Porphyry Deposits: Characteristics and Origin of Hypogene Features Enic SEeDonrr! Center for Mineral Resources, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, 1040 East Fourth Street, Tucson, Artona 85721-0077 Jons H, Dutt, Department of Geosciences, Wilkinson Hall 104, Oregon State University, Corvallis Oregon 97331-5506 JouN M. Paorrert Js Proffett Exploration, Ine. BO. Box 772066, Eagle River: Maska 995 Manco T. Eiyavpn Deprertinent of Geological and Encironmental Seiences, Stanford University. Stanford, California 94305-2015 Lukas ZoncHER, WILLIAM J. A. StaVAst, Davip A, JOHNSON, AND Mank D, BARTON Center far Mineral Resoureex, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, 1040 East Fourth Strwt, Tucson, Arison Abstract Porphyry deposits arguably represent the most economically important cass of nonferrous metalic mineral resources. These maguaticndvothernal deposit are characterized by sulfide an ide ove minerals in ve Jets nd dsseminations in are voles of hydrothermally altered rock (up tod kn, Poxphyty epost oe within magmatic els worldsie and re spl, temporal ad genetical, related o hops oie tite intsions that are pophyritie and that comsnonty have un aplite roundmass. The prepondenmee at Phaneromsie and mest typtally Cenoro in age, which reflects the dominance of maginatfar- relate ol Ationtectonies und preservation Hn oun ack Porphyry deposits ae heee grouped into fie classes hase on the economically dvninant metal in the de posits: Au, Cu, Mo, Wy and Sn, For each pomliaty cas, the major metal concentration i enriched by ator ‘0 100 to 1,000 relative to unmineralized rocks of a similar eomposition, The mass of porphyry deposits ranges cover four orders of magnitude, with dhe mean size ofa deposi ordered Cx» Mo — Ate Six W Hiydather mal alteration is a guide to ore nec i prodhces a serie of mineral assemblages bth within the or Zones and extening into a larger volume (>10 Rin") of adjacent rock. The typteall observed temporal evolution Porphyry ores is from ears: hightemperature biotite + K-leklspar assemblages (potasse iteration) to Conte = chlorite assemblages (sree alteration) to has-tempertee ay bearing assemblages, adved argc and intermeahate aac alteration), hich i consistent with prowressiceh eater avy ad ir Mhadto-rock ratios of Mus prior eo thee event entation. Along advance ari iteration rel ative Tate in the deposits where if superimpose on ore and potas alteration. n he depenite wher a ‘anced aril alteration (especially as quart ait) is preserved spatially above ore at commonly ex ing the paleasurface, lean form ear broadly contemporaneaus wth potas nteration. In contest lage of Na plagioelase-atinlite(sode-calee alteration and albite-eidote-chlorite-carbonatepropy Ite alteration) form fiom a Tu with ew acidity and commonly ick ore minerals Geolose Rad inline and isotopie tacer evidence indeate magnate fds dominate acid eration asseasated with one ado ‘magnate fads dominate soie-caleie and propyl alteration. Vein contain «lage percentage of ore mir. alsin por depost and include high-empeatne sigay-textured art eit oseltel with one «als and bioite-fespor alteration and moderate-tempenire pritc seins wth sere envelopes. te compositions at igneous rocks related to ports depen cover vitally the entre rang cbnered for present-day volenie rocks. Mincrliing porpsriex ate termediate to siete (258 wt © 5103) and thar apliti-textared gronmndmass represents eratulzation as a rest of abrupt depresunzation of waters "hugma; however, snl soles of uranic to termediate rocks inclling lamprophyren exh lose spatial and temporal relationship to porphity ore arma in some deposits Tlie understanding! porphyty sates depen ential on determination ofthe relive ages of events ane conrlation of aes of events in different cation, which in part depends egposure, Systems withthe geet fx degree and continuity of expostire generally have heen ited and dsmentered by peste formation, Most porphyry intrasions aster! with ore are stall cltane (013 kn) cess pz that were cxuplaced at depths of F406 kn. thn sone sere emplaced deer, Depots commonly: oe cluster, shove one or nore epolas on the rot ofan widerising interme to ice intewsion, Altered rocks ext Upward toward the paleosirtice. dona into the aeons Mal were generate and lateral for seeval klttercon either se af epee Th mito intrson From which the pogphyry mati riers Corresponding author ema. sedoffegenarieonaedSEEDOREE ET AL chambers operated a open systems vi mafic magna recharge, walbrockasimaton,enstalizatin tl ntuson, but mnerang ntrsios did no rope ‘resen-a stributns of hydothemnlly altered ck and slide-oside ore miners age time-tested products of Factine nied fd fos: We distinguish three spatial enfigrations characterise ofl fie Eines of porpiny deposts, the fist of which has two sala (a) sent teat Tare es above ad i tee ptt aleratton ina bello hex-shaped inne tht waeiss updo t Chorale, Hendersen foe Sat MamelKalamuaoo (Ib) seni ateration preset with akan aril siteration, a the later some eae lors oer zone at higher levels nthe syste sat Bat Fj, Cero Rico and EL Sl Cio 2) tense sevice an local aac arg alteration ets throng encsing potas aeration near Set als exten above prasialteration an upwarl expanding one with an overall geometry of a fa nel qvat Butte Chpcartataand Reslation. 3) sca nation to pasate is widespread inthe centro the iter ad has an iveted eopshaped sone and pease iteration oth fingre ojos af soc alteration extending up Unouh the overs oneby at Vernon. Metal grates ar {neal wate to ere one sna orgy precipitate aa he dearer of sibsequentremebalation, Pe~ “iptation of metal Fnctn of nnltipe sarees, pial nln temmperatore ci and ron ands file away Tene, the shape aan oreo depends on the number and positions of sineraiang vers ations of wins, les or bree aid pressire-tepert: Barve ints: the proportions, shapes and on tore changes and wall oe reactions that germ ore mineral stabs vtmolo and theral models suggest that dations of isothermal acy f 0.80 0 52 00 are commen bit sever lage porphsmy Cx deposits ncalermltiple event spanning sever milion years Groweattng relationships, inl olfet vets, provide defini evidence for Une reative ages of hy tiothermalevents ata particular spat ation. Intrasve contacts that cut of oder seins and ae mek tn sonmger sean prove tne lines that pert corcation of spall parte evens. Mest ppl de fia eli mull nists each astcated tha sees of Inderal ene forme oe deciing Cenperar itera. The hih-temperatnre starting point of hydothenal il compositions varies sistem nicaly between porpy clases snd snst reflect maga compostion and chemi pation betwee ‘el ineral and aqueous Ti Although the data are spare, the magia nd sweated high-temperare Gre find sary sock that enation state sition state and ttl slr content ate highest for por ted At chs slight Tower for Mo, lnver yet fr So and vest for W. Neal elses and lass, hee hes have examples that diverge tow yu. and ih sl gta wer temperate to proce a nce ani tration sl hgh-uldation sate oe miners Fist ov th she spectrum of glabal magia, the breath of pomphyry mineralization shares prlcetues yet mnt dative geologe characters. In ypite of center of sy and eeoname pat Introduction The miner and the engineer naturally hace little regard for a classification that des nat help them to find ore —G. F Longhlin and C. H. Behe, Jr, 1933, Porrivey peFOstTs have played important roles in the his- ton: science, and economics of modem society. The birth of the journal Economie Geology in 1905 coinciced with the in- ‘ception of large-scale open-pit mining at Bingham, Utah, sev- ral metallurgical innovations, and a Tong-term peak in th real Cu price. The Cucrich portion of the spectnim of por- phyry deposits was recognized first and in all respects remains the most important today: but Mo, Au, Sn, and Ware impor- tant by-produets and in certain deposits can be the principal commodity. The Economic Geology Seventy-Fifth Anniver- sary Volume reviewed porphyry Cu deposits (Titley andl Beane, 1981) and porphyry Mo deposits (White etal, 1981), Ponphsy Sn and W depots hal only recent been ident Fed an ponplisry Au deposits had mot yet heen recogired Porphyry deposits ane m which sulfide and oside ore min aqucous solution at elevated temperatures, They draw their nd pluie ine sions commonly associated spatially: and genetically to ore The intrusive rocks associated with mineralization pyries, can be distinguished from other porphgritic rocks by hydrothermal deposits in als are precipitated from name from the porphyritic texture of dike pore thea fine-grained apltie (sugary) gronnclaas kext, which is closely linked to their genesis. orphyr deposts are characterized by ther rg tones and relatively low ore grades and geologically forthe dissemn- inated character of their ore minerals that occur bath in nar~ row, closely spaced veins anc! within hydrothermally altered rock (eg. Titley, 1966; Lowell and Guilbert, 1970). Many ‘ariations on the porphyry theme reflet differences in mag ‘matic compositions, structural styles, host rocks, and othe factors (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Gustafson, 1978: Einaudi 1952a). The most homogeneous porphyry deposits are uni form on the scale of hundreds of meters, vet the characteris- tic veinlets and their alteration envelopes have widths of mi Timeters and centimeters (e.g, Tiley, 1952). The system and deposit-seale pattems and processes ane of practical and scientific interest, but a key geologic attraction of porphyry deposits is that many features ate visible at the hand spect men scale and are amenable to rigorous, continuons doc mentation of paragenetie relationships during. mapping and core logging “The ongin of porphyry depesits encompasses fundamental questions about tectonic, magiatic. geochemical, antl metal logenie processes ofthe Earth. The geologic attribntes of po plivry deposits, coupled with their persistent economic i portance, account for why his depasit type bus been a the forelront for developing geologic mapping techniques and apphing new laboratory techniques and theoretical mets (Hunt, 1991; Hedenguist and Richards, 1998). In turn, these approaches Tave led to many conceptual adhances—— evonomie geology as a whole and influenced the understand ing of erustal-scale mass transfer and fluid circulation (Skin 1997; Barton and Hanson, 1989; Barton et al, 1991). use of temporal constraints wil be ertical to advancing understanding of these deposits and solving the larger sci- entific questions, Scope and approach Porphyry deposits display a remarkable diversity of charac- teristics that have several common genetic themes, as well as practical implications. Although porphyry Cu deposits and porphyry Mo deposits have received considetuble attention, the geologic features and origins have not been well inte- rated across the spectram of porphyzy deposits. Indeed, the seologie literature on the Civ and Mo end members bad sir- ‘tually no reference to one another before 1980 and minimal overlap since then, Hence, we address the spectrum of par- phyny deposits in order to examine whether genetic hypothe Jet developed in one portion of the spectrum are’ more broadly applicable. In this review of porphyry deposits, we highlight information commonly accessible to exploration and mining geologists, ineluding geologic maps. hydrother ineral assemblages, chemical compositions of associated neous rocks, metal ratios, and relative ages based on eross- ceutting relationships. We emphasize how porphyry magmatie- Iiydrothermal systems evolve over spatial scales from <1 mm to >10 kin and time seales of up to S-m,: duration, which we refer to as space-time evolution. Sillitoe and Perell6 (2005) review the tectonic and magmatic evolution of porphyry de prosits in the South American Cortillera over greater dis- tances and longer time scales. During the past 25 yr new an- alstical chemical methodology and physical modeling techniques have expanded the scientific approaches to. un= derstanding chemical and physical processes that produce porphyry ore deposits, We ake a ore national approach and due to space limitations only briefly summarize the key | conclusions from studies of stable isotopes, Mid inclusions [ : — = : : eM MM ‘= Phanerozoic Igneous Provinces Porphyry Deposit, ee Kiometers PONPHYRY DEPOSITS. CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGIN OF HYPOGENE FEATURES 253 radiometric ages, and the trace element and radiogenie iso: tope studies (see review by Hedenquist and Richards, 1998). The overall purpose of this review is to summatize the eu rent data and the understanding of processes that form por- plyry ore deposits, with an emphasis on diversity and com- plexity of these systems Geologie Framework and Contest In the early 1900s, the onky known porphyry deposits were Carich, and these were mostly deseribed as disseminated C deposits. According to Tiley (1997), the first formal use of the term porphyry Cu deposit may’ have been by Emmons (1918), A few Mo-tich members became recognized about the sume time Porphyry deposits are intimately associated with magmatic ares formed along consuming phite margins (Sillitoe, 1972 1976), although the association with ares breaks down for er tain deposits (Sillitoe, 1980, 2000; Westra and Keith, 1981), Because of their broad distribution in space and time. por Dhyvies can be used to monitor Eaeth evoliation (Mever, 1951) Classification scheme The porphyry deposit type is divided into five classes based on the prineipal contained metals: porphyry Aw, porphsty Cu. porphyry Mo, porphyry W, and porphyry Sn. The clase Funded nto sbelase at ae based on compost of intrusive rocks. major and by-product metals, and other distinctive features Table 1), a hull diseusted ina late sec tion, Global-scate distribution in space and time ‘The global spatial distribution of porphyry deposits ener= ally outlines Phanerozoic orogenic belts (Fig. 1), Since the ap- pearance of the Economic Geology Seeenty-Fifth Annicer sary Volume, many new deposits have been discovered: these include discoveries in the Andes (e.g. Escondida Norte o_ 2500 5.000 2 rervoie Kaos proses. keto re254 SERDONEE BT ALPORPHTYRY DEPOSITS: CHARACTERISTICS Chile: Antapaceay, Peru), southwest Pa g and Batu Hijau, Indonesia Bewongan, and Tampakan, Philippines). ‘Cadi, Nev South Wales), and North America (e.g., Resolution or Maina Porphyry, Arizona: Mount Milligan, British Colum. hia: Pebble Capper. Alaska). Especially since the mil-1990s. central Asia has become the latest new frontier of porphyry exploration with the discovery of Oyu Tolgoi, Mongolia, “The distribution of ages of Phanerozoic deposits (Fig. 2) is consistent with earlier recognition of the dominance of Ceno- ‘ic and Mesozoic deposits (Meyer, 1981: Titley and Beane. 1951: Hunt. 1991). More deposits of Paleozoic age. however. are being discovered andl developed, for example in the Akai bpelt of Eurasia (Watanabe and Stein, 2000; Perelld et al 2001; Yakubehuk et al. 2001, 2005), and the Tasman belt of Sustralia (Perkins etal. 1995). Archean anid Proterozoic examples of porphony deposits occur in Fennscandin and Cana (Gaal ad shan, 1979 Fraser, 1993; Wanhainen et al, 2003), although most have stall to molerate quantities of contained metal. In addition. there ‘ae probuble porphyry Cu occurrences in the Pan-African oro- gen in Egypt, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia (eg, Burgath et al 1984; Jaques eta, 1999, Bekhit et al 2001), Possible Preeaim- brian porphyry Mo deposits include those in Ontario and Fin- Ind (Gaal and Isohanni, 1979; Nunes andl Ayres, 1982) ‘The global distribution of porphyry deposits is a complex function of numerous factors, nehiding the uneven distribution of magmatism through time that is related to changes in plate configurations (e.g. Burke and Kidd, 1980), The Phanerozoic distribution, however, is in large part explained in terms of preservation and exposure of deposits. Porphyry deposits form relatively near the surface, typical from I> to 6-km depth and some deeper than 6 km. and ure subject to subsequent tecton- isn, erosion, and burial (eg. Staude and Barton, 2001), jin, Gaby. Spence, and Toki Mass-balance perspectives Estimates of ore reserves and mineral resources, though rtcally dependent on the availability of data, mining methexl AND ORIGIN OF HYPOGENE FEATURES 255 snl economic and scl inpts are useful for irst-oner com parison of deposits (Fig. 3} For any one clas of depots, the Saes vary by to to three orders of magnitude. The average sade ofthe major metal nal ve cases of ppl deposts ‘enriched by 100-to LO00sfld compared tothe average co centration in unmineralzed tacks of sine compesition ‘The sizes of porphiny deposits of all classes range ve about four orders of magnitede. and both the sizeof the largest deponts and the mean sie aa deposi in a cls 9p cally vary the order Cu > Mo = An> Sh>W (Fig 3) the Tagest pomyry Cx deposits have two orders of magnitude swore than deposits of other classes. In contrast the largest ponphsry Mo deposit ave contain less Mo than ex eal ey Cu dep an the angst pony A Pos cnt less Athan many pomplyry adept (Fig Many dozens of other major and trace elements are con- centred, redistributed, or depleted within the much lager Solum of rock (=10-100 tines) affected hy hydeathermal Avid The total ss teaser in porphsry sstens I there fore, enonmious. Afer on, por plist hnrotermal syste play hey vole in reistbuting "ements in continental erust within the Phanerozoic Economic and historical perspectives Porphyry deposits currently annually contribute in excess of USS40 billion globall, principally as Cu, Mo, Aa, and Ag (U.S. Geological Survey, 2005); the economic impact of por phyry deposits is similar in magnitude to aluminum and is ‘only exceeded by iron and steel. Porphyries are the most im- portant source of Cu and are the source of nearly all Mo, Cer tain porphyry Cu deposits are important producers of AM or 1g but not Sn or W. Porphyry Cu and Mo deposits plaved Jeading roles in economic growth of the American West in the frst half of the twentieth century (Hiyde, 1998). More re- cently. they have been important in establishing industrial {economies in Chile and Peru and could have a similar impact in countries such as Mongolia No. of Deposits 250 200 © Porphyry Tin ‘© Porphyry Tungsten © Porphyry oiyocenaen 1 Porphyry Copper Porphyry Gold “300 Age (Ma) astern of ges by ches opal, keyed to pomp belts,256 SERDOREE Et AL, 8 Au Grade (oem) Mo Grade (%) Grad W Grade (%) — Vo a Porphyry Tungsten Beseee Porphug Ta a FoR, BH omatc Porphyry Molybdenum Som: Sean §| Osstinw | eiEtccmemes | OC gutow Porphyry Copper 2 Gr ose rant Cue) Serzoni Costs) Tomine capogore bt Senco Fic. 9. Grade-tonnay 5 Syomeowiso Powphyty Gols agrams for copper, wastes gl, tn, a tongsten, Datapoints ane mistures of proc Tesarees an combsintonsel ano the thee fr inl depose (inching some prospeet) pated on Iiglnscales The only depos shown are those tha re else by the scheme shown inthe legend symbols pertain to ‘leases utine ice all ta for subclasses in agen else of depos except for feather data pains: Average ‘ompostons of elected igen racks sealed By 1,00 are from Tarkan al Wedepoll 1961 Exploitation of porphyry deposits henefited from key tech: nological developments (Fig. 4). inching the success of Daniel Jacklings bulk tonnage open-pit mining method in 1905, campled with advances in suilling Cu ores and! in smelt- ing and refining (Navin, 1975). The economic and mining trends ulso strongly influence seientific studies of porphyry deposits as illustrated in the timeline (Fig. 4) y special issites of Economic Geology, afew key books, and collections of pa- pers on porphyry deposits Hydrothermal Alteration and Mineralization Ores and structure have been dealt with in detail: but the important changes which adjacent rocks of known composi= tion have suffered are to0 often briefly dismissed, or even in correctly indicated. AW. Lindgren, 1902, The host racks of porphyry deposits are hydrothermally a tered to form charactenstic types of gangue mineral wall-rock alteration, and they are mineralized by sulide and oxide miner: als, Together these constitute specific processes and effects that ‘characterize and nite deposits of the porphyry type and that swe reler to as alteration und mineralization, Wall-rock alteration ancl mineralization studies ate relevant because they provide Timits on the pressure-temperature conditions and composition of ore fluids and understanding of the controls on ore deposi- tion, Furthermore, they represent the most easily recognized and broadly spatially distributed guides used in the exploration for new ore deposits. About the time ofthe golden anniversary ‘of Economie Geology in 1955, economic xeologists benefited from deeper open-pit exposures, where effects of hypogene processes could be more easily understood. During this period, move attention was paid to alteration and mineralization and the frst smtheses on the topic were written (Sclavartz, 1947; Bur- Tham, 1962; Creasey, 1966; Nakovnik, 1968). The physical chemical foundation of econonsic geology was strengthened by ‘esperimental and theoretial studies in hydrothermal hud eul- tinting in several seminal review papers (Barton and Skinner 1967; Mever and Hemley, 1967: Barton, 1970) that subse- quent were updated and. supplemented (eg, Barton and Skinner, 1979 Barton et al, 19910; Einaudi et al. 2005) Terminology Veins and their alteration encelopes: We use the term vein senst Tato but informally adopt names based on the vein-fill- ing widths of >1 m forlodes, Tm to Lem forveins, and <1 1 for veinlets, Typical veins in porphyry deposits have widths of Tess than a few centimeters and most are only a few millime ters wideition posi veal ion fited yene vod dhe Pore 1900 1820 oo 2. 4 pet eas TRE coer, ° 0 = =a eae a Technology Tego rans = 375°C (Fournier and Potter, 1982). as well as salinity (Xie and Walther, 1993) Quartz exhibits retrograde solubility at pressures of <800 Dars. and the change from lithostatie to hydrostatie pressure is alikely cause for formation of abundant quartz veins (Rusk rable because at <1.5 teases textural destruction may be characteristic of envelopes and Reed, 2002; Redmond etal, 2004). Presse, however, is) ‘on certain fXpes of wins: in other cases, it may develop in commonly. poorly known, Geologie reconstructions, both | areas where alferation is so intense that adjacent alteration stratigraphic and structural, are generally used to determine tnvelopes overlap about closely spaced veins or due to flow of depth, and these lead to pressure estimates when coupled Hhuils along fractures that are not resolved mesoscopieally with interpretation of rock fabrics and vein characteris (Gostafson and Hunt, 1975; Ttley, 1952b) Geochemical methods for estimating pressure include fic Distinction between miueral assemblages and mineral asso inclusion petrology (egg. Roedder and Bodnar, 1980; eden: : cations. A hydrothermal mineral assemblage is a group of —quist et al. 1998) andl mineral barometry (e.. Anderson ancl : minerals that appears to be stable together at the mesoscopic Smith, 1995). Horizons of immiscible phase separation "bot a Seale and to hive formed contemporaneonsly. Assemblages ing”? have been documented in porphyry deposits as well, hut 4 are geachemically significant because they ean be used to es- they do not have a direct temporal and spatial link to ore de- a timate restricted. physico-chemical conditions of formation positon (eg, Jobn, 1989, Gustafson and Quiroga, 1905: assuming local equilibrium thermodynamics. The concept of Redmond et al. 2001), 4 assemblages is equally applicable to vein fillings and alter- Chemical composition: The bulk chemical composition per- 4 ation envelopes. The complete mineral assemblage includes tinent to wall-sockalteration is dictated by the magmatic Mid all minerals silicate. sulfide, oxide. and other gangue phases composition (see below), wallsock composition, and the pro such as anhydrite or titanite portions ofthese two which is also known asthe faid-to-s0ck r A ndrotheraal mineral association i a group of minerals Tati. Hence. wall-rock composition partly dictates alteration % Lee imther vegans of whether the inerals andre mineral asserblaes,particaary at low Mid-t-70ek formed at the same time or in local equilibrium, Mineral us- ratios typical of weak alteration, Wall-rock composition «3 4 socations are commonly reported in the geologie literature buffer pH through reactions with carbonate or feldspar or oF « (and sometimes are mistakenly used as assemblages), For ex- dation state through reaction with ison-bearing minerals. oF q ample, alteration zones (eg, potassic zones) and sblfide gunie matter. or reduced pore fluids. Because rentelization 4 ones (eg. pyrite zone) are based on individual minerals or and reduction of sulfate to sulfide directs promotes sulfide a din inineral assoeiations. Although these associations ave mineral deposition (Barton, 1970), wall-rack reaction min bE Calie in exploration and science, by themselves they have coupled with ore deposition. Wall racks also cun supply RYPORPHYAY DEPOSITS: CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGIN OF HYPOGENE. FEATURES 239 chemical constituents necessary to form bydrathermal miner 19522): and (3) the breccia style (Sillitoe, 1985; Skewes and fh, such as mafic or oxide minerals supphsing ion for Cu-Fe Stern, 1996), The structural styles in part control the degree Sulfides or feldspars supplying aluminum for e of invohwement and timing of ingress of external Mids, net (ex, Carten et al, 198sb; Seedorf, 1988; Ziveng and We use lade style loosely to refer to any ofthe major ehar- I Clark, 1995; Maher, 1996) acteristics of zoned base metal vein sch as the Main Stage Wallrock effects commonly are visible at the seule of dis- at Butte (Meyer etal, 1968), Lodes are characterized by the | eminated grains to veins but ao a the scale of ore zanes and presence of mnajor throughgoing Cu-rich veins, minerals that = | entire deposits, suchas transitions between slice and potassic ire characteristic of high’ and very high sulfidation states, and | alteration (Carten et al, 1985b) and contacts between silcie intense seictic alteration with silcication andor adkanced i | andamafic rocks (e, Metz and Rose, 1968; Manske and Paul, _argilic alteration (regardless of geometry). Other types of late ‘| 2002). Considering the differing behavior of metas ike Cu and — veins and lates, eg. those with weak seviitie or intermediate , Mo, contrsting wall-rock compositions affect metal deposi-_argili envelopes, are specifically excluded from the lade des r tion, zoning, and ratios in othersise similar deposits. There- _ighation herein ‘ fore. wall-tck effects have practical consequences for explo 5 ration targeting ore reserve Eeation, and grade contro, Well-rck alteration-nineralisation assemblages : Composition of externa fluids: The types of external Mids Alteration types are groups of mineral assemblages that 1 | that participate in porphyry hydrothermal systems include formed in geochemicalh similar environments (Meyer and 1; | saline formation waters related to eoeval or older evaporite Heinley, 1967), Alteration types ean be dived into those | asins (eg, Dilles et al, 1992, 1985, Battles and Barton, —hosted'by aluminosilicate rocks (most igneous, mete neous 5s Ie Woes), dikie meteore water (eg, Shepperd etal 10, wetavoheae, unl eke cadens peek) eae ¢ | Selby et al, 2000), and sewwater (eg. Ositenko and Jones, formed in carbonate and ultramafic rocks (Barton eta i: 1076: Chivas etal. 1984). The paleolydrologic environment — 199) Here we concentrate onthe aluminesilicate rocks but i anay be deduced by integrating evidence from regional geo- address the consequences of encountering mafic host rocks. ‘ logic relationships, systen-scale alteration map patterns, and Four broad processes or types of chemical reactions ate re- nH the mineralogy and orientations of frackue patterns, mineral sponsible for the prinepal alteration types in porphyry envi «| compositions, uid inelusion compositions, stable isotope ronments: (1) volatile addition (propyite alteration): (2) hy 8, | anahses, and studies of chemical guns and losses (eg. Bow- robs (sereitie, advanced argilie. and intermediate argilic | man eta, 1987: Dll et al, 2000) alteration); (3) alkali exchange (eg, potasic and sexic-caeie ty | Structural style: The three most common end members of alteration) and (4) addition of siltea (ici alteration. cl structural styles of porphyry deposits are (1) the disseminated We outline a geologic and geochemical framework for al ). | ye, in which mineraiation occurs predominantly in thin teraion-mineralization assemblages and alteration types that 0 seilets (Titles. 1982). (2) the lode soe (Einaudi, 1977b, ean he used descriptively by geologists Cables 23) witht k : Tate 2 Lit Mineral Abreviains ch > ale © cull nky pleco e Keone Gs Sager fo peiaiie ‘l APS huninin phoptatestfte miners ick ie Bee : ‘neni toe ie ve oph Rei i" Sul eae ‘dee me hie 1. ah nine ftarte Soe orale Fe i ho Mente frachete PoSnShS rete ine grin pat feat Tine ge ieme reas in ca Qe ate bist ibe tour tonto BF be Be dg pgp te or emmite ck bike bret iteredte soa sfation form ermal a Sit Brame Bass tole val Soran " Gatco elnae Cepar seo Feoheunderened ernie emp Lene Meat r0ys081 a teem es monet Se elite Fea mm the Poth nt s imme mote 7 ‘none at ~ rteSEEDOREF ET AL. 260) vas 4s261 PORPHYAY DEPOSITS: CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGIN OF HYROCENE PrATURES one smb 50) Sguy ys pa a it EBL SAND) HOW 'v aol) pap este ry SHG HAO (oon Nt pu asd xg wet Prva si yp 2 tony) sq (9s6 re a ‘961 anyon oe > suman tote son onan stop cy soxbanna pre hon ay ys dq) ee pte jo soe Hs (so) ky li "ps ssa quo sige eps sn a wp sa) dud 19 Fue Jo a Jose yea aap us po 409 s¥s0dop oR pe sah poapan yay se pan unm262 SEEDOREE ET AL, requiring chemical analyses of minerals or rocks. The choice af terms and related semantic issues are addzessed in Ape dis 1. The summary in Table 3 defines each alteration type identifies key mineral replacement reactions and estimated Jormation temperatures partly based on phase petrology: and lists essential and accessory minerals, associated vein types and examples with references, Although veins are an integral part of alleration and mineralization processes, certain vei types span multiple alteration types; hence, veins are dls «assed separately below The system Ks0-Al:Oy-SiO>-H:0-KCL-HCL: The phase dia gram of this system is useful starting point for organizing al teration types (Fig. 5). asthe bulk composition of the system rr cr is ideal for quartz-bearing aluminosilicate rocks. Figure 58 tog (mccieks/miicins) displays the relative stabilities of K-feldspar, muscovite (prow fir "sericite.” the traditional textural term for fine-grained K mica). and the akiminosilicate minerals kaolinite, pyrophy- lite, and andalusite. The principal phase boundaries in this dic agram define the fields for potassic (potassium silicate) sertic iphlle, quatz-sercte pte) and advanced argilic alteration, listed in order of lower KCVHCI and. pHt of the oe fluid. An assemblage that plots in a phase boundary ean be defined as transitional between the various types adjacent to the boundary (ez, K-feldspar and sericite is a transitional potassie-sericitie assemblage) An important restriction on the definition of sercitic alter: ation, which is implicit in the phase diagram of Figure 5A is that K-feldspar (not just plagioclase), if present, be altered to seriite + quartz, Advanced argilie alteration involves forma: 6 tion of kaolinite, pyropbyllite, or andalusite. Sericitic and ad- alae _ sanced argili alteration chemically represent progressively Sh en notes sw more intense hydrogen metasomatism and hase-caton leach tense hydrogen metasomat sore Pre® ing, which in the extreme results in vuggy silica, though only Myse ‘Advanced Serictie Potassie ‘argc top @ _ jue] nap O75 8 Andel + Quarte logler-. a+) 2 ro . 8 loglax+lan*) 2 forthe sytem K,0-ALO}SiOeHLO-KCHICL ut PALO! = 1 Khar plotting temperatne vrais log as fn use ellis are me Ge Hemey and Jones (1968), Monto gd Hey (1975), al Henney el (1980). Phase Lxmndarescomtespond to Tints oalkeration spe. Phase shagran forthe system KeO"ALOs SO: HETUO at PURO! = 1 Bhar plotting log ar y-) werss fog aay) 40°C and states of K-feldspar musconite alls und top. The de agra i comntriced forthe Maoetopr eral meter ut the toe ofthe Aiagram se hile affected by inconpraton of effets of sl sation or thangs in temperature eg. Seer? ane Ein, 2004), Fk core Srmaing to alteration types are wojected vetelly as dashed lines a li Fred athe top As the diagram ilstates, ops can be a membros sic. senitc. or adsancee agile alteration types sn porpheny ssteme ° Alepening on the gelogs acertence. Base on tata for topaz ron dat of Barton etal (N82) and SUPCIETUD dataane (fson etal, 1002). C Stacked seis of phisedhgrams tht pot lg nei) wero lx aye 600% st saris tempertures from TH? t0 150°C, The topology of the dag ‘hanes some htt generate and variant pols Sit hi Tale tes of Ing ute a temperate decline. Mineral sbeation © at 8 Table 2: Shark circles are keyed to alteration pes sce tet sn appropriate Core ine) = OTIS oe 37 positions the phase dagrams. Labels for troetional eration tp eg ate aman irteen plas and sere) ae oie for crt: Daa at ‘Andel |magmatic “Ksp loglanig+2/a2+) cord Toate) = 0.67 sp frown SUPCHT as reported by Bowers etal. (1954), with aitions Irom Urore | eer PAWS tab Janse TRS) ase faa sho 0 cima ieee eaeeeneTG aw sO" ate aprinmate wh pesto ith Chclorcho loglaxslans) frm Walshe 9B) concert (Nye Otel bite (Ne = 6) aces plese | scent ot sed ges tal re Se mendes Key, @inrmedatearghic ® Prnyic Stn ent hrc awe ested fom mata pe seb oe , @rsvarces vote @Secisc @ PotascPORDIEYIRY DEPOSITS. CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGIN OF IVPOGENE FEATURES 263 in shallow environments characteristic of high-sulfidation ep- ithernal systems (e., Stoffiegen, 1987), We use the term gzvisen only asa textural modifier for coarse-grained ugare- gates, generally of muscovite. quartz, and other minerals fo Towing the usage of Shaver (1991), Reed (1997) and Seedorft and Einaudi (2004) Adding F and other anions: Inthe presence of fluorine-rich aids with high uetivity of HE, K-feldspar gives way to topaz, museovite gives way to topaz, and the ahunimum silicate ghases anda, prop, and halite ab ge wy to topaz (Fig. 5B; Seedorf and Einaudi, 2004a). In other words, depending on the geologic environment, topaz ean be a mem: ber of potasic,sericitie, or advanced argilic alteration types. The same approach can be used to deal with sulfate, boron, and other anions (Table 3). Addition of sulfate provides for stability of alunite, Quartz. alunite is an important mineral assemblage in advanced argilic alteration, which may form by hypogene vapor condensation in the upper levels of some ponpliry systems (e.., Silltoe, 2000). In boronrich solu. tions, K-feldspuar and muscovite give way to tourmaline. and alnnsinnn siieate phases give way to dumortierite. Hen potsssic alteration has an analogue in the assemblage quartz and tourmaline. Indeed, the spatial position and salinity char- acteristics of the quartz and tourmaline assemblage in por- phyry Sn deposits are similar to those of potassic assemblages ‘in many other porphyry deposits (Grant et al. 1980). Aiding Mg and other cattons: The component MgO can be added to model mafie wall rocks or minerals (Fig, 5C).In the hounced argillie environment, corresponding to the left. hand side of the diagram at low values of ax./an., andalusite, pyrophyllite, or kaolinite are joined by cordierite, chlorite, or biotite at high values of ayia.(ai... Cordienite is favored at high temperatures and chlorite at low tempetatures, but the tale Held may not be accessible to natural solutions at such low values of ax./an... Cordierite occurs as a hydrothermal ‘mineral in the porphyry systems of Green Tale, Nevada (Hud- son, 1983), El Salvador, Chile (Gustafson and Quiroga, 1995), and Batu Hijau (PA, Mitchell, pers, commun, 1995). At the intermediate values of ax.fau. that characterize the seriitie environment (Table 3), the principal serieitie mineral mus covite can be joined by other minerals such as chlorite und rarely biotite (Fig. 5). ‘The environment of potassie alteration on the right-hand side of igure 5,at high values of ax.fays. and relatively low values of aye/ai..can contain K-feldspar, K-feldspar and tite, or biotite only. At higher values of ayia-/aj.. however, contierite could form at high temperatures und chlorite cowl form at Jower temperatures as part of the potassie alteration sssomblages (eg. Titley and Beane, 1981; Preece and Beane 1983), For some alteration types, reference to the ag./ay. scale cannot be the sole criterion for classification, An example is Propulitic alteration, where we follow Meyer and Hemley ‘1967) in reserving the term for weakly metasomatized rocks, inschich the main change in chernical composition is addition of volatiles such ay CO, HO, 28. Where this eriterion of bropvlitic alteration is met in porphyry deposits (Table 3), Droprlitic alteration is characterized by (1) presence of reliet K-feldgpa if present in the original rock, with albite,caleite © *Pidote, and a dusting of sericte or illite us alteration products of plagoclae; 2) absence or scarey of oe miner: 4s (3) paso of irom sulfide an oxide minerals pial chuding minor pyrite lca hematite and rel tats and (4) chlorite and/or actinolite with local relict biotite. In so. pole aeration the cntek felkspar phose boundans projected buck onto the Tog ancdan diag, propsitic alteration plots tide the Ke felspar eld at aeaderate to in tempernturs (Fg 5) Care init be exercised in apphing the term propyl where Ke feldspar not present the wall oeks ust ad in monitor. ing the chemical environment. For example, altered racks ‘oth abundant chlorite» sertein mate proolits represent A sinilr log axfan- eosronment to that quar Sone Aeration ts fele potas, wot prope aketion (Fi og, Seedorf etal” 1081) Totermedit aie alteration (Meyer and Heres, 1967) isa weaker and lover temperature form of hydiolg ater ation as compared to sence alteration, and Morne as serie alteration wanes ft. iltoe 1903, 204 Araneta tnd Crk 1096 kev characteristic the presence of cit ial feldspar in Kerich rocks Cay mineralescl se tne illte-smectite, and smectite are present with illite (sericite] and chlorite (Table 3), but these minerals tend to replace b ote oplaoclase rather than K-feldspar or Neck pag clase. Stability of these clay minerals, with the rarity of dick- ite and absence af muscovite and pyrophyllite restricts intermediate argillie alteration to. temperatures. below to “doore (Fig 3) Siliciealteration a8 wsed heres a hightemperature, prox: smal alteration type that occurs in the ore ef cena por pli Mo deposit, in which quart venlts exhibit inner all ‘ie and outer potassic envelopes (e.g. Garten et al., 1988b}. In the ier envelopes there is metcomate won of ica, with feldspars replaced by quartz and minor fluorite. Co- alescence of the inner sliced envelopes in the vcity of closely spaced quart winlets preioces the depealtcale highstien alteration zones. Iih-temperture seattour malin alteration in pompyiy Sm epost mgt be reared an anal of slice or tanstonal sie-potasie altro, with tourmaline prosving for K-feldspar at high boron con. centrations in the fund (se below) ie aeration i ne comion in pombyiy Ca deposts but fou Teal. At Robinson, Nevada, for example, wall rock is replaced over tens of meters mostly by gravatar quartz wth 9 ese percent cach of hrothermal bse and chuleopente aod ney have toe had anhydrite (Seeder. 1088 ef West 1983) A though the rock contain remarkably few bas seins Hs overil textural appearance slike want A vein Inthe sense OF Gustafson and Hunt (1995 see below) and it host the highest copper and gol grades inthe entire deport 1 few poplin Co deposits, Induding OF Te, Papa New Guinea, exhibit “quartz cares,” which are areas of lueh denis of quartz veins ao lxcted nthe core of rcs [Watinall 1978 Siltoe and Cappe: 19s hush and Serge 19 Zeno etal, 1983. Hina, 1994). In some depose these quartz vine lack associate sie nleration en clopes Ges ute B vem nthe sense of Gustafson ad Flav, 1 see below! and thus are distinet from the silicic alteration en. Sironment described above fromthe deserptons of ther depts we cannot tll they hve see aeration264 ‘Other types of siliciication oceur in porphyry systems, In- tense sericitie alteration can include a component of sii cation, as at Butte and Resolution (Meyer et al, 1968, Manske and Paul, 2002), where an inner zone of silicifcation is enclosed in sevicitic alteration and locally encloses an in- nermost zone of advanced argilke alteration. In. many other porphyry Cu deposits, inner silicfied serictie envelopes are Endosc in outer enmelopes of sentie alteration (illest al, 2000h). A pyrite-poor form of quartz + sericte alteration of breccia fragments involves sifesfcation in. many breccia pipes (e.g. Zveng and Clark, 1995; Skewes et al, 2003). In these settings, magmatie aqueous fluids dominate. In the shallow parts of many porphyry copper systems and in certain teat high-sulfidation epithernal deposits, other forms of silicic alteration are common, if not ubiquitous (ez Hedenquist et ul, 2000, table 1), One important form is srigay silica zones enclosed in quartz-ahunite-pyrite = pyro- phallite + dickite assemblages of advanced argillic alteration that characterize shallow: high-sulfidation epithermal de- posits (@.,, Stoffregen, 1987: Hedenquist et al, 1994) and relatively shallowly emplaced porphyry copper systems where the nearsurface envitonment is preserved, including Far Southeast, Yerington, and El Sahador (Hedenquist et al 1998: Lipske and Dilles, 2000; Watanabe and Hedenquist. 2001), These zones may be restrieted to steep structures but commonly are blinketlke (eg. ithocap of Sillitoe, 2000) with roots extending to depth; the zones may be flanked by propylitic alteration and overlie sericitic alteration, The vugey silica zones are produced where a low-density ma dotherinal gas Containing $02 rises and condenses into shal- lowe ground water to prothice extremely Tow pH, § rich alter= ation fe, Hedenguist and Lowenstern, 1994). “The additional condition required to define sodic-ealeie and sodie alteration (albitization of Meyer and Hemley, 1967) is that there be mineralogic evidence of metusomatie intro duction of sodium = calcium. Sodie-caleie alteration ean be reuarded as the inverse of potassic alteration (Carten, 1986: Dilles et al., 1995), whereby K-feldspar is replaced by olig clase. mafic minerals are replaced by actinoite and ttanite, or they are destroyed. In contrast, sodic alteration is charaecter- ized by lower temperature assemblages involving albite. chlo- rite, and epidote: in this case, the distinction with propylitc alteration relies on recognition of metasomatic introduction ‘of sodium based on replacement of K-feldspar by albite. Significant metasonratism of additional components. other than those involving the cations K*, Nav, Cat, and SiOs, oc crs in certain porphyry deposits. Coupled sodium and iron ‘netasomatisin occurred in certain deposits where the assen- blage amphibole + plagioclase + magnetite formed (Clark, 1995), Coupled ealenum and potassinm metasomatism is re ported at alkalie porphyry Cu deposits (Lang etal, 1995; Wik som et a, 2003), Sulfide and oxide minerals: Porphyry deposits contai sulfide and oxide minerals. Sulfide and ovide phases com monly reeqgiibrate with dele in temperature (e.g. Barton tt al. 1963), but the original sullide-oside assemblages com- monly can be inferred. Sulfdation tate (Barton, 1970), which isa fiction of both fo, and temperature, provides a conve- niient and consistent framework for systematizing. sutide oxide mineral assemblages and studying the evolution of SEEDONEE ET AL, hydrothermal systems, Other variubles that are less directly constrained, such as total sulfur, also must be considered ‘when evaluating hydrothermal processes. In aqueous solu tions, sulfur may occur in the oxidized state as SOF (n = +6) or ina reduced state as HaS in = ~2), We choose to use a phase diagram that plots the fugacity of sulfur gas (6) versus Temperature for organizing slfile-oxide mineral eases from porplury deposits. although other representations, such Rs (Rs = log fuuyfs)) versus temperathre, are equivalent {Binaudi et al, 2003), A characteristic of such diagrams is that the fa, covanes directly with fo, for ow temperature are sol tions that are dominated by aqueous HS, as related by the reaction + 2HLO = HS + Os w In aqueous fluids at high temperature where SOP may be the dominant sulfur species, fe, 1s inversely proportional to the teube root of fo, at constant pH as follows: 280% + He = $2 + 302 + 210. Cy Because sulfide ore minerals are directly precipitated from reduced sulfut, whereas sulfates such as anhydrite and barite precipitate from oxidized sulfur, total sulfur, sulfidation state ‘Oxidation state, sanity, and acidity are Key variables that con- trol ore mineral deposition (eg, Barton, 1970). Five categories of sulfidation state can be delimited as bands across the phase diagram, each bounded by a sulfida- tion reaction of the form A + S: = Bowhere A and B are sul- {iar-poor and sulfar-rich minerals, respectively (Fig 6), 2s de fined by Einauel etal. (2003). These reactions have a positive slape on the plot of log fs, versus 1,000/7 (temperature in K), So both sulfur fugacity (fs) and temperature vary for any zien sulfdation state. A few key reactions define the limits of the various sulfidation environments, ranging from low to 2f tor (oc) 200 logfS2— 1000/T (K) ae. Lae fy LO007T dig fr Eis al (2008? fining the jo states of hy Ui base on sation 3 fr one: oper anu nein ra phases. THE ‘eons Baton 150 ae eee ial volta path of ie por copper sal porphyr-rel eines nha Enh et, (2008)ety tered solu- - +6) lages such alent sthat solu the the o the from parte stat, Fon ed as Hida e sul ss de- sitive nk), its of we to PORPHYAY DEPOSITS: CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGIN OF HYPOGENE FEATURES ‘ery high sulfidation tates, but a network of other slfidation reactions plot in the diagram (eg, Barton and Skinner 19°) aud help to locate sulfide and oxide assemblages Irom por. pry deposits in the sulfation gee Miners that by themselves eine a relative Hented of sulfation states include pyrrhotite eavelite, the Ae itera lellngte.arsenopyrites tennant aed eae the BI minerals native hsm and amt sale content of sphalerite in equilibrium with an Fe sulfide san eval (Barton and Skinner 1979 Binal tal 3008 Ne comnmonk, sulfide mineral assemblages nocd he dedi, order to constrain silfidation sates In Figure 6 rere slain state shown by asemblage phone a gic pete + aserepsnte, pes cao, ite bomite or dense, and covlite Its exentel Heat, blages involving Cu-Fe sulfides that lack pyrite (eg, berate + magnetite) be distinguished from those in which pate eo precipitated with Cu phases (eq, boenite + pyrite) The k sulfidation of earlier assemblages is commen Indeed, de predominance of chalcopyrite axersiher Cer Feetnte Cerin deposits is die ton wideypread tele ae print atop sulidesoside assemblages containing heen bornite (Proffett, 2003a), Challenges and applications: The stabilities of hydvother- ial mineral assemblages define a petogenetc oe ee oe provide insight into the nature of oe onal the corte of ore formation (Table 3: Reed, 1997). Inthe exploration set, ting, the sulfide ore minerals are commonly absent in the weathering environment but the associated silicate and thes ue alteration minerals commonly remain and cet a fuides to ore. The challenge of Menufing meal eee Blas inspite of superimposed evens can Gelder on ing mapping nnd logging fee, Profle, 20034 Wak to during petrography, using various techniques (eg. Andesson 1955; Pennison-Dorland, 2001), The prea al panes tllation changes n composition ol aeates nade he sexed (ex, Monon. 1984) but i leas Widespread thee dg searly ubiquitons reequilibration of Cu.Fe sulfides with de dline in temperature (€.g, Barton et al. 1963) dentification of minor sulfide and oxide phases can have substantial practical implications, regardless of the deyree of subsequent reequilibration, The mineralogic residence asl textural aceurrenice of precious metals (e.g, Rubin and Kel HOOT Simon ctl, 2000) anes whetnes they nga Te: Concentrate or the tangs, Bismuth mincnl coer tor to the Cu concentrate. and smelters penalize high Bi foncentrates (e4¢, Redwood, 200M). so seareeation or Lien! tng of ore Npes muy be required BY ce eee Likewise, Avbearing phases are g processing and environ ental concern. For example, enarite gence ‘here Curis deposited in veins with adhcnced rele oho Aion envelopes (eg, Finaud. 19824), ulhough exceptions tat (ey. Manske al Pa! 2003) Uspeyene gangue phases warrant atention for bah sien Sic and practical retuons, For empl, tered cana the rock and leached cavities in veins conld he regarded ag thes tothe posable former presence of ante. ahve Ms implications for the sulfur budget of the hydrothermal {item osidation state of the Mud, and for chemical changes Hhring alteration (e.g.. Gustalson, 19 ) and consequences in 265 block caving, byerology, and slope stability (eg., Hunt, 1985: Kvapil etal, 1989). Similarly, soluble Nuorine-bearing gannuae tminetals may have deleterious effects in tailings faclitics, waste rock piles, and solvent extraetion-electrowinning (SX. EW) circuits (e4,, Sutter, 2002). Insoluble luorine-bearing angue phases that report to a concentrate can have negative consequences at the smelter (e.g.. Pangum et al. 1997 Veins and Breccias Vein dikes, veins, and breccias form throughout the life of porphyry magmatie-hydrothermal systems, contain a lange proportion of the deponited ore minerals, und represent the locus of greatest Muid flux. As a consequence, vein and bree ia mineralogy: textures, fluid inclusions. location, abundance and orientation provide valuable information about the evo, {ution in space and time of fluid compesition and flow te Rehrig and Heidrick, 1972; Titley etal. 1986; Geraghty et al 1958: Muntean ane! Einaudi, 2000, 2001; Proffett, 2003, b) Nein dikes were first deseribed by White etal. (1981) and Shannon etal. (1982), Several distinctive vein types were frst dleseribed from the pre-Main Staye at Butte by Meyer (1965), Mever et al. (1968), and Brimhall (1977), but the primary frame of reference for porpiyry deposits is one developer EI Salvador, where Gustafson and Hunt (1975) defined A. B and D types of veins and Gustafson and Quiroga (1995) ee: panded the clasification to inchide early Biotite (EB) and ¢ veins. Clark (1993) ancl Araneiba and Clark (1996) added M reins to the lexicon based on work at Island Copper, British Columbia, and Menten and Einaudi (2000) defined a new tspe of vein, banded quartz veinlts, in the porphyry Au de- posits of the Maricungs belt, Chile. Little of the eaisting ter tminology for veins has been used for porphyry Mo, W. or Si deposits. Reviews of terminology on greisen hy Shaver (1991) and on a genetic classification scheme for breccias by Sillitoe (1985) also are notable, Veins and vein dikes are lhntratedl in Figure 7. Characteristics of breccias are summarized in Ape pendix Table Al, and breccias are illustrated in Appenis 2 Vein dikes Vein dikes provide a link between magmatic and hydro- thermal processes, As described ut Henderson by Carten et al. 1988b), vein dikes commonly contain euhedral crystals of quartz = biotite + molybdenite that project inward from vein walls into a center occupied by apltie porphyry + molsbden. ite Fig. 71) Occurrences of vein kes hae a dose spatoloes lationship to the occurrence of unidirectional solidification textures in porphyry stocks (described below}, With inerene ing distance from their source stock, vein dikes may rade into open-space veins of coarse-grained quartz fuomte Classification of veins Veins can be chassied on deseriptive criteria including swotpliolog. texture, mineralogy of vein filling and alteration covelope(s). and orientation. Wee select certain of the most onnmon and distinctive types described from wellstudied deposits and assess their abundance in various clases af po phery deposits. Veins are gronped loosely on the basis of we, sociated wallrock alteration (including transitional alteration types) and are deserted in general order of decreasing age tn * given location within a deposit, Generally. bit not alonePORPHYRY DEPOSITS. CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGIN OF HYPOGENE FEATURES 267 younger veins are formed at lower temperature. Temperature Estimates are approsinate for many ven a are generally assemblages, fluid inehusions, and sulfur so: Jpased on mineral tope fractionation, Veins associated with potassic alteration Veins with silicic and potassic envelopes: Most high-tem- perature veins in porphyry Mo deposits are quartz veins that tiffer significantly from the A and B veins (see belosw) de- scribed at El Salvador. At Henderson, Carten et al. (1988b) described both replacement and open-space veinlets. Both types contain quartz, luonte, molsbdenite, lesser K-Feldspar and biotite; pyrite is absent. Both vein types at Henderson hve alteration envelopes that vary as a funetion of distance from stocks. Near the apex of a stock, where the veins tend to be molsbenite poor, they exhibit zoned alteration halos with inner silicic envelopes (quartz + fluonte after K-feldspar and plagioclase) and outer potassie envelopes (K-lelspar after plagioclase), Farther from stocks, where the veins are molyb- tenite bearing, only potas halos are present. Veins similar to those at Henderson occur at other chyolitic pomphiyry Mo deposits, such as Climas, Colorado, Questa, New Mexico. ancl Mount Hope, Nevada (Wallace et al. 1968; Cline and Bod nar, 1994 Westra and Riedell, 1996) ‘The earliest and highest temperature veinlets in porphyry Mo deposits of the Mo-Cu quartz monzonitic to granitie sub lass, such as Hall, Nevada, tend to be barren and locally have sili envelopes, and secondary K-feldspar, rather than bie cite, is the predominant potassic alteration phase, These characteristics are in common with those at Henderson, In contrast with Henderson, the ore-bearing quartz-molybale ite veins commonly contain chaleopynte and pyrite (e.g. Shaver, 1991) Magnetite-rich veinlets: In some shallowly emplaced por- phyry Cu deposits such as Batu Hijau, magnetite + Cu-Fe sulfide veinlets are present within biotite alteration (Clode et al, 1999), and they are cut by Astype quastz veinlets (see below). Magnetitesrich veinlets in. porphyry Au deposits range from hairline streaks of magnetite + biotite with minor quartz and chalcopyrite and K-feldspar envelopes to sugary quartz veinfets with magnetite and chaleopsrite and no alter= ation envelopes, and these have been called A veinlets (Muntean and Einaudi, 2000, 2001). Porphyry Mo deposits such as Henderson also contain hairline magnetite veinlets that have narrow K-feldspar envelopes, and these formed at lower temperatures than veins with siieie and potassie en. velopes (Seedorf and Binal, 20048) Biotic veinlets: The earliest, highest temperature veins ut many porphyry Cu deposits are biotitic veinlets that are re- lated to widespread potassie alteration of wall rocks (Fig. 7A) magnetite sulfides, and other minerals, as at Butte (Brienhall, 1977: Field et al, 2005) Green mica veinlets: Quartz-poor, commonly. corundum: bearing, green mica veinlets have heen described from a few porphyry Cu deposits. Mineral assemblages include combine tions of green biotite, K-feldspar, andalusite, muscovite, condierite, and corundum. The K-feldspar-andalusite- covite assemblage indicates formation at temperatures as high as ~600°C (Fig, 5). Veins of this type incide the EB ns at El Salvador (Gustafson and Quiroga, 1995) andl green tmiea veins at Butte (Brimhall, 1977) and Los Pelambres, Chile (Atkinson et al, 1996). Quart=-bearing ceinlets with biotite and sericite: Complex cefalets similar to green mica veinlets occu na few porphyry deposits. Sericite (muscovite), biotite = K-feldspar and Fic. 7. Photos f veins alteration envelpes, ae relationships defined by vein dikes ad erossnting wins, ppb and tnidiceionalslidiieston textures Seale bar 61cm, ell sai icates KfeKspr A. Bhar tae Bia bum nonzamite at outer hit of bot alterations evel res at top of photo. Monzoat sent by ear pit kets ivhte) that are cut ad fet hy arbonatechaleopiteveinlets ras al row earbonate-haleopente bite veets dark gra. Note dak bitte that has replaced grou pone a enrlapes tower carbonate vetlts B. Bat Tie Indonesia: Granular “A's” art vein with 3 vol alsennated borte and ehikpyite eating tonalite pple {Guht), turn et by a suger quarts-chalcopyite vent wll rock assemblage plata bot wth ler chore. C Yerington distr. Nevada: Epidite vevaet wth sede envelope in Bear Quattz Monn, with iver emelope of Na plaiolase-epidote-ttanite and oter envelope of Na pgiclave-atncite itt. Pale purple K-lekspar onside eavelpe Ss vise in fea rock at top right D. jo. AReonae Quart wnstomite poplin ent by ely AcKanily rte veils with pik Kfelespar envelopes wall-tck malesites altered tobi. Es Ibe, Montana: Early disk maces veel ith ow. poors define nice quate haleopte-prte sink enveloped ty -cm-nide ame of Wott, sere Inno K-feldspar note verti: onentet younger ars: art ant with Kefespar envelope, Host ck Monzanite, eosin hdetherina tte. F Vale wie, Highland Valle British Calluti Rorute chalcopyrite seins nenselape, in granite pope sth prt tenoeryte. rmethnmarayqurt-sericte scot) gene alter Helerson. Celular Prt ves containing mnie sorte, wah dark blne-gon‘enceape of attzserstepete Botte, Montana, Main Stage base metal vein, Cental zoe: Ewludral shite quart isn filled wh chalet, pete, an fenargte and envelopes in white sete alteration. Hensler, Colorado. Vein dike. conssin of an enter en ‘oth eur tenamations ile hy yale pry, cpenespice quartemolbenite sen at Iw et. fe Montana: Horantal easy dark sncaceous te utettecleperite alse by deve vein, Butte: Montaar Quart-mols vette veil offset by preter wenlets eth sent envelopes entenling send Fel of view: [ Butle, Monta: Quart-moblalenite yen ew reopened nd fled by pritesquts weiner aah serie eve Tapes St Cark Fork mine Bihan istt, Uta Fees nr peers ce plas felispr horablende, bio, quart ad magpie set int pie (283-1 yo grads 5 spat arte pile nl liotite N’ Questa New Meats Crnite porphsysth phenoxy ateedl to pink hefespar, large KeleMspar parte snl bitte set i a apie 101-005 tyeint, Kesar and mor ples sand batt. Qty thn prospect. Colorado Uiitectional sliicaton text aie plies ‘stained al sart "rain ck! eth ena eens progcting dno fron the oto he poepliy265, andalusite are present in the vein filling or envelope, but, in contrast wth gen mica veils, arts present the vin filling and corundum is absent. Veinlets ofthis type include C veins at El Salvador, early dark micaceous veins at Butte (Fig. TE), and type 4 veins at Los Pelambres. At Butte, spatial dis- tributions suggest that early dark micaceous veins may be the shallow equivalent of green nica veins (Brimball, 197 There are ture reports of these veinlets across multiple classes and subclasses of porphyry deposits Sugary quartz veinlets: Most porphyry Cu and porphyry Au deposits, with the exception of those associated with strongly alkalic host rocks, have sugary quarts veinlets that are broadly ‘contemporaneous with potassic alteration (Fig, 7B), From the work at El Salvador, these are widely known as A veinlets Gustafson and Hunt (1975) described A veinlets at El Sal vador as granular assemblages of quartz (50-90 vol %) perthitic K-feldspar. anhydrite, borite, and chaleopyrite, and rare biotite that are randomly oriented, discontimuons, andl wispy, fringed by envelopes of K-feldspar, anhydrite, chal copsrite, bornite. apatite, and rutile. Most A veinkets lack cen= ter lines of banding and tend to be irregular, discontinuous, and segmented, characteristis that suggest formation und dctile conditions at high temperatures during periods of high-strain rates (€-¢., Fourier, 1999). At deeper levels of El Salvador, A veinlets contain andalusite, have lower sulfide contents, and display characteristies transitional to EB vein- Jets (Gustafson and Quiroga, 1995), Veins associated with sodic or calc alteration Veins dominated by magnetite, amphibole, and plagioclase: Certain. tonalitiegranodioritic porphyry Ca-(AueMo) de- posits, such as Park Premier, Utah (John, 1989h), and Island Copper (Arancibia and Clark, 1996) contain veins dominated bby magnetite, amphibole. and plagioclase, which generally are the calest and highest empemtre veins n he deposits in which they occur. Certain veins of this type have pla clase envelopes, whereas others lack alteration halos. Thes ‘eins were termed M veins by Clark (1993) o emphasize the abundance of magnetite Actinolte veinets: Veinlets of actinolite, or more rarely quartz, plagiochse, and tourmaline, control the distribution of sodic calc alteration (~400°-450°C) associated with oigoclase ‘and actinolite beneath and peripheral to potassie alteration in the deep part of the Yerington mine (Carlen, 1986). Broadly similar actinoite or epidote veins (Fig, 7C) are observed con trolling sodie-calce alteration in a number of other porphyry Gu deposits (Battles and Burton, 1995; Dilles et al, 1995). Epiote weinlets: Veinlets of epidote-(pynte-quart2) control the distribution of sodic (= calcie) alteration formed at moder- ate temperature (~400°C oF less) in various porphyry Gu de- posits. Ih the Yerington district, these veins have alteration en= elopes in which Keleldspar is replaced by albite, biotite is replaced hy chlorite, vermiculite and epidote, and magnetite is destiosed (Carten, 1986; Dilles and Einaudi, 1992). At shal ower paleodepths in the Yeringtow system, veins of quart pyrite. or tourmaline have albite-chlorite-serieite envelopes. Quarts seins that lack wall-rock alteration Banded quarts veins with molybetenite: Many porphyry Cu deposits uve quartz veins that kick alteration envelopes, SEEDORPE ET AL achich in the B] Sahudor terminology are known as B veins (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975). The B type of veins has not been reported from other classes of porphyry deposits. The B veins at B] Salvador are continuous planar structures with parallel ‘valls and internal banding, including center lines (Gustafson and Hunt; 1975). They contain coarse-grained! quartz. molsh- denite, chalcopyrite. anhydrite, minor pyrite, and leser tour maline. In general, B veins lack alteration halos; however. with increasing depth at El Salvador, B veins are bordered by envelopes of K-leldspar with occasional albite, biotite, sericite, andalusite, or corundum, thereby blurring the dis- tinetion between B veins and other vein types (Gustafson and Quiroga, 1995). Veins sharing characteristics of both A and B types are classified as A-faenily (Fig, 7D) or AB veins by some workers (eg. Code et al, 1999) Gray banded quartz ceinlets: This distinctive type of vein is dlescrihed from several porphyry Au deposits in the Mati ccnga helt by Muntean and Einaudi (2060, 2002). The veins lack alteration envelopes and contain dark gray bands whose color is de to abundant vapor-rich fluid inclusions and mi- rometer-sized grains of magnetite (App. 3A). The bands are commonly botryoidal and continuous through quartz veins, Suggesting that quartz crystallized from a sca gel. Banded {quartz veinets also are present at three deposits inthe west cer United States (Muntean and Einaudi, 2000) and several in norther Peru (Gustafson et al, 2004) Veins associated with strong hydrolytic alteration Greisen veins: Though rarely described (Williams and For- rester, 1995), greisen veins occur in porphyry Cu and por- phyzy Mo deposits in several distinct settings. Greisen veins ‘ie distinguished by coarse-grained (diam >1 mm) white imjea, Greisen veins commonly change character over short distances along strike, back and forth, from muscovite + ‘quartz aggregates with no vein filling to podlike vein fillings x quart pr sulfides especialy pyrite or chalcopyrite with al teration halos of muscovite + quartz. In some deposits, _eisen veins containing coarse-grained mascovite andl quartz ‘occur instead of, or in addition to, veins with sericitic em velopes (see below! ‘The Hall porphyry Mo deposit lacks pyrtic veins with sericitic envelopes but has two types of veins that contain coarse-grained muscovite (Shaver. 1991), The first consists of ‘eins with coarse-grained muscovite and lesser quartz, molyb- Aenite, pyrite. and chalcopyrite with conspicuous envelopes of secondary K-feldspar. The second contains muscovite and lesser quartz, pyrite, and fluorite in the vein filing, with quartz, muscovite, pyrite, and minor fluonte in the envelope, Pyriticgreisen veins are especially common in porphyry Mo systems of the quartz. monzonitie to granitie Mo-Cu subclass Turnley Ridge, Montana, has both greisen veins and sericitic alteration related to D veins, but andalusite is loally assoct ‘ated with muscovite and quartz (Steefel and Atkinson, 1950) ison mnsconite occurs locally in porphyry Cu deposits hnompytitic assemblages with bornite + chalopyrite (Fig such as in the Highland Valley: distiet, British Columbia (Casselman et al, 1995), where it may represent relatively deep levels of the system Veins with serivitic envelopes: Thromghe-going veins with seriitic envelopes (Fig. 7G, 11) formed at moderate temperee te rt i s te th of be nd th 10. . Wy he PORPHYRY DEPOSITS: CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGIN OF HYPOGENE FEATURES 269 ature in many classes of porphyry deposits and in the El Sal- ‘uudor terminology are known as D veins. The D veins at E] Suhador deseribed by Gustafson and Hunt (1975) are pyrite quartz veins that oceupy continuous, systematically ori- ated fractures, Alteration halos contain sericite oF sericite + thlonte, as well as pyrite, quartz, anhydrite, ather sulfide yninerals, and rutile. Fairly systematic changes with depth are jnserved at El Salvador. At the shallowest levels, bornite and nargite may coenst with pyrite. At progressively deeper lev- ‘ls pyrite commonly is present with chaleopyrite in D veins, then pyrite is the dominant or only sulfide mineral pre then tennantite may be present, and Finally both anhydrite and ealeite hecome abundant andl tourmaline becomes more common (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Gustafson and Quiros, 199 ‘Some definitions of veins with sercitie envelopes, including the original definition of D veins at El Sahador (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975), include minerals characteristic of adhanced argillic alteration and high-sulfidation states, suggesting a transition to the base metal lodes of Butte and other districts narrower definition could exclude obvions advanced aril alteration. Similarly, D veins at El Salvador were defined as pysiticveins (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975), but our definition is not restrictive with regard to the nature ofthe vein filling ancl includes those veins with sevcitc envelopes enveloping veins filled wath pyrite, quartz, magnetite, specular hematite, and other minerals eg, Atkinson et al, 1996; Seedorll and Ein- ali, 20048) Late, low-temperature, or distal veins Veins associated with propylitc alteration: Veins containing epidote, pyrite, quartz, chlorite, and calcite are associated with propylitic alteration on the distal edges of many por- plyry systems in alteration assemblages with albite, epidote, and chlorite (ex. MacKenzie, 1970; Gustafson and Hunt, 1975: Koski and Cook, 1982). Base metal ceins: Most porphyry districts contain moder. ate- to low-temperature veins, lodes, and replacement de- posits of base and precions metals, Some are transitional to D veins such as the proximal base metal lodes that have zoned envelopes with an inner selvage of local advanced argillic and strong seriitie alteration, an outer intermediate axgillie zone, and a distal propylitic alteration zone (Meyer etal, 1968; App. 3B). More distal lodes and small veins may Aisphy sericitic alteration envelopes. but intermediate argillic alteration envelopes are more common and some lack wall-rock alteration. Theie sulfidation state ranges from very high to intermediate, These veins are of exploration in terest becanse they commonly characterize the region above and beyond the bulk-tonnage orebodies. and they may be ‘exploration targets on their own. Moreover, the mineralogy and metal ratios of the base metal v closely withthe class of the underly App. Table A2), Sulfide-poor veins without alteration envelopes: Sulfide oor veins that commonty lick alteration envelopes form in the final stages of porphyry sustems, Carbonate » siiea mi frals are common, and prchnite and zeolites may accur in ore mafic wall rocks (ee. Silltoe and Gappe, 1984; Riedell, etal, 1996 fairly porphyry system Breccias Descriptive characteristies: Breveins are fragmental rocks that are as important as veins in a few deposits and ovcur across all classes and most subelasses of porphyry deposits (Table AL). Breccia bodies exhibit diverse characteristics (Sil Iitoe, 1955), so detailed recording sch fe required to describe them (e., Landbwing et al, 2002). The key charac teristies of breccias are (1) the composition of the mattis, (2) the characteristies of the cement, (3) the nature of the frag ‘ments, and (4) the geometry and dimensions of the breccia boulies. Table Al employs a descriptive classification of the six breccia types that are most common in porphyry systems. co relates the descriptive types to the yenetic catepories of Sill toe (1985), and assesses the importance ancl origin of the war= ious types Types of breccias: Two types, ignenus-cemented breccias and tabular bodies of breccia with angular wall-rock Frage ‘ments in a matrix of erushed rock (faule breccias). are not dis- tinctive of the porphyry environment and are not related to hypogene ore formation Open-space filling, hydrothermally cemented breccias (App. 2) are widespread in porphyry systems and are of spe- cial interest because they can he spatially associated with higher ore grades than nearby veinlet-related mineralization, Ore minerals commonly form part of the cement in these breccias (App. 2A. B). although in some cases, the bulk of the fore is contained in crosscutting veinlets that are superim= posed on relatively low grade breccia (Zveng and Clark 1995). The mineral assemblages of the cements and related alteration of fragments vary widely (Sllitoe, 1985), exhibiting tinch of the mineralogic variability displayed by alteration types and veins (Tables 3, A1). and they form at any time dur- ing the evolution of poxphyry system except for perhaps the very latest. lowest temperature stages. The corresponding fuid salinities and interpreted temperatures of formation ex hibit wide variations (e.g. Seherkenbach et al, 1955; Cline and Bodnar, 1994 Vargas etal. 1999) similar to deposits that lack sigaiicant breccia. Hydrothermally cemented breecis are stron ly zoned vertically in some deposits (e.g., Perry 1961). Gertain of these breceias are known to root in pore pliyry intrusions (e.g. Baldwin et al, 1978; Zaveng and Clark, 1995) or silicate-sulfide pegmatite bodies (e.g, Wodzicki 2001) Fragmentation of rack is typically related to. mechanical (PAV) energy released by two means: separation of an aque: ‘ous fluid from a water-saturated magma, and expansion ob al- ready exsohed magmatic-hydrothermal fluids that decom- press from lithostatic to hydrostatic conditions and undergo liquid-vapor separation (Burnham ancl Ohmoto, 1980. Bur than, 1985; Fournier, 1999). High-temperature varieties with Lydrothermal biotite and K-feldspar cements are related to release of magmatie fds (Silitoe, 1983), Those that are ce= mented with quartztourmaline, quartz-seriite, oF chlorite also likely were formed by. similar hydrothermal Auids from cooling stocks (Silltoc. 1985). Alternatively, bree Giation may be initiated by other mechanisms without intro- dluction of new juvenile fluid. For example, emplacement of 1 waterpoor, nsatmvated: intrusion into preexisting. hy Arathermal system may suddenly add heat to the syster270 SEEDORE EP aL preevsting brine under lithostatic pressure to be Treated, inducing rapid expansion, brecciation, and subse- «quent boiling (Fournier, 1998). The other Hiree categories of breccias (Table AL) contain progressively more juvenile material, which is interpreted as reflecting progressively greater degrees of interaction of magma and external waters, Poorly cemented breccias in rock-lour matris contain variably altered fragments set im a tnatrix of poorly cemented, sand: to siltsize rock flout. They may lack a juvenile magmatic component where not assoc ated with significant hydrolstie alteration but nonetheless ‘commonly show a close spatial and temporal relationship to late, barren dikes, There are to end-member varieties that differ mainly in their form and degree of mixing and angular~ ity of casts, and the moze common variety is referred to as pebble dikes (Farmin, 1934; Sillitoe, 1985). Poorly cemented breccias in rock-flour matrix are interpreted as forming from indieet interaction of tnugima and dominantly meteor water. in which magmatic heat causes water to flash to vapor. ‘The resulting explosion hrecciates the surrounding rock and result in an eruption Heterolithic, matrix-supported breccias with a subordinate juvenile component are matrix rich and contain a juvenile tulfaceous component of broken and unbroken phenocrysts (Table Al}. Breccia fragments, up to meters im diameter, are dominated by clasts of wall rock bot include poorly vesi lited maga and local pumice. These breccias are inter- preted as resulting from direct interaction of magma and an txternal source of water, stich as a confined aquifer. The re- sulting multiple explosions lead not only to breeciation of County rock but alo to ragnentation al incorporation of magna. The conduit that contains the brece atreme, represents the roots of maar vole rockastic surge and fall deposits Clasterich breccias with predominantly juvenile fragments have a matrix of rock flour, generally with a tuflaceous com ponent (Table AL}. Juvenile clasts inchide not only poorly Yesiculated cognate fragments and vesicnlated magia but also intrusive rack that is commonly phenoeryst poor and flow banded (e-g., Sharp. 1975, 1979). This type of breccia seems to have a closer spatial and temporal relationship to ore de- position than the previous two varieties, Known as a di yoes that vent py Challenges and applications Veins are closely linked with hydrothermal wall-rock alter ation via the relationship of veinlet filling and associated al- teration envelope. A significant problem with high-tempe ture veins is that they are commonly reopened! and! act as channels for lover temperature fluids (e.g. Rusk and Reed. 2002; Redmond et al., 2004); hence. genetic ties between ‘ein gangue minerals, ore minerals, and alteration halo can be obscured. For quartz veins, cathodoluminescence imaging is Capable of revealing internal erystal growth and dissolution ones that may further understanding (ef. Penniston-Dor Tan, 2001) In a given deposit, many vein types encompass multiple ininera assemblages, as evidenced by the routine presence of mutually incompatible minerals in a given vein type (ext Gustafson and Quiroga, 1995). The specification of a vein type narrows the possible physiochemical envisoument of formation, but such Timits remain broad compared to the en- vironment of a single mineral assemblage. Mapping the dis- tribution of vein types and relict sulfides encapsulated in ‘quartz can be a useful method of exploration targeting andl grade prediction (Gustafson and Hhint, 1975: Tiley et al 1986; Muntean and Einaudi, 2001; Proffett, 2003) Hydrofracturing of rock and hydrothermal flu flow pro- duce both veins and breccias and link these features. The gra ational and interrelated nature of intrusive, extrusive, and Instrothermal processes can he deciphered from a deseriptive classification and genetic understanding of reccias. ‘The Casts in breccias can provide samples of deeper parts of a sys- tein than is exposed at the surface. Certain ofthe open-space filling, hydrothermally. cemented breccias represent high grade exploration targets, but other breccia types destroy or dilute the grade of earlier mineralization (Table AI} Ages of Hydrothermal Alteration ‘and Mineralization Early workers on porphyry deposits recorded tempor reke tionships, typieally summarized in terms of a paragenetic dia- gqrain that plotted sndividual minerals on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis, Careful consideration of relative ‘ages of events in porphyry systems, in the context of mineral assemblages and vein types, is a relatively recent advance, Wallace et a. (1965) used intrusive contacts to establish rela- tive ages of alteration and mineralization events of the Climax porphyry Mo deposit. They also described porphyry intrusions being emplaced as the hydrothermal system evolved—the in termineral porphyry intrusions of Kirkham (1971). Gustafson and Hunt (1975) emphasized the importance of time inal as pects of hydrothermal alteration and mineralization Asa result of the advances in understanding relative ages of ‘eins and intrusions, a new form of the conventional parage- netic diagram has been created, called a space-time diagram, In this diagram, veins and hydrothermal mineral assemblages are arrayed along one axis of the diagram as a function of po- sition along a profile through the deposit; the other axis rep- resents geologie time, using relative ages calibrated using the dorff, 1988; Proffet sequence of intrusive events (e.g, Se 20038) Crasscutting relationships Crosscutting relationships between veins: The most reliable bass for determining relative ages of hydrothermal events s the documentation of a vein cutting and offsetting another vein (Fig, 7], K). Vein intersections without offset are com monly not definitive because of potentially deceiving expo such as cases in which minerals are selectively de posited where younger seins cross older veins and where seins are reopened and uilized by younger fluid (ef and discussion in Meyer and Hemfey, 1967). Rept sentative published photographs of vein-vein crosscuttin Lationships include those for EL Salvador (Gustafson aad Hunt, 1975), Henderson (Carten et al. 198Sb; Seedocf unt Einaudi, 20044). Cavancha deposit “at La Pepa, Chile (Muntean and Einaudi, 2001), and Goonumbla, New South Witles(Lickfold et al, 2003). 4 crosscutting relationship be- ‘sven veins establishes the relative ages of the bwo events at a single point in space, Certain age relationships might beSeach PORPHTRY DEPOSITS: CHARACTERISTICS AND ORIGIN OF HYPOGENE FEATURES 27 hin - al. rhe observed repeatedly in space through a porphyry ssstem, such as pyntic veins cutting and offseting quarta veinlets however, there may be locations in a system where the re verse oceus. Such reversals are potentially eritieal for under standing the evolution of a hydrothermal system isee below Crussculting relationships between veins and porphyry ht trusions: This type of erosseutting relationship (App. 3C) po: tentially allows the correlation ‘of ages of individual hy dothermal f contacts formed in a short interval compared to the duration of the hydrothermal system. It also is one of the best ways te ues in space because mast porphyry intrusive limit the absolute age of formation of a vein by tying it to the age of emplacement of a well-dated intrusion (e.g. Ballard et 2001). Representative examples of published photoxraphs of porphyry-vein crosscutting relationships include El Sal vador (Custafson and Hunt Mount Pleasant, New Brunswick (Kooiman et al, 1986), Pine Grove, Utah (Keith et ul, 1956). Bingham (Redmond et al, 2001), and Goonumbla Lickfold et al, 2003). Relative ages between porphynies and veins ca be used to clasifyintrisions as premieral i thes are cut by all types of veins: intramineral (or internaneral) they eat off some mineralized veins and are cat bv other nn eralized veins. and postmineral if they eat olf all eine Challenges and applications int The relative ages of veins and sions are still poorly documented at most deposits, In {ramnineral oF postmineral porphyries that cut off mineralized veins are critical to grade control during mining and identifi cation of their shapes and locations improves estimates of ‘mineral resources. During exploration, failure to identify sich intrusive contacts may result i a prospect being undervalued! or overlued, depending om the loeation of esting dll holes. Dall holes in diatremes or ate barren intrusions may be only slightly offset from the highest rade part of an one body: conversely unsuspected barten intrusions near a igh crude intercept may dilute or completely cut ont large vo vines of potential ore. One practical implication of recognizing reversals in the relative ages of veins is that they indicate that another mineralizing stock or intrusive center posits wa reco before Lindgren (1993) published tis clssfeation scheme le, Spun. 1983) Competes ot pomphyries and associated minerals have heen studied ford Fering reasons, ranging from (1) cstnguishing potently bor and high-grade intrusions and suites (e.g. Stringham, 1966; Heady otal, 1985, 1988), (2) determining the sources of metals on erstal sale fe, Lang and Til. 1998) 1) ferrng plate tectonic environinents (ew. Kesler ofa, 1855 Ket and Swan, 1996) (1 liking metal entents af depot Keith, 1951; Carten ct al, 1998) and (3) understanding the olution of volatiles snd metals form magunclassbes en Matschler etal. 1981; Hattori and Keith, 2001 Textures and form Volcanic rocks: Voleanie racks in porphyry deposits tnay be folder and unrelated to the mineralized magmatic systens, kn ether cise, they are broadly related to the same anagiatic spate, generally predating the mineralizing porpvsce ol curing wll rks tthe porphyry inteiencoe ocean ws late postmineral deposits (og, Dilley and Wht, lose eens etal 2008) Hypabyssal pomphyry intrusions: Virtalyall deposits have exponires of porphyry strongly porte hype trision. The: chanctenstic fnerated.aplie, eeu groundiss texte (Fig. 7M, N} is eaused by. rocare aqeching of the porphyry upon rapid ascent and hea at volatiles from the magma Foner 198% Jahns nd Bore ham, 1969) Although some intrsions in pomphyry Ge tems exhibit wide textural variation, the oreoraing inter sions are relative textural homogeneous ard nee abundant phenoersts (ranging from 3 and 35 vol). cluding plagioclase phenocrysts ranging from 1 to'3 to in lenge; the typical yrain sizeof the groundass i 0.02 to Oct sam, In her types of porpliry deposts such ms Henderson Carton et al 1958), stocks commonly ate teturlly sone In distects containing exposes below the level of orebod ie. the groundinas gran size coursens with depth ek Avy SD), suc thatthe texture eventually become oerite, to porphyrtic with a hypidiomomphie grimiar mati nally hypdiomorphic gran or at Yerington, El Abra. Chile, and Henderson (Animus, i96T, Cane se Carten etal, 1988b)_ Although the maividual pple tne Sons are distinct bodies a the level ofthe om depock each coincident with a discrete fd teease event they tke cone chamber (eg. ills, 1989) ‘The forms of these lypabysal intrusions vary great (eg Sutherland Brown, 197 di b), from a few isolated senting as hittle as 1 vol percent of ore-bearing rocks. ay at Butte (Meyer et al, 1965), to dike swarms, ay at Muhong (Busay), Philppines. Island Copper, and Yerington (Silltec and Gappe. 1984; Dilles and Prollett. 1995. Perell6 et al 1995), The intrusions also can be eviindrical stocks, as al Berg, British Columbia, Climax, El Salvador, Panguna, Papua New Guinea, and Santo Tomas IL, Philippines (Wallace eta 1968: Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Panteleyev et al, 1976: Ser ‘fies and Baluda, 1977; Clark, 1990), and broad. domal intra sions, a8 at Mount Tolman, Washington (Lasmanis and Utter back, 1995). The number of reeognized porphyry intrusions ina deposit ranges from two to three at Clhugquieamata, Chile to sis to seven at Bingham, Yerin ne, and El Salvador, to more than 14 at Henderson. Aggregate cross-sectional areas of porphyry Cu intrusions temporally linked. to. ore ringe from 0.2 (Batu Hijau, Butte, Yerington amine) to 0.5 Kin! (Toquepala, Peri, El Salvador) and do not earrelate with the mass of contained metal Ph may be older and unrelated to the mineralized system’ such as the Proterozoic granites in southwestern North America Titley. 1982c) and the batholiths only afew millions of wears lder’ than the porphyvies at Butte, Santo Tomas Il. and kes repre mic rocks: Plutonic rocks that host porphyry deposits Tanamd, Puerto Rico (Sillitue and Gappe. 1984; Cox, 1955: Land et a, 2002), Phitons more closely linked in time to the pomphyry system also ean host porphyry deposits, Barly