresh
manure means a greater DM mass can be loaded onto a truck
for haulage. Therefore, if exporting nutrients from high- to
low-loading watersheds is the aim, compost is the more
attractive option.
USES OF MANURE COMPOST
Nutrient Source for Crop Production
Application to soil is the predominant end use of agricultur-
al compost. In conventional cropping systems, compost is
often applied as a complement to chemical fertilizer, while
in organic rotations it is used to supplement green manuring
practices.
One of the more frequent questions on compost pertains
to its release of N and P, compared with fresh manure or fer-
tilizer, once applied to soil. The release dynamics determine
the amounts of N and P mineralized and made available for
plant uptake and growth. Since these nutrients have been
stabilized, their release rates are generally lower than those
of fresh manure. In a lysimeter study, Basso and Ritchie
(2005) found lower levels of NO3-N leaching in compost-
amended soils than manure-amended soils where treatments
were calculated to supply 120 kg N ha–1. However,
Ferguson et al. (2005) found that after a decade of high
application rates of fresh vs. composted beef feedlot manure
in Nebraska, there was little difference in crop yield, nutri-
ent uptake, or soil nutrient accumulation. Differences were
LARNEY ET AL. — MANURE COMPOSTING 603
related primarily to manure application rate rather than
source. Miller et al. (2004) found no difference in barley
(Hordeum vulgare L.) yield between fresh and composted
feedlot manure in a 3-yr field study in southern Alberta.
Helgason et al. (2006) found that N uptake in a compost
bioassay with canola (Brassica napus L.) was strongly relat-
ed to the mineral N added (R2 = 0.98; P < 0.001) in the com-
posts. Mineral N content of compost, analyzed prior to
application, predicted PAN release. In seven of eight com-
posts, <5% of organic N was mineralized over 425 d, sug-
gesting that organic N in compost is largely unavailable to
plants in the year of application. DeLuca and DeLuca (1997)
summarized research studies indicating that N mineraliza-
tion rates for cattle manure compost varied from 5 to 34%
yr–1. Eghball (2000) reported that of the organic N applied
in the previous fall, 11% was mineralized from composted
feedlot manure compared with 21% from non-composted
manure during the succeeding growing season. Eghball and
Power (1999b) estimated N availability of 40% for feedlot
manure and 15% for compost in the first year, and 18% for
manure and 8% for compost in the second year. Across 4 yr,
apparent N use efficiency was 17% for fresh feedlot manure,
12% for composted manure and 45% for N fertilizer
(Eghball and Power 1999a). Less N mineralization from
compost compared with fresh manure reflects loss of easily
convertible N and C compounds during composting and the
presence of stable N compounds (Eghball et al. 2002).
Preusch et al. (2002) reported an N mineralization rate of
1–9% for composted compared with 42–64% for fresh poul-
try litter.
In Oregon and Washington, field and laboratory studies
with a variety of composts, manures and other organic
amendments (Gale et al. 2005) showed that first-season
PAN was related to initial chemical characteristics such as
C:N ratio (Fig. 5), NH4-N, and the degree of organic matter
stability (Table 1). Dry stacking of broiler litter for 2 to 12
wk did not substantially affect analytical characteristics,
PAN, or organic matter decomposition rate. Composts and
manures fell into three broad groups based on PAN deter-
mined during the growing season that followed application.
The first group, well-composted amendments with slow, lin-
ear decomposition rates in soil (average 21% decomposition
in 70 d at 22°C), supplied first-season PAN of approximate-
ly 0 to 20%. Much of the PAN in these composts was pre-
sent as inorganic N at application. For the second
amendment group, rapidly decomposing manures and other
amendments with C:N ratios <15, first-season PAN ranged
from approximately 20 to 80%. Much of the PAN released
from these amendments was detected by early-season soil
sampling for NO3-N. Most of these amendments contained
significant amounts of NH4-N, which can be rapidly lost as
NH3 if the amendments are not immediately incorporated by
tillage. The third group of amendments (C:N ratio >20)
included non-composted screened dairy manure solids, and
these immobilized PAN for 30–60 d following soil incorpo-
ration.
Questions also arise about the ability of composts to sup-
ply crop nutrients compared with traditional inorganic fer-
 604 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
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Fig. 5. Carbon:nitrogen ratio vs. plant-available nitrogen (PAN)
from compost, broiler litter or other organic amendments at field
sites in western Oregon and Washington. Each data-point repre-
sents one amendment site-year. Amendments were applied 30 to
45 d prior to seeding sweet corn. (Gale et al. 2005).
tilizers. Sikora and Enkiri (2004) considered poultry litter
compost equal to triple superphosphate in supplying P to
fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb). In Nova Scotia,
Warman and Cooper (2000) compared the effects of fertil-
ization of mixed forage with fresh and composted chicken
manure and inorganic N, P and potassium (K). Compost
amendments produced yields as high as the recommended
rate of N, P and K fertilizer. However, compost P and K
were used inefficiently by the forage, resulting in increased
levels of Mehlich 3-extractable P and K in the 0- to 15-cm
layer of the compost-amended plots.
A long-term irrigated rotation study at Vauxhall, Alberta,
examines feedlot manure compost as a replacement for inor-
ganic N and P fertilizers in rotations including potatoes
(Solanum tuberosum L.), sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.),
beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and wheat (Larney, unpub-
lished data). There was no negative effect of providing the
full P requirement and partial N requirement of the potato
crop with compost as the yield difference was non-signifi-
cant when compared with rotations receiving their N and P
from fertilizer (Table 2). Additionally, there should be some
residual nutrient release from the compost for subsequent
crops. Schlegel (1992) found that sorghum [Sorghum bicol-
or (L.) Moench] yields were greatest from combinations of
compost and N fertilizer than from either applied alone.
Apparent N recovery from compost was about 13% com-
pared with 36% for N fertilizer.
Øgaard (1996) indicated that P added with composted
manure was adsorbed to a lesser degree on soil particles
than added inorganic P, and concluded that organic acids in
the composted manure influenced P adsorption/desorption.
Earlier studies indicated that organic anions were not only
effective in reducing retention of added P, but also helped in
mobilizing P already retained in the soil, making adsorbed P
more available for plant uptake (Lopez-Hernandez et al.
1979; Chand and Tomar 1992).
Based on soil test P changes and plant P uptake, P avail-
ability in the first year after application was 85% for fresh
beef cattle feedlot manure and 73% for composted manure
(Eghball et al. 2002). Slightly lower P availability from
composted manure indicated that chemical reactions during
mixing and turning of composting caused P to become less
plant-available. In a field study, Wen et al. (1997) found that
69% of composted manure P was plant-available. In an incu-
bation study with a range of organic amendments, Gagnon
and Simard (2003) found that fresh dairy manure gave the
highest net increase in resin-P and labile P fractions in terms
of percentage of total P added, whereas poultry litter com-
post was the most efficient in increasing NaHCO3-
extractable inorganic P. In a growth chamber study with
feedlot manures and composts, Zvomuya et al. (2006) indi-
cated that only two parameters (water-extractable P and
total P concentrations) were adequate to model uptake of
amendment-derived P, explaining 81% of the variation in P
uptake.
Adler and Sikora (2003) suggested that water-extractable
P increased when loam soils were amended with biological-
ly active, immature compost or when the sorption capacity
of the soil was not sufficient to offset the effects of the com-
post addition. Because water-extractable P is implicated in
runoff events, they advised caution in applying immature
composts to critical source areas within a watershed, which
are most vulnerable to P loss in surface runoff or erosion.
Composting concentrates salt levels compared with fresh
manure. However, Miller et al. (2005) indicated that apply-
ing composted manure to irrigated barley on a clay loam soil
for 3 yr at rates up to 77 Mg ha–1 should not cause an
increase in salinity and sodicity variables compared with
fresh manure. Calcium, Mg, K, Cl, EC, and potassium
adsorption ratio were significantly higher for SBM than
WBM at certain rates and years. These results suggest that
bedding material could be used as a management tool to
control levels of some salinity variables in soil.
Maintenance of Soil Quality and Soil Reclamation
Even though C is lost during composting, compost is rich in
stable C, and this has immediate implications for replenish-
ment of soil organic matter and maintenance of soil quality,
which is not the case with inorganic fertilizers. Depletion of
soil organic matter is a problem on intensively cultivated
cropland, e.g., irrigated land in southern Alberta, where
crops such as potatoes, sugar beets, beans and peas, grown
in rotation, return little plant residue to the soil.
The retention time of soil-added C is an important issue
in light of the recent interest in using soil as a C sink
(Helgason et al. 2005). Eghball (2002) reported that about
25% of applied feedlot manure C and 36% of applied com-
post C remained in a Nebraska soil 4 yr after application,
indicating greater C sequestration with composted material.
 LARNEY ET AL. — MANURE COMPOSTING 605

Table 1. Amendment analyses, decomposition rate, and plant-available nitrogen (PAN) release in laboratory and field trials in western Oregon and
Washingtonz
C:N ratio Total N NH4-N Lab decomp.y Lab PANy Field PANy
Amendment (g kg–1) (%) (% of total N)
Pelleted fish by-product 5 94 1.1 99 57 77
Dry-stacked broiler litter 9 38 6.3 57 45 41
Screened dairy solids 27 16 1.5 62 1 9
Screened, composted dairy solids 20 20 0.6 28 8 5
Lagooned, anaerobically digested dairy solids 20 19 2.4 39 14 13
Rabbit manure 11 30 7.7 66 42 27
Composted rabbit manurex 10 18 0.0 9 19 22
zAdapted from Gale et al. (2005).
yLaboratory decomposition and plant-available nitrogen (PAN) determined in 70 d laboratory incubation at 22°C. Field PAN determined in the field using
fertilizer N equivalency method, with immediate tillage after amendment application.
xComposted rabbit manure was the only amendment containing a significant amount of PAN as NO -N (1.5 g kg–1; 8% of total N) at application.
3
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Table 2. Effect of compost application and rotation management on potato yield, Vauxhall, Alberta, 2002
Rotation Previous crop Nutrient inputs Potato yield (Mg ha–1)
3 yr Conventional Wheat 112 N, 67 P, 67 Ky 27.2a
3 yr Sustainable Wheat 62 N, 28 P, 67 K
28 Mg ha–1 compost (wet wt) 33.1a
4 yr Conventional Beans 112 N, 67 P, 67 K 29.1a
4 yr Sustainable Beans 37 N, 0 P, 67 K
42 Mg ha–1 compost (wet wt) 22.8a
5 yr Sustainable Beans 37 N, 0 P, 67 K
42 Mg ha–1compost (wet wt) 30.7a
6 yr Sustainable Beans 37 N, 0 P, 67 K
42 Mg ha–1compost (wet wt) 26.2a
zUnits
of N, P and K fertilizer inputs are kg ha–1.
a Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different from each other (P = 0.05, LSD).

In a wellsite reclamation study in Alberta, Larney et al.
(2005) found that, over a 40-mo period, the average
amounts (n = 3 wellsites) of added C conserved in the 0–15
cm soil depth ranked: compost (65 ± 10% SE) > manure (45
± 16% SE) > alfalfa (28 ± 11% SE) > straw (23 ± 6% SE).
Although compost has a lower C concentration than fresh
manure at land application, compost-C is more stable and is
stored longer in soil than the fresh manure-C, which is sub-
ject to microbial decomposition. This concept is illustrated
in Table 3 and shows equivalent amounts of stable C in soil
after manure and compost addition, although 70% more
total C was added in manure than compost.
Estimation of the C retained in soils amended with com-
post as a function of simple chemical properties of the com-
post provides an important tool for evaluating the
effectiveness of compost as a soil amendment to improve
soil quality, helping to calculate net retention of C. In an
incubation study, Helgason et al. (2005) investigated C min-
eralization in soils amended with nine commercial feedlot
manure composts from southern Alberta. The composts
were dissimilar in composition and resulted in substantial
differences in the amount of C retained in the soils (2–39%
C added evolved as CO2). Total C evolved during the incu-
bation period could be predicted from the NH4-N content
and the NH4-N/NO3-N ratio of the composted manures (R2
= 0.91–0.93).
Addition of composted manure to agricultural soils also
benefits soil physical properties. Carter et al. (2004) found
that compost-induced benefits in soil physical properties
(bulk density, macro-porosity, oxygen diffusion rate, shear
vane strength, water-filled pore space) were mainly
expressed in the red clover (Trifolium pretense L.) phase of
a 3-yr potato-barley-red clover rotation in Prince Edward
Island. Soil water content at –0.033 MPa was increased by
compost in the potato phase, compared with the control.
Biological properties are also enhanced by compost appli-
cation. Adding 11.5 Mg ha–1 of hog manure/papermill
biosolid compost resulted in a 30% increase in enzymatic
activities (β-glucosidase, β-galactosidase, acid phosphatase,
urease) and a 55% increase in microbial biomass C in a
Quebec study (Lalande et al. 2003).
The reclamation success of oil and gas wellsites in agri-
cultural areas depends on their capacity to sustain levels of
biomass production similar to those which existed prior to
soil disturbance. There is often a reclamation problem on
older wellsites where the original topsoil was stripped and
removed prior to drilling. Larney et al. (2003a, 2005) exam-
ined the effect of compost application with various levels of
topsoil replacement depths on three abandoned wellsites in
south-central Alberta. In the absence of topsoil, compost at
a rate of 40 Mg ha–1 dry wt. had a reclamation capacity of
95% (based on cumulative wheat biomass yields over 4 yr,
1997–2000) of the check treatment (100% topsoil replace-
ment depth with no amendment). For the 50% topsoil
replacement depth, addition of compost achieved a reclama-
tion capacity of 109% of the check treatment. These results
 606 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SOIL SCIENCE
Table 3. Comparison of fate of soil-applied carbon in 1000 kg dry wt.
of straw-bedded fresh manure and finished compost (i.e., equivalent
DM basis, not accounting for DM losses during composting) from the
same source
Fresh manure Compost
(kg)
Dry matter 1000 1000
Total carbon at soil additionz 314 185
Mineralizable carbony 144 11
Stable carbonx 170 174
zLarney et al. (2001).
yBased on laboratory soil incubation study data of 46% mineralizable C in
fresh manure and 6% mineralizable C in compost (Helgason et al. 2005).
xStable carbon = (total C – mineralizable C).
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show that compost acted as a substitute for topsoil, at least
in the short-term (4 yr), as the longevity of the effect was not
evaluated.
Plant Disease Suppression
There is a large body of literature detailing the benefits of
compost as a disease suppressant when used in cropping sys-
tems (Litterick et al. 2004; Noble and Coventry 2005). This
can be viewed as a bonus to the role of compost in recycling
nutrients. Huang et al. (2002) examined organic residues,
including composted manure, as suppressants of Sclerotinia
which affects many agricultural crops. Composted mixtures
of cattle manure, canola straw and canola screenings applied
to soil at 3% (wt/wt) were effective in suppressing carpogenic
germination of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum to 19% compared
with an untreated control with 79% germination in an indoor
study. When the compost was applied at 1% (wt/wt), the ger-
mination of sclerotia was 36%, which was still significantly
lower than the control.
In a potting study, Ringer et al. (1997) found that poultry
litter, dairy manure and steer/horse manure composts sepa-
rately co-composted with organic residues suppressed
damping-off caused by Pythium and Rhizoctonia.
Suppression of Pythium ranked as follows: dairy manure ≥
steer manure ≥ poultry litter. Comparisons between disease
losses in non-autoclaved and autoclaved potting mixes pro-
vided evidence that disease suppression was microbially
mediated. There was also evidence that low levels of NO2-
or NO3-N were associated with suppression of Pythium.
Stone et al. (2004) found that the magnitude of suppres-
sion of some soil-borne fungal diseases depended on the sta-
bility of the compost. Because fungi like Pythium are good
colonizers of fresh organic matter, but not good competitors
with other microorganisms, prior colonization of compost
organic matter by other microorganisms typically reduces
Pythium infection of seedlings. Suppression of Pythium by
compost addition is lost when composts are very stable and
do not support a suppressive microflora. Suppression of
other soil-borne diseases like Rhizoctonia spp. by compost
is not as common because suppression of these pathogens
typically requires the presence of specific microbial antago-
nists (Scheuerell et al. 2005).
In both conventional and organic agriculture, foliar appli-
cation of compost tea is becoming increasingly popular, pre-
dominantly as plant disease suppressant (Scheuerell and
Mahaffee 2002). Compost tea is an aqueous extract, con-
taining both the water-soluble and microbial fractions of
compost (Bess 2000; Bess et al. 2002; Touart 2000). Ideally,
the compost tea is derived from compost that does not con-
tain human pathogens. In actual practice, however, the com-
post may contain microorganisms that are not desirable for
human consumption, albeit at low concentrations (Duffy et
al. 2002).
ELIMINATION OF UNDESIRABLE
MANURE PROPERTIES
As well as its role in recycling manure nutrients, there are a
number of other benefits from composting. These are relat-
ed to elimination of undesirable aspects of fresh manure,
e.g., pathogens (Hess et al. 2004; Turner 2002), parasites
(Van Herk et al. 2004), weed seeds (Eghball and Lesoing
2000), pesticide residues (Büyüksönmez et al. 2000) and
malodours (Rynk 1992). These negative features of fresh
manure often preclude utilization, adding to over-supply
problems in certain watersheds. A recent example from
Alberta is the perceived spread of Fusarium graminearum
(Fusarium head blight) in cereals, whereby infected cereal
seed in cattle feed finds its way into manure due to spillage
at feed troughs. The manure is then removed at pen cleaning
and spread on adjacent fields, providing a disease “bridge”
to subsequent crops. Turkington et al. (2005) found that
composting eliminated Fusarium on infected wheat and
corn seed, mitigating the dissemination of the disease.
Larney et al. (2003b) reported a rapid decline in E. coli
levels in the first 7 d of composting with > 99.95% elimina-
tion, even though windrow temperatures averaged only
34–42°C. After 1 mo, E. coli was no longer detectable by
culturing methods. Total aerobic heterotroph populations
remained high (log10 7 CFU g–1 dry wt.) throughout the
composting period possibly causing an antagonistic effect
on coliform bacteria. Van Herk et al. (2004) spiked manure
with Cryptosporidium and Giardia and buried the samples
in windrows for retrieval at various intervals during com-
posting. The parasites Giardia and Crytposporidium were
eliminated after composting SBM for 42 d and WBM for 56
d.
Unlike fresh manure, compost is often promoted as being
“weed-free”. Many farmers are reluctant to spread fresh
manure for fear of introducing viable weed seeds to their
fields. Larney and Blackshaw (2003) recovered pre-counted
weed seeds in nylon-mesh bags at various times during
composting. Only one of the 13 species retained ger-
minability on day 21 and only two species had respiring
seeds on day 42. Lethal temperature to eliminate viability
was species-dependent. Four weed species were killed in the
initial 7 d of composting at a lethal temperature of 39°C
while temperatures >60°C were required for two species.
Another contentious issue with fresh manure is odour
emissions during land application (McGinn et al. 2003).
One of the benefits most often espoused for land application
of compost, compared with fresh manure, is that it is virtu-
ally odourless. Hence odour nuisance complaints from
neighbours are eliminated. However, the composting

process itself is not always odour-free. Rynk (1992) pointed
out that composting odours arise from malodorous feed-
stocks, NH3 volatilization and anaerobic windrow condi-
tions. Anaerobic conditions may occur if the initial
feedstock mix is too wet or lacks porosity. Odour emissions
are often associated with turning, hence passive aeration
systems may minimize odours.
ECONOMICS OF MANURE COMPOSTING
Composting manure converts a non-marketable by-product
into a marketable product (Fritsch and Collins 1993). Most
fresh manure is donated to adjacent landowners while compost
is sold at $15–25 Mg–1 wet weight (Larney, unpublished data).
Increased expenses of composting compared with fresh
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manure include haulage to a composting site, windrow turning
and maintenance, and loading for transport to the field. These
costs total $6–8 Mg–1of finished compost (Freeze et al. 1999).
Composting can reduce the cost of removal and hauling of
manure by as much as 75% compared with fresh manure.
Compost has a break-even hauling distance which is approxi-
mately twice that of fresh manure (23–32 vs. 15 km).
Wang and Sparling (1995) related profitability of feedlot
manure composting to the N content of the final product
compared with fresh manure. While haulage costs were
lower for compost compared with fresh manure, composting
costs were $1–2 Mg–1 finished product. However, DeLaune
et al. (2004) believed that due to the cost and N loss associ-
ated with composting poultry litter, composting was not
economical from an agronomic perspective compared with
the use of fresh poultry litter.
Lacy et al. (2001) indicated that composting of deep litter
was a feasible alternative to lagoon storage of swine manure
in Mississippi. If producers had the resources to market the
compost produced then it was even more profitable. The cost
of wood shavings and the sale price of the compost were the
two largest determinants of composting profitability.
Vervoort and Keeler (1999) reported that composting of
broiler litter before land application was not economically
attractive unless an environmental constraint was imposed
(e.g., P concentration limit in hayfield runoff). Composting
became more viable as the land base for application became
smaller relative to broiler production, as alternative dispos-
al costs for litter became higher or as environmental con-
straints became stricter.
EXPANDED ROLE OF MANURE COMPOSTING
Composting, while predominantly employed as a means of
handling nutrients, has also been successful in dealing with
livestock mortalities (Bagley et al. 1999; Fonstad et al.
2003; Stanford et al. 2000). Manure is an integral part of the
mix of materials required for mortality composting as the
manure microbes promote thermophilic conditions and lead
to successful breakdown of flesh, bone, hair and feathers.
Another potential role of composting is in the safe dis-
posal of transgenic plant wastes. Guan et al. (2005) reported
rapid degradation of the transgene cryIA(b) during co-com-
posting of Bt 176 corn plants with cattle manure. Co-com-
posting of manure with contaminated materials has been
used as a bioremediation technique (Antizar-Ladislao et al.
LARNEY ET AL. — MANURE COMPOSTING 607
2004). Soil contaminated with >380 000 mg kg–1 creosote
was successfully co-composted with cattle manure and
mixed vegetable waste for 19 mo (Atagana et al. 2003).
SUMMARY
Compost and composting enable the export of nutrients
from areas of high nutrient loading to soils which may be
deficient in nutrients. This reduces the risk of environmen-
tal issues (water, soil and air quality degradation) in high
nutrient loading areas and enhances soil quality and produc-
tivity and crop yield in nutrient-deficient areas. As well as
benefiting the livestock sector through exportation of nutri-
ents, compost and composting also benefit the crop produc-
tion sector by providing nutrients and maintaining soil
quality. The oil and natural gas sector can also benefit from
compost as a tool in wellsite reclamation. Composting also
has benefits beyond the realm of nutrient recycling, e.g., dis-
ease suppression, and reduction in the potential spreading of
viable coliform bacteria, Giardia cysts, Cryptosporidium
oocysts and weed seeds to a wider environment beyond the
feedlot.
Greenhouse gas emissions measured during composting
are only one part of the bigger picture. A comparative study
is required, comparing emissions from traditional handling
methods (fresh manure hauled directly to the field) vs. com-
posting. In a feedlot setting, this comparison should begin in
the cattle pens. For example, composting may mean more
frequent pen cleaning with the result that manure is not left
as long in bedding packs compared with conventional han-
dling. This effect should be quantified in a comparative
GHG budget. Also, GHG emissions following land applica-
tion should be compared for fresh manure and compost from
the same source.
The true merits of composting are often queried given the
high C and N losses associated with the process. A major
goal of future composting research should be to maximize
nutrient retention (possibly by the use of additives) while
minimizing GHG emissions.
If future environmental regulations require the adoption
of P-based instead of N-based land application of manure
(Olson 2004), farmers will need to increase the amount of
land they have available for spreading (Ribaudo et al. 2003;
Olson et al. 2005). Therefore, the radius of manure nutrient
haulage distance will increase, making the economics of
manure composting more attractive.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is dedicated to the memory of our co-author
Bahman Eghball for his innovative work in compost nutri-
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