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    12 views12 pages

    MEV-013

    Uploaded by

    Si Kri
    MEV 013

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    MEV-013: Environmental Chemistry TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT Course Code MEV-013 Course Title Environmental Chemistry Assignment Code ‘MEV-013/TMA-O l/January & July session 2021 Maxinmum Marks 100 5x20=100 Note: This assignment is based on the entire course Answer any five questions. All question carries equal marks Please write all answers in your own words. 1. Explain modem methods of separation and electrical methods of analysis with suitable examples? Differentiate between the following a, Accuracy and Precision ‘b. Determinate and Indeterminate Errors 3. What are the applications of chromatography technique in environmental monitoring? 4, Explain the following with suitable examples a. Chemical equilibrium & Dynamic equilibrium b. Aromatic hydrocarbons as environmental pollutants ¢. Biochemical effects of Arsenic & Mercury 4. Mechanisin of adsorption 5. Give a note on scintillation process and working mechanism of scintillation counter? 6. Explain the reasons for the following? a. HE stored in copper bottles and not glass bottles b. Sodium hypochlorite used as a disinfectant ©. Graphite acis as a lubricant 4. Lead components are added to gasoline and why was it removed with the advent of catalytic convertors ¢. TEL was bamed as a gasoline additive 7. Explain basic instrumentation for IR Spectrometry and its environmental applications? 8. a) What is global warming? How is it different from greenhouse effect? What are the environmental outcomes of global warming? b) Describe the mechanism of ozone formation in the lower troposphere? MEV-013: Environmental Chemistry Course Code: MEV-013 Course Title: Environmental Chemistry Assignment Code —_: MEV-013/TMA-01/January & July session 2021 ‘Note: This assignment is based on the entire course. Answer any five questions, All question carries equal marks. Please write all answers in your own words. ‘Maximum Marks 100 5x20=100 1. _Explain modern methods of separation and electrical methods of analysis with suitable examples? ‘Ans:- Analytical chemistry is 2 science in which materials are separated, identified and quantified. The techniques used in this branch of chemistry are defined as the chemical or physical principles employed to study ‘a substance which is to be analyzed (the analyte). The techniques for carrying out these aims may be combined or each may be done separately. The identification of the matter under study is performed using qualitative analysis, while quantitative analysis is used to determine how much (relative concentration or total amount) of the substance is present in the analyte. Classical qualitative techniques Separation techniques Precipitetion: This is e gravimetric method in which the reactants end products of a chemicel reaction are used to analyze a substance. The metallic ians of many elements may enter into a reaction with the negative ions to form a new insoluble substance called the precipitate, which settles to the bottom of the solution. This is filtered cout and washed, The mass of the precipitated solid is entered into the relevant chemical equation to calculate the total amount or relative amount (concentration) of ionic compounds in solution. Extraction: This is a procedure in which a substance is removed from a matrix, both being in two immiscible phases. A classical example is of the extraction of an organic compound from an aqueous phase inte an organic phase. The most commonly used technique for the extraction of a compound from an aqueous solution is liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), The movement of the solute is based on the equilibrium condition of the two pheses, as described by the partition theory. Solid phase extraction (SPE) is a widely used method of sample preparation used to separate and enrich purified components from aqueous solution. Many advanced extraction techniques are elsc being developed. Distillation: This is a process of evaporation and condensation by which a component is separated out of a mixture of liquids. it is based upon the difference in boiling points or volatility between the various substances present in the mixture. Identification techniques: ‘These are based on color, odor, melting and boiling points, radioactive or reactive properties of the analyte. Classical quantitative techniques Titration methods include acid-base or complexometric titration. Acid-base titration helps quantify an unknown acid or base in solution by finding its concentration based on the exact amount of opposing base or acid required to neutralize it. It is based on the neutralization reaction. Complexometric titration is a form of volumetric analysis. The end-point of the titration is the formation of a characteristic colored complex, which is Usually a metal complex. Thus mixtures of metal ions can be characterized, Gravimetric techniques use precipitation or volatilization to determine the mass of the analyte from its ionic mass. Various techniques are used, such as precipitation, volatilization, or electroanalytical. Coulometric techniques: This set of techniques helps to determine the mass of matter transformed by electrolysis from the amount of electric current used or produced during the reaction, Instrumental techniques Instrumental techniques are increasingly employed at higher levels of research, and the same instrument is often sufficient to separate, identify and quantitate the analyte. Instrumental separation techniqu Chromatography: This technique uses a mobile phase into which the mixture is introduced, This is passed through the stationary phese. Due to the different rates at which the components of the mixture travel through the stationary phase, they can be separated, The travel speed is based on the partition coefficient of the compound which determines the time of retention on the stationary phase. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a technique in which the analyte is contained in a mobile phase (such as methanol or acetonitrile with water or buffer solution) passed through a stainless steel column Which is between 1 and 25 cm long and less than 1.0 mm to 4.6 mm in internal diameter, filled tightly with particles of micron size allowing the various components of a complex non-volatile mixture to separate rapidly. 2. Differentiate between the following a Accuracy and Precision ‘Ans:- When scoping @ project, you want to be as close to the actual workload as possible. Defining the scope means that you and your client are figuring out and documenting a list of specific project goals. That could be features, functionalities, deliverables, deadlines, and ultimately costs of the project. Project scope helps with resource planning and time management of the project. Accuracy and precision are used in the context of measurement, e.g. the size of a project and therefore are both helpful when defining the scoping, Accuracy and precision are alike only in the fact that they both refer to the quality of measurement, but they are very different indicators af measurement. PRECISION nr ‘ACCURACY If a measurement is accurate, it means that it agrees closely with the accepted standerd for that measurement. For example, if we estimate a project's size to x and the actual size of the finished project is equal to or very close to x, then it is accurate, but it might not be precise, The closer a system's measurements to the accepted value, the more accurate the system Is considered to be. ‘A measurement that is precise means that it agrees with other measures of the same thing. In the sense of project scoping, let's take an estimation of workload as an example. If we estimate the size of several projects and they, in the end, are all close to or equal to what we predicted, then we can start to get a sense of the precision of our estimates. But first and foremost, each project needs to be as accurate as possible, Accuracy can ke determined by one measurement while many measurements are needed to assess precision, For instance, by looking at the image above, just by one bullet fired, one knows if it is accurate or not, but a number of attempts have to be fired to tell if the result is precise. Bullets that hit closer to the bullseye are considered more accurate. Ifa large number of bullets are fired, precision would be the size of the bullet cluster and not how close they are to the bullseye. In short, we can say that we want all our estimates to hit the target first (be accurate to within a certain limit), and then we can concentrate on the precision afterward. The more you work with 2 specific client, execute on individual projects, and have well defined the tasks, the more precise your scope becomes. In this sense, itis a goal to strive to achieve accuracy as soon as possible, and over time develop precision to scoping your projects. b. _Determinate and Indeterminate Errors ‘Ans:- Types of Error no analysis is free of error or “uncertainty” Systematic Error (determinate error) The error is reproducible and can be discovered and corrected. Random Error (indeterminate error) Caused by uncontrollable variables, which can not be defined/eliminated. ‘Systematic (determinate) errors 1L Instrument errors - failure to calibrate, degradation of parts in the instrument, power fluctuations, variation in temperature, etc. Can be corrected by calibration or proper instrumentation maintenance. 2. Method errors - errors due to no ideal physical or chemical behavior - completeness and speed of reaction, interfering side reactions, sampling problems Can be corrected with proper method development. 3. Personal errors - occur where measurements require judgment, result from prejudice, color acuity problems. Can be minimized or eliminated with proper training and experience, Detection of Systematic Errors 1. Analysis of standard samples 2, Independent Analysis: Analysis using a "ReferenceMethod" or "Reference Lab" 3, Blank determinations 4, Variation in sample size: detects constant error only. Random (indeterminate) Error + No identifiable cause; Always present, cannot be eliminated; the ultimate limitation on the determination of a quantity. ‘Ex, reading a scale on an instrument caused by the finite thickness of the lines on the scale; electrical noise ‘The accumulated effect causes replicate measurements to fluctuate randomly around the mean; Giverise toa normal or Gaussian curve; Can be evaluated using statistics 3. Whatare the applications of chromatography technique in environmental monitoring? ‘Ans:- Environmental monitoring is a term that describes the activities and processes which are required to monitor and characterize environmental quality. Used to prepare environmental impact assessments as well 2s playing a role in monitoring situations where human activity has the potential to cause harm to natural environments, itis an important field of environmental science ‘The current status of an environment and trends in environmental parameters need to be established if an environmental monitoring strategy is to be effective. To this end, a monitoring strategy will have reasons and parameters which are designed to establish these variables. The results of any monitoring strategy are reviewed, statistically analyzed, end published. Any monitoring program's design must therefore bear in mind the use of data before it can start, Environmental monitoring is cerried out for air, soll, and water quality monitoring purposes. There is a multitude of different monitoring processes that can be employed by scientists working in the field. One important element of any monitoring process, as in any scientific study, is the need to categorize and analyze any compounds present within a sample. There are a multitude of laboratory-based techniques that can be ‘employed for this purpose. Identifying the contaminants present in an environment can be challenging. In any given sample there is a variety of compounds with different chemical compositions. Also, there can be unknown contaminants due to degradation or transformation processes. Therefore, robust, fast, cost-effective analytical techniques are required in environmental analysis. Chromatography (especially when paired with mass spectrometry) is a technique that is well suited to this purpose. There are many different chromatography methods that can be employed in the lab for environmental analysis ‘and monitoring. Chromatographic methods can either be planar or column-based. Different chromatography techniques are suitable for different studies and analytical purposes. Gas chromatography (GC) methods are used to analyze volatile and non-polar compounds. Liquid chromatography (LC) methods are employed in environmental analysis and monitoring for compounds such as those which are polar, non-volatile, thermolabile or compounds with a high molecular weight. Most LC used for this purpose is high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) where small perticles are packed together at high pressure and forced through the chromatographic equipment. AAs the number of complex mixtures present in an environment that are potentially caused by contaminants can be vast, there is a constant need for improvements to chromatography techniques, Effective sample preparation methods are vitally important for any analytical study. Sample preparation methods such as QUECHERS, which is used for multi-residue and pesticide analysis in food, have been developed in recent years. Even the method of sample storage can be vital if a compound is to be accurately analyzed. In ion chromatography analysis, samples must be stored in plastic containers as glass containers can cause ionic contamination. Interference in environmental analysis is also @ problem. This is due to the variety of compounds present within ‘a sample which can interfere with each other due to factors such as size and molecular weight. Therefore, clean- up is necessary curing the sample preparation stage, which adds to the analysis time. Turbulent flow chromatography is a high throughput technique that mitigates the need for clean-up. It is also highly cost- effective. Separation can be improved by experimenting with different separation phases. A widely applicable and easy to Use stationary phase is alkylsiloxane-bonded silica. This can separate highly polar compounds that are present in contaminated environments. The coupling of LC to high-resolution mass spectrometry in recent years has led to a huge improvement in environmental analysis and monitoring. This has allowed improved screening of compounds expected to be in the sample as well as compounds such as transformation protocols in samples such as wastewater and sewage. There has also been a focus on achieving real nontarget analysis of unknown factors in environmental analysis. This will provide 2 vastly improved and comprehensive view of the true level and types of contaminant in environmental samples. Finally, the development of new software tools, spectra libraries, and databases is improving the ability of chromatography techniques to provide accurate data on compounds present in environmental samples. All of these improvements in the field mean that chromatography is ever more useful and relevant in the field of environmental monitoring, Give a note on scintillation process and working mechanism of scintillation counter? ‘Ans: A scintillation counter is an instrument for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation by using the excitation effect of incident radiation on a scintillator material and detecting the resultant light pulses. It consists of a scintillator that generates photons in response to incident radiation, a sensitive photomultiplier tube (PMT) which converts the light to an electrical signal and electronics to process this signal. Scintillation Counter Incident ; High v Pete a re _— — * Pulse discriminator, agtl counter, ‘ rmutichanrel analyser aS. High Votage Divider & Pulse Ampitior OUTPUT oto multiplier Light Guard Scintillation Counter lOptical Contact Scintillation counters are widely used in radiation protection, an assay of radioactive materials and physics research because they can be made inexpensively yet with good quantum efficiency, and can measure both the intensity and the energy of incident radiation, Operation When an ionizing particle passes into the scintillator material, atoms are ionized along a track. For charged particles the track ‘s the path of the particle itself. For gamma rays (uncharged), their energy is converted to an energetic electron via either the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering or pair production. The chemistry of atomic de-excitation in the scintillator produces @ multitude of low-energy photons, typically near the blue end of the visible spectrum. The number of such photons is in proportion to the amount of energy deposited by the ionizing particle. ‘Some portion of these low-energy photons arrive at the photocathode of an attached photo multiplier tube. The photocathode emits at most one electron for each arriving photon by the photoelectric effect. This group of primary electrons is electrostatically accelerated and focused by an electrical potential so that they strike the first dynode of the tube. The impact of a single electron on the dynode releases @ number of secondary electrons which are in turn accelerated to strike the second dynode. Photocathode ] Focusing electrode Photomu 7 / lonization track High energy photon Low energy photons Connector pins Scintillator Primary Secondary Dynode Anode electron electrons Each subsequent dynode impact releases further electrons, and so there is a current amplifying effect at each dynode stage. Each stage is at a higher potential than the previous to provide the accelerating field. ‘The resultant output signal at the anade is in the form of a messurable pulse for each group of photons that arrived at the photocathode and is passed to the processing electronics. The pulse carries information about the ‘energy of the original incident radiation on the scintillator. The number of such pulses per unit time gives information about the intensity of the radiation. In some applications individual pulses are not counted, but rather only the average current at the anode is used a5 a measure of radiation intensity. Deter materials The scintillator consists of a transparent crystal, usually a phosphor, plastic (usually containing anthracene) or organic liquid (see liquid scintillation counting) that fluoresces when struck by ionizing radiation Cesium iodide (Cs!) in crystalline form is used as the scintilator for the detection of protons and alpha particles. Sodium iodide (Nai) containing a small amount of thallium is used as a scintillator for the detection of gamma waves and zinc sulfide (2nS) is widely used as a detector of alpha particles. Zinc sulfide is the material Rutherford Used to perform his scettering experiment. Lithium iodide (Lil) is used in neutron detectors. Applications

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