Smart locker system acceptance for rural last-mile
delivery
Tapiwa Gundu
Department of Computer Science and Information Technology
Sol Plaatje University
Kimberley, South Africa
tapgun@gmail.com
2020 2nd International Multidisciplinary Information Technology and Engineering Conference (IMITEC) | 978-1-7281-9520-9/20/$31.00 ©2020 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/IMITEC50163.2020.9334107
Abstract— This study is a typical Information and
Communications Technologies for Development (ICT4D)
initiative that aims to bridge digital divides i.e. the gap between
technological ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’ based on geographic
locations. This study proposes the use of smart locker systems
that are opened by pin codes, mobile applications, mobile
USSDs, or RFID tags. These lockers will be placed at secure
centres in rural areas e.g. hospitals or police stations and be used
for the collection of parcels. Currently, most rural areas are
under-serviced by logistics service providers as they do not have
good roads and address systems. Anchoring on the Unified
Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), this
paper analyses attributes that affect a customer’s intention to
accept and use smart locker systems as a last-mile delivery
method. The study has 56 voluntary participants from Gqala
village (Eastern Cape, South Africa) who were divided into
focus groups for interviews to be conducted. The data collected
was coded and themes were identified, of the themes identified
the strongest six are presented in this paper as propositions.
These results highlighted some critical determinants of
technology acceptance and use that are not reflected in the
UTAUT. This study then also presents a modification of the
UTAUT which the enhanced unified theory of acceptance and
use of technology (EUTAUT) is coined from. The research work
presented in this paper is transdisciplinary, hence, enriches the
literature on information and communication technology (ICT),
logistics, retail, e-commerce as well as psychology (human
behaviour towards new technology)
Keywords— Smart lockers; RFID technology, Mobile
technology; last-mile delivery, ICT4D, Theory of Acceptance
and Use of Technology (UTAUT), Enhanced Unified Theory of
Acceptance and Use of Technology (EUTAUT)
I. INTRODUCTION
South Africa remains one of the most unequal societies in
the world. Geographic differentiation of the apartheid system
divided the country into urban areas, farming regions, and
homelands [1]. Although this apartheid system was abolished
after independence in 1994, the former homeland still has
many undeveloped rural areas and still lacks access to basic
services, skills training, and employment [2]. The World
Bank, (2020) revealed that in 2018, 34% (19 million people)
of the South African population lived in rural areas. Another
survey they conducted in 2017, found that 96.5% of South
African households had access to communication (either
landline or cell phone) [4].
South Africa has entered a new era in terms of the
industrial revolution. We are now in the fourth industrial
revolution (4IR)/ Industry 4.0 which is characterised by life-
changing technological innovations, the internet of things,
unmanned robots, machine learning (artificial intelligence),
3D printing, and smart technologies(smart cities, smart grids,
smart farming, smart homes, etc) [5], [6]. These innovations
are reshaping our way of leaving, interaction, and working
with each other. However, these opportunities have not been
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equally distributed within South Africa in terms of
geographical location (urban/rural) [7]. The urban seems to be
benefiting more than the rural. This is true for health,
transport, education, employment logistics services, etc. This
study attempts to solve issues on last-mile logistics services
within rural settings.
Last-mile delivery has been very difficult for the rural
areas because they are sparsely distributed, usually far from
the distribution point, poor or no proper road networks, and
lack of proper address systems. This has left the already
marginalised citizens having to fork out transport costs to
travel to urban areas to collect parcels. Most rural dwellers
survive on government grants of between R300-R2000
(USD20-USD133) a month [8]. For some of them to get to the
nearest town, they would need about R200 for a return trip,
leaving them with less money to spend on necessities. In a
pursuit to attempt to combat these kinds of problems,
stakeholders for last-mile deliveries are investigating new
solutions such as the use of drones and smart lockers [6]. This
study seeks to investigate the likelihood of acceptance and use
of smart lockers by ‘rural customers’ (referred to as just
‘customers’ throughout the paper).
The remainder of the paper is organised as follows. First a
review of literature on mobile, RFID technologies, and smart
logistics. Thereafter, the theories underpinning this research
are discussed. Subsequently, a section on methodology
follows, this discusses the research setting, sample structure
data collection, analysis, and ethical considerations. Next, the
results and propositions are discussed. Finally, conclusions are
drawn based on the results.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
This study suggests that the use of smart lockers would be
a great solution to the logistics services nightmare Rural South
Africa is exposed to. For the customer to open this locker to
collect their parcel, they can either use the smart locker app
they would have downloaded to their phone, key in the pin
that would have been SMSed to them with the parcel
notification, use USSD service on their mobile device (e.g.
*250*145*PIN#). Those without a mobile device can tap the
Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) tag issued to them on
registration. These methods for controlling the smart lockers
are shown in figure 1.
Figure 1: Mobile app, pin pad, USSID and RIFD
The remainder of this section will review the literature on
the smart locker system and supporting technologies.
A. Mobile Technologies
This refers to the technologies used for cellular
communication [9]. There has been a rapid evolution in
mobile technology over recent years. The recent few years
have seen the mobile device transform from being just a pager
for simple two-way communication to a mobile phone with
SMS capabilities to the now smartphone with GPS navigation,
web browser, instant messaging clients, and a whole array of
other applications [10]. Technology experts are predicting that
the future of computer technology to be moving towards
mobile computing which is being powered by wireless
networks [11]. The use of tablets is becoming a popular form
of mobile computing. Mobile technology has different
meanings in different aspects, however, in short, mobile
technology is the technology that goes where the user goes.
In 2017 the mobile industry in South Africa experienced a
significant turning point when smartphones became the most
popular communication device [12]. South Africans now
feature in the list of top smartphone users in the world [12],
the most likely the reason for this being the same as most other
developing countries, mobile telephony is a fundamental
player in bridging the digital divide by providing access to
areas not serviced fixed telephone lines and other information
and communication technologies. Rural and socio-
economically disadvantaged households mostly rely on
mobile phones with prepaid services as their only means of
communication [13]. The astounding growth in access to
communication through mobile devices has led to the
emerging of new opportunities that were not available in the
last decade [14].
B. RFID Technologies
Radiofrequency identification (RFID) is used for precisely
identifying coded tags [15]. It makes use of radio waves to
read the unique code embedded on the silicon chip in the tag.
RFID tags are found in 2 variations: active and passive, active
tags continually provide their identification numbers while
passive tags provide their identifying numbers when they are
powered by the radio waves emitted by the tag reader [16].
The electric field radiations from the tag reader have two
functions i.e. providing power for the tag and providing a link
for the tag and the reader to communicate. The RFID tag and
receiver are shown in figure 1. In summary, the tag is designed
to harvest all the power it requires from the reader’s
transmissions and communicate using modulating reflected
electric fields. This study will use passive RFID tags because
of their ability to wirelessly draw power from readers, this
ensures that users would not need to buy batteries.
C. Last Mile Logistics
This study focuses on smart logistics for last-mile delivery
which Linder (2011) defines as the delivery of goods from the
last transit point to the final destination in the delivery chain.
The delivery of parcels to customers’ doorsteps has been the
most preferred method for urban last-mile delivery over the
past few years. This saw business die for the post office as
they offer mostly counter to counter services. However, we
are now seeing a re-emergence of counter collection delivery
(e.g. Takealot collection points) as an alternative last-mile
delivery method.
D. Smart Locker
4IR/Industry 4.0 are collective terms for technologies and
concepts for organisational value chains. 4IR has given birth
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to ‘Smart’ environments [5]. This is the category of 4IR
solutions which from the daily consumer perspective are the
most visible.
This study suggests the use of smart lockers for last-mile
delivery. This method of delivery involves creating a network
of service points where logistics operators deliver customers’
packages and/or collect packages [17]. The smart locker
service points could either be stationary or mobile. Examples
of stationary service points are schools, clinics, or police
stations) and examples of mobile points are vehicles with
lockers fitted on them. The stationary or mobile points can be
attended (e.g. service attendants aiding collection), or
unattended (e.g. fully-automated systems that handle the
collections) [18]. However, for the rural setup, the stationary
and unattended option is more appropriate.
From the societal and consumer perspective, smart locker
services save the customers money through combining of
shipments by service providers (e.g. If would cost R200 for a
customer in transport to go and collect a parcel from the town,
the logistics service provider, on the other hand, might charge
only R100 do deliver the parcel to the smart locker station).
These smart lockers will send notifications to customers
mobile when they have parcels delivered to a service point.
Customers can then go and pick up the parcel at their own
convenient time within the given window period. This reduces
consumers' direct and opportunity costs that are associated
with travelling to town. Figure 2 shows samples of smart
locker systems.
Figure 2: Smart Lockers
III. UNDERPINNING THEORY
This study synthesises and applies the Unified Theory of
Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) for the
identification of determinants for customers' intentions to
make use of smart lockers while specifying the
interrelationships of these determinants. Venkatesh et al.
(2003) coined the now widely used now widely used UTAUT
by integrating eight models namely; the Theory of Planned
Behavior (TPB), the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM),
the motivational model, the combined TAM and TPB model,
the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), the model of Personal
Computer (PC) utilization, Innovation Diffusion Theory
(IDT), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) [19]. The combination
of the eight models of UTAUT offers unique and
comprehensive perspectives for explaining customers'
intention to use smart lockers can be formed. They assist in
revealing smart locker attributes that could potentially reduce
an individual’s effort and the subsequent benefits that will
have on motivating intention or behaviour. Figure 3 depicts
UTAUT.
Figure 3: Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology
(UTAUT)
The first construct of the UTAUT is performance
expectancy. This explains how the decision or intention to use
smart lockers develops when the customer believes it will be
a better option in terms of performance for his/her list mile
delivery leg [19].
The second construct, effort expectancy is anchored on the
degree of ease associated with the use of the smart lockers.
Which explains how the decision or intention to use smart
lockers is dependent on resources such as money or time [19].
In this case, a customer is likely to make use of smart lockers
if the resources require a match or are less than the resources
required for traveling to collect the goods.
The third construct, social influence is defined as the level
to which the customer perceives the surrounding environment
thinks about the use of smart lockers. This is because a person
belongs to a society and feels societal norms should be
considered when making their decision [19], [20].
The fourth construct, facilitating conditions is the
customer’s perception of the existence of organisational and
technical infrastructure to roll out and support the smart locker
system [19].
Gender, age, voluntariness, and experience are the
individual uniqueness constructs and this study does not get
into detail on the effects and impact of those on technology
acceptance.
IV. METHODOLOGY
The explorative nature of this research led to the
adaptation of a qualitative inductive methodology. Qualitative
methods were used for gaining detailed insights on customer
perceived acceptance of the smart locker system. The study
used the focus group method approach because it allowed
direct interaction with participants, which ensured responses
were attained straight from the source, thereby enabling the
researcher to study the intricate problems of the current last-
mile delivery and probing the participants for their take on
smart locker systems. As suggested by [6], [21], interviews are
appropriate if one has to get close to customers and also
explore their environment and their interactions. Group
interviewing creates a good interaction platform that enjoys
the benefits of synergy among the responses from participants,
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amplification of points discussed [21], all this in turn improves
the quality of data collected. This method has potential
drawbacks, to avoid them this study strictly followed Stewart,
Shamdasani, and Rooks's (2007) methodological guidelines.
A. Research Setting
The research setting chosen was Gqala village in the
Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. According to the census
of 2011, the village has a population of 651 people divided
into 211 households [22]. The village represents a typical rural
setup, a school gave us space for interviews and setting up of
a prototype smart lockers for illustrations. The prototype
smart locker system assured the respondents understood the
novel service the study is examining.
B. Sample Structure
56 participants (26 males, 30 females) formed the sample.
The sample had an average age of 33.6 with the ages ranging
from 18–60 years. They represented a wide range of parcel
collection frequencies (from never in my life, to more than
once a month), and different digital skillsets (no exposure,
basic, intermediate to expert). Of the participants, n=13 had
previously used related technologies (e.g. internet banking,
mobile-based security systems). The participants were
recruited via a local WhatsApp group and by word of mouth.
Initially, the study wanted to interview only 45 people but due
to the high response rate, 56 participants were selected.
However, care was taken in an attempt to balance a wide range
of demographic dimensions. Random group assignments of
the participants were done to allocate them into five focus
groups with between ten and twelve each. As an incentive, all
were given free lunch.
C. Data collection and analysis
The researcher was in control of the smart locker
demonstration and facilitated the loading of sample packages
into the lockers. The system then sent a delivery notification
via SMS, the SMS contained the smart locker number and pin
code. The locker with the parcel could then be opened by
either the smart locker app on the phone, punching in the pin
sent to mobile on the smart locker keypad, using USSID, or
by tapping the pre-allocated RFID tag on the console next to
the keypad.
Following that demonstration, the researcher conducted
group interviews aimed at cultivating the participants' views
and thoughts on smart lockers and compare them with their
views of the traditional delivery system. These interviews took
the form of a series of open-ended questions. This allowed for
discussions that were ended when the collection of data
reached saturation. Typically the interviews took between 30-
60 min per group before saturation. The interviews were
conducted in December 2019 and followed the outline in
Figure 4.
The conversations that transpired in the focus group
sessions were recorded. Transcription of these recordings into
textual data suitable for analysis then followed. This was later
followed by a three-stage thematic analysis. The first stage
was searching for patterns/themes across the 5 interviews,
then defining and naming the themes, then lastly producing a
report. The findings of the analysis are expressed in this paper
as propositions, which were eventually used to coin the
Enhanced Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of
Technology (EUTAUT).
 Figure 4: Focus Group Outline
V. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Participation in this study was voluntary and each
participant gave informed consent after key elements of a
research study and what their participation will involve were
discussed with them. Proper acknowledgment and referencing
were followed for all secondary sources used in this article.
The names and personal details of the research participants
will not be disclosed.
VI. RESULTS AND PROPOSITIONS
Conclusions about customer intention to accept and use a
smart locker system that was drawn from analysing the
participants’ responses. These provided insights into the
factors that influenced their decision to accept or not. The
main findings will be presented as propositions.
Nearly all participants anticipated the smart locker service
to reduce the cost of last-mile deliveries. Similar studies show
that this reaction can be expected when new technology is
introduced [23]–[25]. Currently, customers have to pay for
delivery to the closest town/city then they have to pay
transport fares for them to go and collect these parcels.
Customers felt the cost of delivery should not make the cost
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of buying online expensive, e.g. if a customer gets a bargain
on a shoe online, they do not expect the delivery to increase
the total price such that it will not be a bargain anymore. These
findings were the bases of the first proposition:
Proposition 1 They are expectations that the introduction
of smart locker systems should reduce the cost of a parcel
reaching the customer.
The participants had concerns regarding potential
technical errors, cybersecurity, and the physical security of the
lockers. However, such concerns were also raised banking
Automated Teller Machine services were introduced.
Although this response was somewhat expected, there is a
need for service providers to address them as customer
uncertainty may result, which might have a negative effect on
smart locker acceptance and use. The proposition presented
next is based on this premise:
Proposition 2 Smart locker systems increase customer
security, privacy, and trust concerns.
The participant responses brought out clearly that
choosing to use the smart locker system if affected more by
their benefit than their function i.e. the customers expressed
that they will not buy into the idea of smart lockers for the sake
of having a way of getting parcels, they will buy in because of
the benefits (e.g. perceived value, reduced cost, and
convenience). The customers viewed the smart locker system
as a solution that fits their needs. This was a great determining
factor of its value to them. The next propositions are presented
based on these findings:
Proposition 3a Smart locker acceptance and use is
dependent on customers’ perceived value.
Proposition 3b Convenience can motivate a customer to
use smart lockers.
The participants also identified their control on delivery as
an attraction towards a smart locker system. The customers
felt the smart locker system will give them more flexibility
and control as compared to traditional delivery options as they
will be able to collect the parcel at a time suitable for
them(even after hours). The results also showed that
customers prefer a system that requires the least effort from
them. The next propositions are presented based on these
findings:
Proposition 4a Customers value the advantage of
perceived control of the use of the smart lockers
Proposition 4b Customers prefer innovation like the
smart locker system which reduces effort expected from them
It is expected that innovative technological tools such as
those used for the smart Locker system, many customers
would have had no or minimal prior exposure to interacting
with such tools. The study participants responded positively
to the demonstration. They reported that the process of
collecting a parcel was ‘relatively much faster than they
anticipated and was not complicated to use’. Participants
highlighted that difficulty of use would, have reluctance in
acceptance of the innovative service option. Despite the
overall positive response, the participants with limited prior
Figure 5: Enhanced Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (EUTAUT)
exposure to similar platforms (such as the ATMs) showed
some level of confusion during the demonstration. The
proposition that follows was coined based on these premises:
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Proposition 5. The ease of use during the customer’s
initial interaction with the new innovative service defines the
future use. If the smart locker systems are easy to use then they
will have a higher chance of being accepted and used.
Participants showed great interest in the complementary
services offered by the smart locker app in addition to the
system's core service. Complementary services seem to have
an indirect impact on the frequency of use of service as well
[26]. These complimentary services offered were news flashes
on the mobile app. The next proposition is presented based on
these findings:
Proposition 6 Complimentary services attract customers
Participants tended to be seeking efficient and reliable
delivery options, for example, one participate highlighted how
disappointed they would be if an online order of medication
would take a two-week delivery time. The next proposition is
presented based on these findings:
Proposition 7 Customers seek efficiency and reliability
for them to accept and use of smart lockers.
VII. DISCUSSION
This study provides a range of conclusions on smart locker
system acceptance, usage, and other behavioural dynamics of
last-mile delivery services. The conclusion from this analysis
there were increased customer expectations and concerns
(Proposition 2) about smart locker usage. The results also
address customer views on perceived value and convenience
(Proposition 3).
When customers are faced with technological changes in
last-mile logistics, they automatically tend to focus on the
perceived control and effort required to use the new system
(Proposition 4). The responses to the introduction of the smart
locker service releveled customer feelings that ranged from
excitement to concern and in some instances anxiety.
Meanwhile, the cost of the service (Proposition 1) had the
entire customer group expressing similar strong viewpoints
(Proposition 1). This makes the research findings imperative
for logistics service providers.
The conclusion that customers seek ease of use in last-mile
delivery methods as seen in Proposition 5 is supported by
other studies (e.g. [19], [25]), the same applies with the
amount of effort expected from the customer as a determinant
of smart locker acceptance and use [24], [27].
The incorporation of findings from literature and the
empirical work into one gave the study a holistic perspective
of the attributes that affect customer decision to accept and use
smart locker systems. Which will assist in giving stakeholders
a better understanding of the required customer experience.
This holistic perspective has led to the birth of the Enhanced
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology
(EUTAUT) as indicated in figure 5.
VIII. CONCLUSION
This study analyses customer responses to the possible
acceptance and use of smart lockers as a method of last-mile
delivery. Then the results, in the form of propositions, provide
a foundation for modification of UTAUT. This is an initial
study of the proposed introduction of smart lockers for the
rural last-mile journey and should be viewed as the beginning
pathway to more thorough investigations on the topic. The
study's findings have several implications for both customer,
retail industry, logistics industry, and researchers.
A. Standards of living implications
A customer's socioeconomic class is determined by their
standard of living (level of wealth, comfort, material goods,
and necessities available to them in a certain geographical
area). The standard of living is closely related to the quality of
life. Smart lockers have the potential of saving the customers
on transport money, increasing their comfort, convenience
and lastly providing a basic necessity in their area.
B. Technological implications
As the famous quote by William Ford Gibson (1993) says
‘The future is already here, it’s just not very evenly
distributed’ [28], the fourth industrial revolution is upon South
Africa, however, it is isolating those in the rural areas. The
introduction of smart lockers to rural communities will be a
great step in reducing the digital divide.
C. Theoretical Implications
The study anchors conceptually on customer keenness to
accept and use smart locker systems as a last-mile delivery
method. It has two main theoretical contributions. First is the
provision of insight on the attributes that influence customer
behavioural intention (Propositions 1-6). The second
evaluates UTAUT by comparing the results with what
UTAUT subscribes to. Although the results were in full
agreement with UTAUT, there were other attributes that this
study felt are missing on it and modification of UTAUT is
proposed.
D. Business implications
The results of this research can aid decision-making for
stakeholders especially e-retailers and providers of logistic
services. Firstly, e-retailers are encouraged to start marketing
their products to the rural market as soon as smart locker last-
mile systems are introduced. New business players should
also consider spreading their wings. Hospitals can make use
of the smart lockers for the delivery of chronic medications,
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even supermarkets can make use of these lockers to target a
market that cannot afford to travel to them. The main reason
that the rural market is not fully utilising e-commerce is the
current cost and the problems associated with the current last-
mile delivery services. Second, there is a need for logistical
service providers to strategically adapt to such fourth
industrial revolution innovative delivery tools such as the
smart locker system proposed in this study. For such an
implementation, organisations should consider the benefits
such a transition will have on customers as well as the
diminishing effect it will have on the traditional delivery
methods. This will be a good opportunity for the postal service
companies that are being affected by the diminishing business.
E. Limitations and directions for future research
The findings of this study contribute to customer
acceptance and the use of new technology literature. The
findings only solved some of the problems highlighted by the
literature and empirical analysis. Some limitations have been
identified and guided further research. One of the limitations
is that the behavioral intentions are only examined from the
customer's perspective, while the context of logistics service
providers and e-retailers is ignored
Another limitation is the application of qualitative
methods, which were however necessary for the intended
investigative nature of the research, but make these findings
difficult to generalise. This means that the claims in this
pioneering study should be tested in different environments in
the future. Therefore, this study should be seen as an
introduction to further quantitative research. This research
was only conducted in a village, and the conclusions may vary
depending on the environment, so future research also needs
to address this geographic limitation.
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