The Semisovereign People A Realist’s View of Democracy in America EE. SCHATTSCHNEIDER ‘Redssued with an Introduction by David Adamaay Luciore De Ras Astro] 20 6 WADSWORTH AS Cencaetarine%, WADSWORTH Ao CeNcnee Leaning Serenata ee ‘ater anaa pve ent ‘iio in the United Ses of Aeron | 1 Preface “Tums bok stated out to be an attempt to formulate a hoary of a ‘While the emphasis hs shifted Sorte tlstoae cine wae el sbeat et pole rgntion an tiesto work ateyaost {Se ron bowen cra dca, te ton tetcoen polled restntin and demectcy, sod the or shores open othe Armeriza peopl. The hronghot st the natu Sen otis att | ne what pln aon The ‘bess a wo tal never teen pie les we ow what th gg abut "Tue get rales in ecan pt is What makes thlags happen? We might enderatend the dyoums of ‘American per fe new wha plage when Daogt tre happening. Whats the proces of eg? What does Change oak ike? These question ar wir king beste
Gere] Soae ‘The Sizer People inajrity status and to allow majerites to persuade mioei- ‘ee te conteat a their Jecbiona™ A thotarme me, miner ty sights ar safeguarded by the beliefs essential fora demo ‘ra8e community. The innitely precious worth of equal sltzens and the love of fellow men compel majorities to respect individual bert. ezacacy ion prod sit ohare, seo ime As eran soot: Raa Saisierterietece teenie den Leelee cet relotannmac ie inns Svinarrathteoms crayon Sree ueaarercrgctbos poo rele te evatan er Shatanutaengoea lee To fr eae rd pun wd pn of cre’ owa limitations makes necessary. The Citizen and Democracy Althoush he eualed the worth of euch individual, Schattchneider took modest vow ofthe democratic ot. ‘zen, He objected to porraying democrat citizens essuper- ‘ian The problem of defining citizens’ obligations arow be- nie "he controverry about democracy. antedates the ‘sof moon democracy” and "the mainlines ofthe a7g0- ‘ment were lad down lng before anyone had ever seen a teal modern democratic government st work"® Conte: ‘qontly, 6 the nationsate emerged, democrats continued to thinkin cesiel terms. Democracy wa Gefined se "gev- ‘ernment bythe poopie." ‘But the casieal model ofthe smal cttate ae le Iota » L relevance 19 modern natin in Grek demcerici, there ere few izes sported by le ee han they Id Ice te for pole the ans were relat spe; the organization of goverment wa sasightorward od ‘ieee perticpeton by all was posible Tn rodera mations lhomeve, there are lions of etizons thet dys ere oct ld earings ving apd esting pete oenEORS ub. Tier co compos and muerou goverment races ae orang nl tnzlhe; and commualy meetings of the whol zeny are impede “Tho classel concept of goverment, of popular sve ‘igaty exorazd by det parpation in als wa kept ‘Sie during the sh of Arnveandemecracy by th nln tal wong of Jeu Jocquns Rouse, byte example of New Balun iowa most, and by te shear of ‘ered pleas ike Lincl, who continually reviewed the Image f "government by the peopie™ Plea takers failed to rons th propor tole of zs to modorn do. scx, with dss fle fr ple hor. "ocx tun were the psophers tha he people wouldnt wo the new powers of government ht the wile oto. ‘ery ver democracy has omental on the ope ‘tho mae ta drat pablo ae At pat coms of Inkave boa wast 3 ‘The advent of opie poll seemed te tant the ive spin democracy, Newaichers con dove that are ttizens could Went sports gues and move sas than Sould name Cabinet ofc: and Teding pain, that ‘aly 3 prcon could ume thelr congressman that oly 19 ‘arcent new bow be had ytod on ny bland fra "The maser were jug incompetent to dect pale fain ‘Schattchoelder warned thet such restarch went awry rectly beomse of fr untated arumption. In The Semi /‘made forthe people, not th \ racy ts someting foro Ss ae chara ea Tews pet domoea ons wh fa, ehatorhoier | {iste bt ty nee ae pies “Theo "fae stot coustt dnecy bruce ry R fe uns tn aoc et sa ert tveryene in polio ht solo nik shut plo Seay Und Stes ear ei tk sat = "fh wel thoy of nova ing ic eande cn dass fue be ay oftodera le: People vive She eahanperary word by tngiting beens eat Shy tat Kaw sd wat hy dost sed tw oF sent Known ht peat ves they a raged fo ‘tlre confidence daly 2 wand wasn phoma sre Fos ‘ise pers techs Gln, jer». Thay ran ta nt nee to ‘ow how to mai alent nnd by etl ony “Snr, the pole comet now enough cay go> rs. Indeed, "ere no exape ont problem ie sly Ener enigh oe goer | ment"™ Pe ei Law ely Sgy ove thn th Sdinay enn, to oe who bcoet a eet fate thst tat of taeaip rouas “en om «pose ‘ho hose be gprs ny tgs 0 at he Shy Anal sos on™ Th lf een ne A 2 aad to knowin the oom wor. Jeflersop mod {Spel of “government by/Gonkept of the governed?’ mu 3°] more realise im such & weld than ithe elanea definition ¢ vodaction ot affairs, thorefor, the same asin private matt. Ye both, “our survival pends on our aay to judge things by thelr resus end our ability to etablih relation: of coafdeace ‘nnd responsibilty o that wo can take advantage of what ‘other people know: Mace there i need to ; pe desidbracy, making ES consistent wath what the ad willing todo ‘of “government by the peope."* Democracy, thn, “slike ‘nesily everyting ele we de; si form of colaboraon of {gnerant people and experts Thi eallaboration neoesar™ Ay involves lenders swell as flowers, representation rth- ex than disc democracy, and chojce rather an participa ae ations, therefor: cs omy pla om neice) ] ee the ingredients of «wong Sefton of democracy / Consistent with ths "working defo’ of modern demoe- / ray, Searches eed ni wn sb oe ‘nd eadershipnamely politcal / wees apa ‘shoot the preset of con fet nd change, Political Portion, Prassue Groups, and Democrocy Ascesing his ov work, Schatschneder once sad" sup- \ ps the mot importt ting vedo in my Bel| i, “ToeSenenion Pie at hv he longer adda ad re pritonty ‘and enthusiastically about pelliical parties than snyone else ve" Athoug wo adatan lation thse com trent elect Scr bie! nt ple putin Frecceerren | | ese Sowa al pra, he ‘Sarasota aoe pt cme fa ger | Stat nomnting ends nd cling tem et | oye bt getpowerby wing osha Tart tmiortren presny tad pry amined by acy | loc hy dan both be aunty andthe ogtmany tei Presi gras, by sharp contrast, “seek to accomplish scurvy arts, oda ply Ed pant nd dopant vimng tm per posse equ Thy anata, a thy fener ta rotaitemp oper “pedied oa iy." Tse chro A ows pu Scheer bgyeroste wih s poet |. of Aeron polite cet wo [pte the mania e's mlitde ofr and {sate halite vera by aoa ‘oaltin—bet restated the people and prevented the ny ty. er dein for ho "grouis” te epetally fe erode ne Sat addition st does Pressure polis sa ness and upper-l a of pital scence to eee Iodvetion ie tend to dominate interest group poles. “The Daw ia the the Heavenly chorus sings with 3 oie i axel est Spee a “The ci cf pec irs group aa ditt doers. cy and thwart majority ul, sSehattchnetde ty pointed out in his eared study of the tar The smecthod of giving notice and conducting congressional bee) ings favors etalshed lobes Privileged group often ob- tained somiconfidentisl information from angressnen about the development oflgslation ® Presure groupe ex- fggerate tho seo and unanimity of their member, ca Iy without congestion challenge. Aad group spokeamen ‘often represented positions to Congres that had not boon. ‘eoderso bythe whole membership = ‘Most important, however, i the aumpsion of itarest sroup theoriss that polite coast of eonfctbetwoea the ‘penal teres. “The dct om which the Ameraan levi than feeds is samething more than a jungle of disparate oe cial interests"® Schattchoeidcr warned. There ls aso 2 publi interest. It encompasses, frst, “the common interest ‘m seeing that tore i fae ply among private Inteneets™* and “tho bedy of common agreameat --» Known os the ‘eonaenas” without whish no derocratie stem can survive" ‘Beyond these agred res ofthe democrate game, how- ‘over, la broad publ interest in certain sues upon which turn the nate’ very servo. "The mature of aadera pad- lis policy (esenomie stabilization, contol of lation, war ‘mobilization ofthe econemy, the integration of defense and ee ple rt nw id of le Th di, fusing hare of tp as tat bl rai esa ta an Sse omen prlsipal function of pall7 ‘The Seritoverign People ‘evo dfn ep ter" Tip tet tol Bel erin because i Ging oo Pass bn aren thea Bt te pale ret {Serena caer ing tee ba py fof snr he mr vin bran at Shyer tro gp hsy a eat FResieratetona wr trated fey vcmmeat pad dames parva eco fp tation sped {Sth mebiian costes" Patsy Sen frets seal tht te pop td tes ey ot Eocene nse arate pd tec) Se psc uneven wie verry limited to two words, ‘yeq? and x60". This sovereign, more! ‘over, can speak only wih spokdeto."* Ie ls upto the par GaSe be peoaine e oa de voce mee toad nih opto dap Patrols Berens ean ie na chon ed South cnt fhe goer ad we nt eure “fovea byte popes ch els oe Ree poate Satine th walla sonaty ean pepsi seve use lctaly ncaa endo oe Tie Gowtn bay ese yd ble fy Seman hey ls of When pedo ce to formulate and enact programs, but only to elect off isle, the people are not sovereign, but only semizovercign, ie pears "es hie of gr ehcinlee be tered a ua bral rae ce sucess TRS thas ek wey Ic cose py es area es open ead by pitty eae Antroeton mt ration of powers—the “anparty part of the constitutional Scheme™*—which frustrates party attempts to grasp gov ‘erament od deoalyciveot i bythe senoity syeter Congress! by convention nominations, whlch malay are controlled by local bone” and by primereg, which when not dominated by polical machines thwart the power of voters by denying them the organization snd lesderhip, though pasty labels and platforms tht allow thera to efeo. tively answer “yes” cr “no” atthe polls Ts his own writings and inthe Noport ofthe Conamitee ‘on Pola! Paris af the Ameriun Polite Seende Ase _nise ofthe oldtyl aching tho roof else pois to lly, Schattschneider belived that “the greatest ifi- ‘calties in the way ofthe dovelopment of party government in the United States have been intalloctual, not legal” and cea respecte see of he poe Saar the lus, ways of promoting party government through the ‘Cansirution ean be found." This apiation thatthe pe:ai ‘The Seboverion Poe ‘le give thet confidence to the paris has lke the efor ‘ry specie propoas for change, been dafeated in rocent ‘ecaes. Neneticas, the changing conditions of American Forewen by Schatschncider have made pats ote Kane ante Te ‘ober ters ve lsarnod tat the to aor partion stand da feront sides ofthe great ideological divdes* Though still Ieking orgunization tat can mobilize the party n govera- ‘ment for specie plies the American patie have probe. Diy advanced inthe dzecion urged by Sehatschneiderbo- ‘suze each is more Heelogclly coherent and the two are ‘mere clearly separated on rar iss The Denote Dae of Confit Schatschnlders objaten to peturearap gover an wet eed hon pera an ia | hasta is uneryng smpson ht pis emit yaa Ho denounced im sth that "io pris nto ‘atonal preventative of the wile communi ode rested te digo of pols aban of Rivet sein eteodng rip Grainy ‘hen “asumec tt tho equton 0 fr Sie ns oer : oF pales at erg mf Scatchard nh the pecan the ot cme of yl coped a tha cape So ftp the ape oc who ar how aaa. ©) Sates eet? nang mo Dans "fight changes the balance of forves and alters the outeome."” “Tae sop ef coat maid by opening ender toward the” pifvalzala” aad “socizabon-f con" Pints cole satel vito is ieweniova pac suthont:it may be rjlved fn terms of economic compet- Intodvetion wt on, pte ston, neotitions snd 0 forth “Since the onvetante im prats cfs are apt bo oes in Srent lies it th mat pel ops nee ‘ant priate etenent borne hy are sb ciate the ‘etcome a ong the ot ren private the Sea who want to soc confi, eto ioe more fed more poplin the oti le bane of recs ost artistin in government ronal ayn fren sci fndnmocase the Tight govern by tho weal perpen Nay Americ see port the patron of cone ‘ict for exons, fe ener, cia, ed iv (Othe, competing SE ropa the mclaren oF Saft ideas ener eq, conse, eq prox {econ of the lve aon, bers, Seedon of nrement, freotors apes nd act, and hl ght Democracy great exc forthe slant of sn. fit beans slows the wo pet gt no every Verity pe sod dimension of coax” Conte oo.) te tes abot ies tat we vale. Hitecaly ovens mason om rfp erating fog Inoryscvte nd “platen Bu gover ‘pony forthe cpa nd for war and pee, wel 1 changing gvernintl poco and now modes of rita corer th ye ust and > ‘ie rnater omic shut hem, ; (atone C torically assumed widespread pubic indiference. But poo- ‘ie fool more intenily sb grea soe fer, frig Pally, human rigs and eso oly and each "Fo ee 8 es oD May otis ©ah “The Semboverio People sre, rch ing ps ater: fins, SSSA St pacts tioned eat any “equality of conflicts which “tend to weaken afl antag- fi reanae means Saterday tore vile and inensfs among confi, people ust ee ae Sun duel we Seen rend ibe ee catia nnein apes see a Srl evs ag oy eo ae os Ts realty inp eed on mre “ Sees aes eae ae Bb i eeted edie anette oe tear foe pen rt tem re fie save finn’ om Poel ria ie (areal panteretag autre ine a ae ee (ules de ager ee ee ee Sh clits nia Fan oncom accra Senioe done ie aot bonnie ee pein aiepeoneeeen cad gel cles ety tn eng he = otresd bay ities ice aes, ee ee calle Seat pop-an seeaet by be Seg ant ae ee om ‘urged to explot the tae of race, weil, exe, protest! youth if tyes, and ober to vie the Democrats col since the New Deal, which organizes ation ‘al polities arcund economies” Ladeed, Richard Nisoa succesflly pursued sacha strategy tn 1972, wing votes ‘of "working clase” Democrats by astocating the MeCovern Shriver ticket with amnesty, cborton, and acid rather than ‘the social wells and econcme programe that Democrats ‘hed tadionaly taken tothe country. A Democrat coun testratogy plays dow tho socal sue 2nd perms eoonom fe sues to remain the major cleavage in electoral plies?" Politi! eadar and partir have the reapenehity for or So ea! Sitemeter mien eetegosaicmae een? po ates Tbeause they have’ ‘ot raised the great “publiointres™ ies that mvolve most Americans. AS a ret argo nambors of Americans Ihave ignored election, the presence of 3 milion anv ters in 1972 attest. “The problem of nonvotng fs to be found in the wey in hich the slteastves a American pol- ‘es are defined, the way in which mes get rfered to tho mene phe are devloped* fa the noavoters are drawe dsproportioately foo among the young, the poor, nd the racial minorities for whom the direction of plits set by tedona interest groups and nonprogrammate partie hold ite interest. 10 1960, Schattschnelder warned tat "the preseatboyeot. Speman Cg =) Foc orcerpeoeena “The Semisorersion ene hes brought the palteal system very ner fo something like /\ the Lt of toleance of paste abstention’ Wil the My | decade vome, whe refetd tho Staton of the onvo- [envabandened psivecbrenten and tok thot ee tnt, 3c sree "The definition of the allematces fst ev hip deine allarstes tablet a vat sgment ofthe nation bade dem powers and lita Ted them to reject domoerate mous Tater, in Tuo Hundred Millon Americans i Search of Government, SctsceiSer woud senate meu on deckiv ction by maja pole inst fans. "The ie ofthe maton the sure of oli. The ‘ele a to begin in he private sector becase Wat ‘hore most anyone can make «beginning by hime. The ‘vate sof th commun the breeding ground of mai Te of atte ater en the chun ec goto of Sun the goverment invlved™ “Ay Ia Canraon the Proper Ped of Tie fr the Stay of Palen” Scatachnidor ated Beewnse idess govern tho world" Delay nhrent in such proce, or {he weciiton of privat tan tks long Ene es ‘must be expended and inodaeed iat the pbc aeas they must be shaped und reshaped fm search of «abr, sa tn nonoertvederorey, tbe miner mst oi Ueto be porsundod of te oven afr hy hae ast the Yount °M of the sna of tian that people fel het the American policl tom is dus to tho et tha they take very gangs vew of i apron ‘Nonothses, lehp and pail ema important “hoy st the dies of conf? Shee determines scope By He alternate ty tnlek frm the lions of ‘lve inlatives to present to the pooale. American de- ‘ROCA has sl ot faced Schatchaelders esol ques- Introduction we on: "Hw ean people grt contol ofthe governmal?” Nei ther leadership or organization bas atthe vil, ate sy, ad direction of pote so ato broaden ts sope othe whole poople. Coherent alternatives are tll aot referred to the people in ways that allow them to endoree or rect programs and lesders within the lint Inboreat ia «mast emoerscy. Thore remains la vaevom in andating Pop ‘ular mandates into governmental setion. Conflict i central to elgoverament, and Schatschneldor’s warning Dat we Ihave not organiznd coat tallow the poole to get con- two ofthe government ngs plainly today a dk doing ie bfotine, In Retoepect EE. Schatchneider(1802:1973) 3s Dhllosopber and pertsan, ae was s polite! scent ‘aly a far es bok 00 Was wah in Aiscovering end avooat- Jay means ty which the people could get control of the ‘government. His wrting war all digeted to that oversding purpose. So was his taching. although he wat a atin: puted rt ent, wie vedo Ereent oft [American Polteal Sdence Asocition ‘tora bri tart ehewhere, to teach We dates forthe dnalon of hs ang care seppaeaaieimminimeen tee | ‘would make for themselves to following the narrower path of academe professionali by teaching graduate stadants, * Schattschneder urged young people to become invelved ia pols, snd ho wat «contra figure in Ube National Canterantl ‘The Semtoverign Pople Mialotown City Cound the Stato Roction Laws Oommis ‘Son, the Sate Board of Mediation and Arbitration, and the ‘Stato Board of Pardons. Both his polities! activity and his ‘intelectual fe, each marked by stong views, mnetheess reflected the humane teraperamient that was the feandation ‘of his democratic ploeopy. His Waeyan colleagues ‘would deste him posthunauly asa “temlaal writer om American politics, compaling teacher, irrepressible racon- ter, guiding force in profesional sociation, and politcal sewvse™™ ‘Schattschnetder'slegany i greater than bis wellknown contribution about presire groupe, poltcal partis, and ‘confit. Tio inhi nstonce hat wo eontiually ask cur ‘elves ost, is modern democracy, the poeple exp qt con- tuo ofthe government Aud it Ues in the’ that ‘underlay bir confidence in domoorscy He stood Guaely in the weitere philosphic and eligi tradon that trom. sured the inherent worth of exch man; and he combined ‘this moral saumption with an Enlightenment belie ia the ‘apacty of men to make inteligent eollectve decsons by a proces of rational dizours, Alef Schattchneider's polit ‘alsclonce was ballon thee ethicelassamption. Ti tem ‘er of i work was best captured inhi epitaph or another. a pu us the reat complinan faking that we were Iter ‘ete pub ais and cold uncertand what alles es Soa +H aid not tak he way to aman’ bert was ood Ue stoma be thought the ay toon’ eat we ough Ms Ia. To hi, democracy mode ne botawe pubic dean right bo used to enlghton the pope Univsity of Wisconsin Introtution ak tee 1p Goer le Yt Ho bast Wh. 186, Ri dan Min Awarca n Starchef @ cr "es ek fcr a na ge 1° = Mie resee Se, ron TE Ui Fj i | i Le il i aa rae Ti Ansel 20 ep eevaue! eopesuesunen aud HS Hn ae = BE 8 EP: hen Yr: rent al a i ii ‘The Semoverin People i raced Fh 1.4 ono Pasa ard Ge tte eter” The Arels 29 uc, ‘Sohal Pra te Re ren Pare othe Pui nro" 2 iil i il BREE | g 3 E # 37 EF | fees Fs By te aie rl | £ i ' i | ay Sym nr lita ev pe, 8, i : a ug i re ih if speseenetals eT?’ é r te i f a1 ae The Contagiousness of Conflict ‘ON a bot afternoon tn August, 1943, sn the Harlem section ‘oF New York City, » Negre soldier and a white paicenen {et Into a fight in th Tobby of « hotel. News ofthe Bight spread rapidly throughout the aren Ins fow minut angry ‘roweds gathered in foat ofthe hotel, the police ston, tnd at the hespita o which the injared policeman was take fen, Before order eau be estore, about four bondred peo le wee ined and nies of doar’ wor ef rope “This wr foe rce ot. Most ofthe shops foted andthe property destayed fy the Negro mob belonged to Negroes, ‘Asa matter of fact neither the white polleeman nor the [Negro soldier had anything todo wit tho rit they sot off thoy didnot participate Ia it dd not ctrl it, and Tene nothing about ortunatly for the survival of America civiaton con See eine alee seyret, fiance seed cerca ny Gg Reinconctis Poanin Sy ‘Talc tun roan plta! campagne, heating, ‘beet tert th ong uti a Bg {U prodee dremato pecs that se sims recy 1” ‘The Sonborerin People gia pi teste a (crema ; | eee te ee i |who are actively engaged at the center and (2) tie audience [ha i irestblyatzacted tothe soene, Ti apectators are EE patch bcorceal dno een oe cor Datants The spectators are a integral part of the stston, fain oct hn adie dri cee the Sight. The crowd is kaded with potentoumess |) Wibaptte bo bondred brea large asthe fy, and the relations of the audience and the combatants ate high uaetabe, Like ll thor chain reactions, fight s ‘Uificalt to contain, To understand any confit ti neces ‘ery therefore to keep constantly in mind the relations be- “joe fe Hely to do the binds of tgs that determine the Bate een (overwhelming; i ever realy neutral the excitement of Nie-confit-commuleste Hae fo the crowd. This the rt “Thi eopatln sedated by the oxtcome of every confict to which the audience becomes | [ lovlved i it That the outcome Easter. | | nine by the sett contagion, The mamber of people 7 Salve ix any confit dotormines what bappsts; every (change in tha namber of participants, every Inerease or r= |) dacon in the numberof parpants,aflots the reat A Skoply tated, the Brat propestion stat the intervention £4) of Cole tate confket between Able and Bart inevitshy iy ‘Shinges the nature ofthe conflict. Cle may ola Able end tip the balanes of free in hie favor or he may support Bert snd tum the balane the other way, or he may disrupt the Te one f [ PA Cnt Cte Om Seiten tery) > ‘conflict or atom to ipso hs own elton ot ‘ble und Bac. No ator what he dows, however Cle will ater tho o ‘ fate | ‘neosns nfictorarmengulseconfic: Thereafter every now intervention, by Donal Eee, Frank, James, Emly, ‘il ate thst merely Wy elgg ese Becauis each aon changs tho baante of the ar al every sateen BET by aay of tho paripants changes thot ‘The moval of this ix abt stat d becane the cowed play ths deceive rl "A them of poli rey st, the way in which the pb lc patiptor i the spread ef the conf an,scond the proce by which ho unstble relation of the publ tthe ‘ont spelled. “The sel proposition in conseqnnce of theft. Te mot ste satopy of pelts i concer wth Tho TTF the change inthe nature of any con ely to bess aconsoquonce ofthe widening involvement of peo- pl in that the orignal partcpats are apt to low ont >> So confit altogether. Thus, Able ae Bust sy Bad as (6) thetater policeman and solder fund, hat th eht ther {OC started has gt out of und and has boon taken ever bythe Ease "Therefore the oa oft scope and the hci he tho lnvalvemeat of 20 ae Past et pair thr tremely lly hath sob cna cay these of then dns or url o ma edb heed orator mee tte fesons eruted wil dt cotanhy aot ais costa | “ste bene Bis nro eat t putln n noel aia coats strane eee rep‘The Cotaousnesof Coaliet, 5 uation unl ecegon ole. ane tenth a 1 per ‘tof tho ples ivaved in conf, the tot free of the antence i999 tnes a great as te ative fee, ad the autome of the conflet opens overwelningy on ‘what th 99 pereoot Caracersal, the potently Involved aro more numerous an threats tnvolved/ iret tern ree ak one ‘This nabs has aboaring onthe relation betwee the "is = thatthe cote terested” andthe “uraterestod” sogmentsof the communi Ihe to gta the auenos faved in the itor ine {y and sheds light on intrest theore of poise. Ter he foding sto cass may be “ ards 1 asrume thatthe specatrs are niersted be ‘Otier proposition fallow. e's on of the qualities of xx tame fee society maximizes the contagion of coat ‘womely alone ha he relative suengti of he cone ‘ave intervention and gives high pont to the parc {Ctets are Hy tobe known in advance In hice tho ‘aon of ho publ in confit. ‘Srooger side say impose tw on the weaker witout an “The foregaing statement is whol theoretical and analy overt test of strength bees pople are apt nt to ight cal Is there aay connection between the theory ulined they are sce to lowe Tis exremely important because | here and what actally happens in polis Since thre ‘Ge scope af pit canbe mort easy reacted et th wry cally conta ofthe sope of sonics absolutely ruc, | ginning. On the other Band, he wealer sd rary bave | there any evidence thar politctans, publics, anf men of seal potential skength provided only that cao bo ‘Snare actly aero thi factor? Do polls inthe ‘roused. The stronger contetant aay estate to use Mis rea wld yt reallocate power by ranging the scope of becais he does ant know whether ornate fonflit? Thee questions are important because they ray i tobe ele toca is antagonist. Ths, thebystandh — Shed ht on the dynamic of pols, on wi acts hap- i race part of the cleus of al eonfcts And ry atten ‘ons ithe pote proces, don whet can of canna bo ; forecast tho ooteome of ght by etinating the res Sceomplised in the polite system. In ther words, the ‘ofthe orginal contestants ikl tobe fl role of tho sope of conf i polica agra that Every enge nthe ope of conf as bias spat ks cary om ntact of Up > sun tn ft nature. Tat fe must be asd tht every Vise. Shae in the numberof participants is about semeihing, TF i tue dat dhe ral of plc contests is deter- that the mewoomer: havo sympathies or antpates that mined by th sope of able nvelvementin confit, ch || make pose to iavelve them. By defaiton, the inter {hats been weiten about polis becomes nonsense and || 1) tesingbytandees are not nate Thos im polities eonfict sre area fra rveition nc thinking aboot pole’ The {| Sree the equi trope factor overthiows the familar aimpitic casks “Telia conetuence of the foregoing anlyss of con- tated on the model fs tug of war of mearerabie ocx: ‘Acts that the balance of forces in any confit snot axed (One is:eminded ofthe ancent observation thatthe bles7 [| tbe chs ether tne 6 ‘The Semoverign People Tove of tho highly atgie charter sey wan yt on ben pe trp ono of at of poles we ‘ought not to be suprised thatthe lasruments of strategy fare Iely to be important In inverse properten to the ‘smn pie tention piven ahem str ‘understood something about the relation of eth ete feat aon eman 15D /) / te Faderalist Paper shoul be reread inthe Secon, Y ‘Toe elo the svt, the ewer probly wal be the dnt Pececeepr oem ttt meet ‘ete found of he ame patyand the sale marcber of in ‘nals copa jority, andthe alr the mes wi ‘hich ty are lca the ore ealy they wll ocr nd exe ‘ote ther plas of opprento. Extend oe poe sad you tale ina sto ity press sterets you tak ta roa thot many ofthe wale wal heve comsron et vad Woe Madioe sw some ofthe element ofthe situation, ‘no one has fllowed up his lead to develop a general theory. ‘The quetion of tho seopo of confit i approached oblique. |y in the litratare of poltical warfare. The debate sept to dal with procedaal questions which bave an tnvowed bearing on the question. The very fact that the subject is ‘anced so ginger i vidence of is exploie potenti ‘Whe the tor oF the or tat eno expe ormultion tn the Meratre of /seope OF a conflict ‘etre ote ae oa val mit af eoaroer ie ed calito ight of the pope on: That toaghontArereenHetorytremendon Fats have boon mat contra hn scope aE sai, bet ‘The Conaioomes of Cont 1 > the ratinalizations ofthe efforts ae interesting ebisdy be- | cause they have boenromarkably confsing Init polo to Sj reinterpret American poles by expming the unavowed factor in theo discus? 4. Tok a ole erate sbows ht there a Sod N "ational zations ofthe stretegy rake no allusion othe rele ton ofthese dea tothe scope of eon Tae jutientions aro neatly alvays on ator ground8 ‘The Setter People 1 may be eid, therfore, tht men of affairs do infact ‘asks an effort to contre the spo of cont though they ‘sully explain what they do on some other grounds, The sway the question ishandlod suggeat tht tho rel isiue may ‘be {00 hot to handle otherwise, We are hound to suppose therefore tht coutel of the scale of cont bas alaye beet a prime instaisent of plteal satery, whatever the guage of pall way ave been. ‘A better understanding of crcttoo references to the stetogio sole ofthe ‘may bo galned if we exam Ine some of the Al tenes which have boon most ‘widely debated in Asien polities. Do these sues have hearing onthe practical meaning ofthe spo cont? “The role of colt inthe polities! system depends is, on the moral, self-confidence, and scart ofthe individ tls and groupe who mast calle the dominant groups in the cemmnityin order to ase an oppeitin. People are ff ikaly to tart «Roh they are certain that thoy are gcingto be severely penalized for their efforts Ia this stuten,represion may ofa fale tuimy- A cats Hier sane ss lion othe [Nogye i some soutbera exmmunitcr Dollard sys of the southern caito system that “itis 2 way of ting conflict beeen the races... Middle clas Negroes are especially ‘sensve to thei isition and fel the lack of «forum $2 Southere towns where problems ofthe two races could be ‘eeumod."* The comtoversy about ef ghts tm connee- ‘on with race relitons refers not merely tothe rights of southern Negroes protest but lo tothe rights of "ots cer to intervene. "The evil rights of coverly ropes minorities and all rmoasures for puble or private intervention in disputes about the statis of thee miners become meanagfal ‘The Contagnaene of Coast. ® ‘when wept them othe attempt o make cant vi ieee ets to npove unanimity ee mode in ono pety a estate Northar wel arn the South Vch and Bena esrb te proce by which the shel board fa «sal {ow in uptta New Yon undertakes to earl «piel ‘Staton by teting confer Comming onthe proce dures of he boul the authors ay tat ater fo deal tet ele by malig "pester bts at concen.” ‘The etfs “om a moe let adherens the plas ‘Ble of unenimity of “ Ta dnl station ina Michigan vila, “he practice of holding sseret maatings was defended Monday night by Chesior McGonig reo ofthe Doar of eatin at [mos Comets Ager Scoot Me MeCoigal sald that the Bath school bod woud contin to ol dca ‘on meetings loved tthe publ wd tt ely decices ‘eaced would be amsounced* Perbeps the whole poe saegy of Amertoan Joel sveramect sha be reeramioed the it of Cid tras. The emp in rip vforasvements ‘eaperizenshp fa onl government may be prodcng oo {titrioen los of poi interest ta kel povernet ‘Tews te «profound iteroa ncnsitency inthe Wen ofwo ‘The Smisoversn People ‘gardod as a purely private matter concesing only the em ployer and the individ work, ‘The scape ofthe labor confit is elace to the extence of feral and state agences, cours, and police, bes been dspat- ‘ed The controversy hasbeen to avery lage degree about who can get nto the fight and who is exuded Each sige har had an adverao interest in he efforts of the thor to extend the suale of organization. Says Max Foe ‘ter, “Lately, Amerian employers have been showing & ‘ronowed interest n induteywie negotiations ata means of restoring # modicum of industry's Tost power” at the but ‘aining abl."* “The attempt to contra the scope of confit has a bearing ‘on federaltate-loeal reaps, for one way to restrict the scope oF aoaiter while one way to expand it 4s to nationalize the most remarkable dovelop- ‘ents in reset Ameriean police ith extent to which the {ederal tne and local goveraeats have beoome involved in doing the oome Kinds of things in largo arous of public policy 0 that i is pass for contests to move freely from one level of government to another in an stompt > find the ove which they might try mest advantagoously to get what they want, This development hus opened up vast now areas for the palites of seape. It follows that de- bates about federal, lal selgoversment, centralzs- tion, and deceatralzation are actualy controversies about the sale of conte ‘The Gntaases of Cont a In th caso ofa village of 1,000 within sate having & population of $500,000, «controversy lfted fom the local {othe state or the national ove malts s0pe by 3,500 2" 180,00 times. Inevitably ths outeomo af a eantet bi con trolled by the vel at which the docsion is made. What from ction to nation aliments nw opened wp «ne poleal universe anew order of pale snd apes ‘See 1920 ho Negro popu ofthe nied Stat as ingen by bent five malin, but nery alo the fx ‘ewe has bon nthe thers sates There are no 3 ‘rire sate wis Nog population ger han he Ne {70 popunton Annet. Then migton bv maton {eed rice rton nd produced v pew rato of forces a Gtersegeaion abd ducriminaton. The sped for ‘ip in tho ont som tho 1 peat fo Seth the 67 pean out the South "Brecjwbs Se Weal ward the paivatiation end v=) ciazation of conflet have boon disguised as tendencies / | | toed the sotraiain ordeal lclzaion or atooleat Y,1 ‘Te Senisovenign Feople “The question of ope tal In al concept of pl estan The tary te th a pale pars and presure pup, here ert | Sisal ad rattonal Party lignin party i ‘usp, the lacus of power In purty onganiatons, the | tomngettivnes of the pry este the way i wc pa {cr develop sen ad al erp to domocrtin the tn ternal oecae ofthe parties ere elite the Fee a tho ated een j'Theetacon pits polis and poli partes aad | ‘the pease of nonpartceship ar terms ofthe control ofthe sale of confit, Sas an ‘ape of sharply sctonl past alignment, have boon no- ees ten ween nore rca Seat ec are ea tod Sefer meen/ ene we mere od Pmt poms | gn Al mere ee Tene ence een een tt | [exec ere ee oop ome a inl epee oer | tee en eg Ee oe [isicremcrngmeregta pate ree discovery and development of so many conflicts that large-| | [| Fepeeratoece | | “Toa great extent, the whole dieuson ofthe role of gow: ‘The Contazousnes of Cote, a ether hand, ifthe government las power of resources, ‘ast numbers of potential conflict cannot be developed be- (tase the comznunlty is unable to do anything sbout ther. ‘Therefore, goverament thrives on confit. The work of tho ‘government has been aided and abetted by = hast of public and private agencies and organizations designed to exploit ‘very rift a the private ward, Compettivenes i ntens- Fd bythe logination of outside interference in private comics ti necenary goly to mention Dresareroaps, the contol of pub Iieity tm undemocratic regimes. Saye Miceel Lindsey about ‘Communist China Wioprbebiy had fr the ordinary ten of cour ‘0 anvnge the problem feta our {oularan coaty. In democrate comtit, pes fo he ‘Used Ste polly feraton tes pce with's at dea of ‘ably. When oon tare tos ftataran conn. sucha th Ghinese People’s Hop, the stations compltly ders ‘Allpbtestons are controled bythe governs sd ts aoe: iy propignedst. Crtcom and Gacation only peat whan te ferent ha ected ao thn The prose of poly fo ‘Raton anes completely secre effectiveness of democratic government atom in- aaa Et rr art wor | ‘The Cantona of Ctier ” sourceful governement it able to respond to confit sts: tions by provi an aroaa fp them, publzing Ui, pro- {ecng the conan Sins eatin, (© recy the tuatoas complained of If may coate new ageocis to hear new categories of eomplaints and take spe- ‘al eton about thee, ‘Every social institution is affocte by tho way in which ite Interal processes are publicized. For example, the survival of the faa sa socialnstitution deponds to's great extent on ts privay. Is almost impoetle to imagine what forces In secioty might be relessed if all conflict in the private domain were thrown open for public expen. Proce ares forthe coatzl ofthe expansive power of cont de- termine the shape ofthe pola stern “Thetis nothing intrtaseally god or bad about ary given scop0 of conflict. Whether a Irge cont i eter than | ‘soil conflet depends on what the confit & about and ‘what people want to accomplish. A change of scope makes possible 2 naw patter of competion, a new balance of {exces and new re, butt alo makes impomible Tot of ‘ther things ‘Whi the Ianguage of potest ofon oblique and some- ies devious, i isnot difficult to show that the opposing Scone aay The stud Is for a senso of j fin the ets {Ee butions andthe spectre Ath oot ef every rica cafe: the nao of the baligerets end the ticge reo unabl tht tng eet the {eo of te anagout bec all quinn the ‘noe are terminate oo al fhe byaander Pare ‘en commieeee eee ‘The Seminoverein People Petes confit ts nef like «football gue, played on 8 hesoured Geld by a fisd mumbor of players in the presence fa uence ups ec mn the plying el. ‘ote ke ve. Roles is muck more Uke the original primitive game, (SESS ee fe se "Hes palit © ber nvm, moving cl ac ad aac z * Vfany cones are maromly coined by avail of do veer, bt the dntve quay of poll confit tht ‘he telat between the players end the eons fave fu ten wel Satine an fetes uml noting oop {he andicoce fom geting inte tho gee. Noter gat Te TS Sate tNewmante er Oech TO le omer east int et gam bee eens i cpus wes eae i=jerun Mfc hare Po sen sects bre ae ry cnt a ine hs at te and oi Ee eiee eo i ee Somes eatheaie han | anne! Siete qnger soi le ec ER Ti At“ ton Pe oa Rog PkThe Scope and Bi: of the Pressure System ee Tecpel cp sepa crs see men erate nee yaae eros rotamer cme eae ce einen tee meiae nore ane selatecne meter ie "ations fer pasonately,beesee the oateore ofthe pol Leal gume depends on the gae’en which itis played. “To understand the controversy about the sale of pais organization its nocosary Set to take a lok at some thoo *” ‘The Seope eed Baro the Prost Sytem a ties aboot ioterestaroup politics, Pressure groups have Played a remarkable role fe American poles, bat they ‘have played an cven more remarkable role in American pol ‘eal theary. Considering the political cenditon of the ‘counry in the fst tied of the twentieth contary, i was ‘probably inevitable tht the decowon of speciinterest Pressure groups should lead to develgrment of "gronp” the- tries of pelts in which an attempt made to expen ev rything in terms of group activity, Lo, am attompt to for | multe a universal group theory. Since one of the best ways to test an idea toto fe it into the ground, poli hoary Ina unquestionably been improved bythe heroic attempt to crest a poliscal universe revolving abot the group. Now that we have a suber of drastic atemeats ofthe group. theory of polities pushed tow great extreme, wo ought tobe ble to ace what the liniation ofthe Hea re. Pil edn id re cn uae aoc bop ie dine corte y 1608 made | ofthe jorover the epee | ‘ols oomed fo bow abit queries shot to | \wvalofthe American community ld not aie. The general interests of the community were easly everlocked under these ekeumstaneee [Neverthe ia spite of tho excellent and provocative work done by Beard Lathan, Truman, Leisron, ase a ey eg at ‘abet with "The dicts ar theoretical, Th part out of shoot overstatement of te dea and {part out af some confusion aboot the nature of modern soverament ‘One dificulty running through the iterate of the aub- {ect oss oe tho attempt to explain cerythingin toms2 ‘The Semiborrin People ‘ofthe group theory? On general grounds it would be 1e- ‘markable ceed ia singe hypothesis explained everything bout so complex a sbject ar Ameriean patios. Other diff caltios have grown oat of the fac ha group concepts ave ‘been stated in torms so universal a the subject sms to ve no shape or orm “Tho guonton i Are pressure ingredin . do they eee et? To anor ti aeons meeay Ween at rodinentary political thor “Two wd neva might be ade merely ts she group sepa, We might dry our ons #0) we x Blce more ly the py of aing «ncn br Sem pallette? grape and ged inet sod @ iFe ding’ between oroanized and we Intzed groupe, Too renrvtions doo Gtr thy ain Te ft hor, they ay be uel wr es Nem to adn gortal propos me pein (th dons can te alata we any fu blo Simedhng at hs cope sn lin andi capil ang Schnee vhs of «dann of ple pos Scene in tr of waves tat te mrt ht ‘timing or nd ts ipo to dings oe ect fom anche fo dete ba of te fren ned beatae cope snd bis re per of diane he as ‘ecco oly bo eld ate ve sen est "Sh wave son ne ns and thar esl to de Tin fetes one mij nd encter We might hei tobe he prebln ino compneat para by enplring te tintin betwen pb a pr ‘Stiles ve canvas is dan, we dal Env cubiied once boumiars ofthe gone ra mater ay, the ition bbe plc wd praetor roughly pectoris coe of et [= “The Snpe end har of th Pree System m the at taown opi ory Ihe erat of the tte th pba feu roman res ered BPA by beta a mee to ‘Sony Prnably eo communes ul tre eee td 3 me aT aT Sin Win nas ie OSE TT ey deg bomen pvaeand pube teem pep ors ve posted ror fa Fes tought pest hr ni fep noes te Teeaunct fr ous te Saree ht obo Sod wih greene) Teen Sa aed a sat dja fer ute er rel ct a to understand that national intexests actualy do ott is Secramy y oem opr eke Arn Ieige costed anon! dats ore ta ecm ane eae heen a « this intoroat is one of the biggest things in the world. thar ise eer ca deve wah be Amen aes dre: Sing move tanta of prt pct ert Se lee of Comeerate tary te ety men Seameat fund in ie corsmant ne theta SsSaar was husbalee caocemenicaye Savane th relly of the common inter seed by dom canted ep ft comet cres The mk Sete yen Teco nh he mon re ae ei seis ipleton eer tn see tee ‘Soiled by ay sfow pos rf of be come to, hy ele reat may ade A sala spect ntrest aboot the me way a Vl _propoty is eaisive. Tn & complex soity Wis not sxpris-Peet a” ‘The Semborerin eople “The Seope a af the Pest Sytem = {ng that there are some interes that are shared by all or lave observed some kindof relation betwen the polities Shaanti all members ofthe somamuaity and som mter- Dbehavior of people a erin wholly tmpersnal dst coo ‘eas that ere not shared so widely. Th dstinton is wsful ceming thelr ownership of property, income, economic rectly Because conflicting claims are made by people stats, professions, and the He, All hat we know sboot i about the natre of thelr interests in controversial matters. terest, private ae well ae publi, i based on inferences of ‘Perfect agreement within the coramemty it not alway this srt. Whether the distinction ln eny glven case valid ‘posible, but an iteretmaay be aid to have bocome public ‘deponds 08 the evidence and on the Kinds of inferencer ‘when i's shared so widely a tobe saeantlly univers. ‘drawn fom the evidence ‘Thus, the difercace between 99 poroont agreament and "The only meaningfal way we can peak ofthe intros of perfect agree snot wo reat that it Becomes neces ‘an eociation lke the Netinal Assocation of Manufatarert to argu that all interests are spoil, that ho flares ofthe ‘sto draw inferences from the fact thet the membership ir £88 percent areas sped a the interes of the 1 peroant. ‘elect group to whic only manufacturers may belong and or example the law is probably ding en adequate job of tory to relate that datum to what the sociation does The defining the publeiterest in domestic tranquility depite Implications log, and doductions sre periuave only IF the fat that there ie nearly always one dealer at every ‘hey Faris reasonable expnatins ofthe facts That i al Iangiog. That the Iw defines the abl Interest in ite What any thoory about interests can do. I has seemed per- cf the fact that thre ay be some outlaws. susive to todens of poles to suppose thet manufacturers Since one function of theory so explain realty, te ‘Go not ota wn estcation fo which only manefortrers may sonable toad thats good deal easer to explain what | beloes moray to promote pulantirptc or eutual or rel sing on in polities by making distinction betwoen public ‘loo interes, for example, The bate of ssiction ofthe Sod private intorest then it to attempt to explin eer ‘membership cretes an inference about the organization's ‘thing in terms of spec interests The attempt to prove concer. The consti drawn from ths datam sem to that all ntress are spect foroes us into civcuocttions [Bt what we know about the polices promoted by the aoc such as these fovelved inthe argument that poople have ation 1, tho policies sem toseflect the exchive interests special intrest inthe commen goo. The argument ean be lof manufacturers. The method isnot folproot, butt wosks ‘made, but it sem along wey around to avoid a use dis etter than many other Kinds of analysand is wee pro: ace ee weiter ray sen td ala ‘What to bod abot the argument tht the tinction ener ] een ts ra aol “yi pals eda Eon rou of be mente af tu Nae tastes of ae | “7 al men pase geen te monte ofthe Anotecn Lense Abi Copa | el eer pope, te Prunthnent The fn the wo teste wot Wea seae the whole iferests ts subjective. We First, the member: of the A.L.A.CP. obviously do not expect owule poser te wolf pat bene pols po ihened The Senketap cf be ALACD neveGO ere * ‘TheSenorerign Perle Toa Ssop an Bathe Pres Sen 2 ted to persons under nett for mirror in eop- sl Mota in terms ofthe common interest cae that ardy ofthe exam penal. Arghody om fla ALACE ‘asthe ely way be could elo people who ot belong Fis meriber oppo exp pater aboh ny oo, fe Ger Moon een, inn end sna ton ty oy. Motors ergoiatin, dueustooe | ‘he inference tholore Watt itret of th teem fake sles bt bled mae ALAGY not idvern maclusve oF seca 1 nt ie served oni {he Tnoret of the Petroloura Inttute in depletion allow: publi decusson addressed to the general comsmuni- sen ty Te deer the conf fect Rees = Tl poe ote ees te meno ft Nt fone oir mean tt ct econ pra Cit Lab Cortes ot len tod Sud har becomes ater nen he rr poi ‘members ofthe Werld Peace Foundation apparently want cts is never restricted tothe group mest immediately tater | tive protection agunst exploation by employer |theristre of thing a poltct conflict among specie ence, but in the nature of tings they must want pence for ected. stead, i 6 an appeal (nitistod by relay small orynsbecme oo groupean i at pence vide hone = eae the community twa, inlay, oven the memos Febrero den sel ber arenr {te Radon eau Lenwe wattle ely fo . “a Lette ee Son i ae tet pongectve one stony fon tt mas ey wou dese ‘ia¥ comtnnt a on droning nt tpl i forthe wihcle country because national security is indivist- terest is afraod, proves that he thinks that the publi inter- j Soniye rive roe ty toni at he po bs sera =e | Cliceobenents tthe memes ef tee Bers ee te ne ee eee | Association ang members of the Foreign Policy Association. - sedcha | ke amen eee | ee El corrneinerienrernainintgy | ‘as well as we can ‘the. ae ‘distinction Is to make a shambles of political science by | Sees ars oercees tretng things that ate difereat af they were ale The | WEEE tla creoce sauecrotnoen barby eine Md ofdstacton made heres commonplace falters | Temusbl lfereocs rom vere ct ture doling wth buman oct, butifweocap twee | J! 00 the other hand, becuase seme special-interest grape ‘stablished one of the outer limits of the zubject; we have attempt to ently thensees wth the pie tere 1 ‘pt the werd of terete half end bare taken one 6p oor oot fll tat the whale den fhe pbc nee ‘ova dfn the sope of thi nd of poli efit faa Mr. Wins fows remark tht wat i god fr "We can now ermine the ceed atom the din: | (Cenral Motor goad for tho country sume that people ion betwen anganed and organi groups The ques | ‘zaerally doin fet dese the commen good rosunabiy, | tion hee i it wicter the distactoa fan bo made bat ie Wn atetod to oxpan the speci interst ofan) | ‘whedior or not i's worth making Organization has boon“The Seiboverin Fron dese ot “merely stg dems ointeraction” the development ats gr" “The propeson bs youd ons bu what conchion doe dia om 1? We do ot dp th matory aling tae dinson erween organized and normed grou & Smee” difeence of dopcebeenze se ofthe eat Cifereces tothe worl re ferences of degen Afar st ‘pocidsteret pots i concerned tho ingle 1 bo voided is tht fw workanen who habitually sepa cor ‘er slson fora gat of ber ee ently the ae ae he ‘United States Army because difreoce betwova them s sorely 020 of degre. At hi point we hsv distinction that tial diflerenee. The dtntonGetwecn gece ad Itorgeized groupe le worth snaking cots ought 10 alot us gas an ans which begs as a general group theory of pots but onde witha defense af presue pice sslaherent univer; permanent sod inet: Ths nd Gf conforen comes from the caning of categories i= ‘elvd in the niveraeation of group cenceps Since the begining of ileal hstey, colar ave song emule progres in het werk by diingehing be teen thingy tht aren andy ng thee abject rater into catego to enamine the more intel. TRiswmehing of «nove, therfore, when group tears reverse th proces by dicing cr abject in terms 50 ivr hat they wipe out al atgore, bean ths tho dimen in lc (slat ponte to undertand anything we a cle therefore odin between pablo snd privat lattes and between organi and unorgn ‘sed groupe we have mared out the major brundarns the alloc te have given the suite shop and sor Wa tro ow tv apstion to atempt to define the area wo want twerplor Having cate pet four pcs, we ca nw “The Snpe and Bathe Pret Sytem 2 ppropriae the pice wo want and lave th rest to some: be clte Fora multitude of resone the mor likely eld of ‘Study ie tat of theorized, specal-iterest grou tedvantage of conccatating on organieed group uta Uy, tre known, identfuble and recognzabe. The advantage of concentrating on spellintorstgrope is at thoy have one portant charectrte In comma azo l exc Sve plece ofthe pie the orgnned rec interet ‘ou we shal ell the pressure stom The prose = tems boundaries we can dig ay can Bt Spe and ‘ako an attempt etionte Termy be aimed tho outset that al organized special {atret rope hav me hind f input on ole Au ‘le nurvey of erganintoes ade bythe Trade Asceons Division ofthe United States Department of Caumeree ia 1942 cance hat “Fiom 70:0 100 poten hese ao- ition) so pansngscivies in the Sd of goveranent Felons, tae pombon, wade pacts, pe relston, ‘Sul convention, cooperation sith ter organization, Sd information service” "Tho subject of cr sma can bo reduced to manages oportins and bought under contol i we rst our Selves tothe groups who interests ples are elfent to have led them to ume In formal cranzations having ‘menbercip, bles and offcer A frcher advantage ‘Bb ind of dean we may sane tat ho raed ‘pocilanterest grops ar How slut, bs = ‘eloped. mst intense and atire scomm/ Whatever elaine {i be tad or» eroup theory of police cag to bo ur tained by the evidence concming Bese groups the Ginms have ay ality a al “Tho cxpanizod group ted Sn tho various dirocoros (asda National Anocttion ofthe Ustad Sats pl lhod antral by the Usted States Depron of omae snrc) and speciy yearbooks, cepted the Lobe Nx Binder bed y the United Star Hoare of Reps \, atts probably inca he al of te ergo ‘pte presente All complains sre neon, bt 2 ths ar enters cough oprovide with ome befor ‘imag the soe of te en 2 “By the time «group has Covel the Kindo itoret 53.) TheSenizoerin People * hat beads it. ‘8 may be assured that thas lo 7 devatope, ‘bis booanso organzction “ ization of bias ation for action. aos ‘membershipe Ga, they inchide and exclude people). fis 2 poasbie to think of the scope of Ue sytem. ‘Whea lis of these organizations are examined, tho fact that sks the dont mast forcibly is that the estom i ery small, Thor nized, Meptifable, known Stat eve ne cay remota unl ‘Yersaboat ft, Taove a tendency on tk part ofthe pab- Iihers of drectrir of auocitons to place an undue om. ‘has on busines organization, an emphasis thats almost fnevitable boosuse the business community & by a wide roargin the most highly crganizod segment of society. Pub- Iuhers docbiless tend alo to reflect ple dtmand for in- formation. Nevertheless the dominance of busness groups ‘of 4000 ia the volume, though it refers without Kting {. VIN to 16.000 cegantzations of businesenen. One cannat bo cortain what the total content ofthe unknown asco ‘onal universe say’ be, bot taken with the evidence fund {in othor compilations, it obvious that bane ty remark eee “The Scope aod Hao the Pres System, a bly wall ropreanted. Some evdance ofthe over scope (oF tho sytem isto be soen inthe eatimate thet 15,00 na- onal de essctatons have gros mesberaip of about ‘oe milion business firms? Tho data aro tncomplet, but fen f we do nat havea det map thirst shore dimly Much more diretly related to prosuro polis isthe Zab- by Fades, 1045-1949 an inde of organisations end individ ls risterngo Sing quarterly reports under the Federal [Lobbying Ac, publited ae a report of the Howe Sect (Committee on Lobbying Activities. tn this complation, 825 fut of a total of 1,247 entries (ela of sakdaals and Indian tribes) represented busnoss** A selesod lst of the ‘most important ofthe groups std in the fader (he groups spenling the izgest sums of money on lobbying) published Inthe Congressional Quarcerly Log shows 149 business ‘ganization total oF 966 Ute “he lmited scape ofthe business presse stem i nd cated by all avalable sates. Among busines organize ‘ons, the tinal Astciation of Manufacturer (with about 20,000 corporate marbara) and the Chamber af Commerce ofthe United Sates about a large athe N.A.M) ae pants Unaly business ascoiatons ere much smallae. OF 41 trade associations in the metal preduets industry Isted in Nation- Association ofthe United States, 153 havo a mecnbership tf es than 20." The median aerabership mas somew hers Detween 24 and 50. Approrimately the sams sale of mem bership to be found inthe lumber, futur, and papertert 2 ‘The Semovereien Pent lnduties here 57.3 percent of the associations ited da ‘mamberbip of les than 20 and the median membership ‘wat in tho 25 to 50 range.* "The statistics in these cass are representative of nea al other elanoatons of ind. Data drawa fam other sores Brest. 1y, the prosure Theres ‘overwhelming evidence that pa in voluntary fgunizations i¢ rated to upper social and economie atin the rate of participation i much higher ia the upper tate than itis ekewdere, The gener] proposton ts well state by Lazare en nthe oe SES os es by lg Sto in fe Sys Biv in pan ‘epondens who ong tne mexs erste, The Pepa nf eapendonts whose member of Real orton ‘cia i econ tie 3 roe th rerpndens belong to ny eaten al “Th bins ofthe systema eshown by the fat tht earn 3 Asin ngniton rfl n epost tend fs generalization seem apply equally wel ‘ban and rural popoatiens. The abvoro nde ofthe coin ‘hat large area ofthe populaten appear to be wholy oi tide the eytem of pitate organization, A study made by In Reid of « Phladepiia area showed that in «sample of 61 persons, 65 petoont belonged to no cvs or charitable org ‘zation and 74 peoent belonged to no occupational, bus ‘ess, or profesional asociations, while snother Piadcph ‘ay of 1,154 momen showed that 88 percent belonged i no associations of any kind." "A Forune farm ell ahen some years ago found that 705 perceat of farmers belonged to no agecultural organize, The Scape and Barf the Frome Sytem s ons. A similar conelsion wat reached by two Gallup polls sawing at perhaps no mere than one third ofthe farmers ofthe country belonged to farm organizations wile n- ter Fortune poll showed that 868 pereat of the low-n- come farmers longed to no farm organizations Al aval. able data support the generalization that the famars who do not participate in rural organizations are largely the poorer anes / ‘Aubstantil emouat of research dove by other rural zt clogiss points tothe same conclusion, Mangus and Cottam say, on the bass ofa study of 556 heads of Ohi fra fara Hee and their wiver “The present sty inden hat company fw of se who "nked onthe se fring ton ey copa omamant (yonpunatins a member flonan coer, fades. (nto othr tnd, thre foes Ut aed hgh on ae le of ling competed the vs soy ofthe igh acto partons Infrnal goup ative. lly two rdof ho inthe ow casa defined in hs say were non paecen s ompeed teh nly anetenth f tae ln the upper ela and one our of ‘Bove the mide cis. Whe aie were ad byte fenea evolving inde, 10 tines ar large « popation of {hove in he upper ai arf hus nthe lower ca wore ave pardapante = ‘Along the stme line Richardson and Bauder cbecrve, “So- ‘io-economi stata wa diretly elated to participation” {itl another stay i was found tat“ highly significant ‘elationship existed between income and formul partys ‘on! Te was found that persons with mote tha fur yours of college education eld twenty tines a2 many member ships per one hundred persons as dd hove wit es than & foorthrade education and were forty Genes a8 Wely 10 bold oie fa nonchurch orgaieaton, while persons with 7 L imt of orgetaston wld be de vai ane ould BEmOW SST pra “Tiisof tie eet hey sigifcant spac of the sytem. The fw in the plait Daven hat the heavenly chorus sings with 2 szoag up “ / pela accent. Probabiy about 00 percent ofthe people trace ofthe fiftoea millon Negroes fn the United States bo- long to the National Amociation forthe Advancement of Colored People. Only ene five hundredths of 1 percent of ‘American wornen belong to the League of Wome: Voters, only one sateen hundtedts of 1 poreat ofthe consumers belong tothe Natlonel Consumer? League, and oly 6 pe cont of American automobile drivers belong tothe Amer can Automobile Ascitin, whl about 18 poreent ofthe veterans belong tothe American Leica. ‘Tre competing claims of presure groups and politcal parties for the Loyalty of the American puble revolve aboot the difference between the results kly tobe achloved by sual seale and large-scale politcal oganzation Inevitably, ‘he outeome of presure polities and party politic wil Be vaaly diferent ‘A Critique of Group Theories of Politics 1s exreaely unikaly thatthe vogue of group thearles of poles would have atained its present stats its base ‘sssimptions had not boon first estaliuhed by smne concept2% "The Suitoverin Poole of sconoenie determiniam. The economie intorpretation of poles as alvays appeaied to those poleal plophers ‘who have sought single prime move, a sort of phil ber’ stone of politcal solence around which to organize thoi deus. The arch fra snge ultimate cause hss ome: thing to do with the attempt to expan everything cbout pallies in terms of group concepts The lg of economic Aleterminisn sto deny the orgs of conflict and 1005 ‘sume the concluion This iad of thovght hae some ofthe ‘cammarks of an iluoa, The somnambulatory qualty of {thinking io this eld appears ako in the tendency of re- search fo deal only with succesful prose campaigner {he willngnes of cholas to be stited with having placed restare groups on the scene ofthe crime without allowing {rough to ee ifthe ofoct can really be abated tothe cane. What makes this Kind of thinking rerariable isthe fact tha plea contests there are as many Fures {hore are suceeses. Where ia the Mteratue of presture poll sare the flares? ‘Students of speckanterest police need 2 more sophisti. so of intellectual tools than they have developed thor theoretical problem involved in the search for @ Sinble cause i Ua all power reations fo a democracy ae reciprocal Trying to find tho oxginalcaue is ke tying t0 Fn the frat wave of the coe ‘Can we ell azsame that wo now ll that tobe known boat a conf f we understand its origina? Everything We now about polities suggests that a eonfct is likely to change profoundly it becomes politcal Its «rere od ‘dul who ean pentagons $c phos te sme deen. Eventing chess one t confe etsin th pie sie ha the confit abut, the enor al, oe tremely cl to prec i aatcome of a by wat ‘The Seep and lar the Frere Ste a {ng a begining becanso we do not oven know who ele i {going to get into the conc. The logis casequence of the fexcindve emphasis on the dtzrminism of the private or ‘ins of confit sto asign zro valu othe patel proces. "The voryexprecon “prs police” tutes us o mis conceive the role of speellnterest groups i plies The ‘word “pressure” implies tho use of some Id of force, form of intimidation, something other than reason and k- formation, to induce publecuthortis to aot agains thelr wn best judgment snail j quoted tho logiature a dosed ara referea” whe “rat ee records" the "balance of power" among the con ffctive way of saying that ‘Congress his no mind or force ofits own or that Congres is ‘unable to ineeke new forces at might alte the equ | “Actually the euteome of paliteal conf the | “rosuleant” of oppring forces in physi. To asure that the | ‘roar in «pollical station could be diagramed as phys. ' ‘st might diagram tho resultant of opposing ysl foros {st wipe the late clean ofall remote, general and public considerations for the protection of which civil sci bbve been insted, “Moreover, the notion of" leo he ia tbe power rlations involved, Araau ar lino the public arena cad Bes emoe ent Rake cota thatthe power coo among the priate nie mo ie ld al mt re oa cnt ara ers tst oF tho erengtb of tho rive iereresis 1 to leave ont the most significant factors. Thi i 9 tre that i ght indood be ead thatthe oly wey to preserve iva power rats isto keep confets aut ofthe pable ety Bevin Ganetd sea ye Tre L » 7* ‘The Semisovecgn Peele ‘ho ssumption thats ony the “interested” who count cough tbe reexamined in view ofthe foregoing dlscuion "The tondsncy ofthe literature of prestue polite has been Ao neglect the low tenon foros of large numbers because tt ‘exgumes thatthe equation of fore ie iced ot the out. ‘Given the usimptions made by the group theorists, he attack on the idea ofthe majority is completely logical. The ‘Ssumpiionf that confit is monopalized narrowly by partes immediatly concerned. Theres n0 room for mae Jory when confi i defined so narowy tea great da ‘ney of the groapthoory that i as feund no pce in the political yom forthe majority. The fore ofthe majority x ff an ental different order of magnitude, something aot to be measured by prossure-group standards Instead of stempting to extertiate all politcal forms, organizations, and aligaments thet do not qualify at pres- sore qroups, would i not be better to attempt to make & ‘yest, covering the whole pole sytem and finding 2 place for all kinds of polit if? ‘One possible synthe of politics and party pal ties night be ordlped by flecibing polities asthe ocal- ston of eff “ay, the politcal proces & « ( ‘The Scope and Bf the Preaute System, Py sequence: cnfets ae inated by highly wotvated, ih tenon groupe so dicot ad immcdtsy velvet ‘bel for them fe oe te Jao of chime ‘slog athe confi fhe gps rae pte tied on in term of economic competition, riprotal denial Of goods and services, privat oegotaton and basing, Soups for corporate conta rcompetten for member $2) pola ross sine, Conf become pote Seal only when an attempt B mace te Invave the wer buble Prenure polis might be desrbed stage In tbe cation of aT TE aaa eae pai ‘Binge pro a ples, inchding party plicn ‘One ef he charactors points fei of prem pl: tei breakdown ofthe dsiplino of the bsiaase oan ‘ny. The Might © eovorments perpen Soren ke Uh is aly to happen wherever there spt of cottaet ‘betwen competing poversstms Ii the ows i ne | busines conflict who sock redrn from pubile authori. {Phe dominant sti fines wt appens fhe 0 | mmen. The role ofthe government athe patron of he ‘efned pete interest shds ight on faction a the crt of pate power relations. Since the contestants private cof are apt to be ssoga in trong follows that dhe moet powerful pe Silvers wont pect cetemete bere hey ae able to dctate the outcome a Tong ar the confit remain pt ‘te. Ate a hundred times a tong at Bt be doesnot trlcone the intervention of «td pasty becaie he ex ecb impose Hi own teas on Be wat oe Te especialy cpp to De intervention of ube a stony, cee ple ath epeens he st oe helndng form of ouside intervention. Taw, BY,| ‘The emivovergn People sts abvomly nto Aradentage tov hid erty « lives ed Be Tre hn aap esac. ho spel wo pase ao fr Sacrrusgabeb wat @eabecaeree Bote more and mor people the confetti a sce of frei changed. a the schoo nt toe Bey but he dtl slr kaye who tal tho each (= When tho teacher nerves, he ans of peer a She sthonyand pt io hange rat. te nton fable try to modify pia pone atin ye inne the sop of conf thn obo re aa co tn to spp the publ eory merely roe So daaiane of tho sraeg oer he ek Th neo tence i pais onder sey rll oot ret vary of ferro eat preiae.Nehng eb are coo thn tose th efsgn fr th beer ‘iy who come fo Cangas for rola nd protean for ‘Conan od th dig dance ho rah a analy my be son the ‘st tht they prateatera dae cna nF thy ate ened in ple sofie ih ety nara ‘The image of the lobbyists as primarily the agents of big Dorner nt ey to suport th oo he ecrd ‘ogra hey fo ipl The Megat trp Ser the coum toad owed tho ses wich pet ‘ire groupe sod Wats Rot toot blr eongreto Comite: To dearth pres cadre internat ‘Scot ns tndaeSngremed ior eve what aly gogo Ths peoubaket snehtpese poi sue pia or even tho meat inert soaen betwen grernnets aid Von The frm up BY 20 ‘oun he poet Intamunt fhe bas cy. “The Supe and ao the reer Sate weve Se ; ae. pienmsSumietel SS ee ee love: Te mot cement coneraton of Sotey cal fe the basen commun t develop tome nd fc tren palcy mere broly based thn sy secalitre oop ating oh “Te pote noone of basins depends othe id of sold thn the nan, eat a basen alo She suport of am banesnan in tele wth tb ove ‘min sod he eter he, ep tral tee putes out of the public arena. Ia this system businessmen i tempo tsattch ab tern plea door {i the ero indvioal monies of tho ce cx ‘Sony te take aban ens to ots “To step to nbn swted ent tthe whos bs nos eamunty dons ot ose the sal cneet of ‘rue pollo Th Ingo of busta ptr Yo hoop ‘roe niin ie basins comamunty by supotiog we pence al clin tet fer gow fotos ‘She The tendeey into npr all bene who ve ‘Sue wa he pvetanant and appr al besten incon th bor In tis way spent pce ten bconced it porty plas Toa eteha fora road Sone pala alan good on age ‘he for pla nanaton ds wider sl ta oe bis inthe une he hiortal fremae ru. On the ‘a commanty bagi fo hk tn taron oft ger ‘le of polliad enaceaon the Repecan pry lat ip bate pen The gat tciovemeat cf Ameien denon that tunes es been fred to frm epaltel nati o- ‘ivod vo a coon bas beea eed We snp er poet ate 5s Teese Pee ToeScpe and athe Fes Siem ° warn the wd ro in hepa stem. On the comiinaton of penne gous coe of erming the other hand, the power of the Republican party to make fonction. fe it - tenet brine som he fot tha neat ‘indo be old ‘The Republican party has played major roe inthe pol sical onganization of the busines community, aft grete rele than many savents of politics soem to have ralizad. ‘The influce of business in the Republean party great bat tt never abennts beerare busnost ie remarkably de. pendent on the party. The busines coxamniy i too smal, ‘aoues too much atagolan and ls ana ae to narow bs te win the support of« popular majority. The political ed See cy deta tare ener ‘tion of buns oneton of the Repican pat hat om oe ec ‘can never be done s0 well by anyone ele. ‘Sich ry fe eto prea hw compote eat ey tg 1a the management ofthe plea! relations of the bast ‘nets community, the Repablcen part such mere impor tant than any combination of pressure groups ever could be “Tho succes of special intererts in Congres i de lest the 8 i tH | 4 “presura” exerted by these group than i dt th ak SER anes ene vata penton ‘ht Republican mcebers of Congres ee commited in a phat of ingen aia Roma ‘ance a general pobusnes atitade, Ths note that bas ST re le ‘ness groupe cooree Ropublican congrostmon into voting for | ser tmmage of Pat ence ots” ta sc thelr bils uadeestiates the whole Republican posture in ‘Se afte eis ‘Avnerioa poitiees* isnot easy to manage the politcal interests ofthe bus | ier ar em Sete gue ness community because threes perpetual stream of lo sara ae force i eager Noll EH Ca ote heute tin tnrabusiessconlts who goto the goverameat for om ene elif aod protection, It har not boon posse therefore to tor on” a ‘alntanpexfect solidarity, and when solidarity breached ya mci ce the govermment is involved almost automaticaly. The act ter tbeandve aa” that busines has not become hopelely divided and that it | fax retained great tflaence in Amserian plies has een ‘ee aan me ee Ai ey othe overall mang Fl aed by he Re | Sher Sites esas publiean party. There has never been 8 Pres group of &3b ane ie MSS lee an Lat ae ebb Ot err iy ns to Fw tf se Cay in Hol ars ad Bi For, Pa Ay Ren pol pa 10 Ih take 20H Gna Lolo ca Srl aon, el dnt She Fre hapa Ste perinant ‘Aer th Ba 68 Spee, ar. 8 "atari ofa econ nat a fe tn toes, ‘ata Leite Boles 9 Ea Vabecatyet emc ‘The ope snd Barf the Promure Sytem “ ‘ech Rilaniordy “The Vous Asoghe cf tan Dell i a Se Pe Rael ng cs hp taps: Son ules 33, eerie rd Socron aca ere eh ee arte eter’ seein REE iene tas So cercenttegee fh peta ahs font memo 3 ay te Ca" Wer, vrai, seelpeon. rhage ches vc ea ley arp pgs oa es es re tad ‘ust cite at 2 ou ato i me men ‘pwnd peo ech mary on Te a cour3 Whose Game Do We Play? “Tug scope and bis ofthe presare system suggests rome of ‘he aston of presture poles afore of paca orgie saation. The lntations of presore polis Become more ‘evident when an artempt made to use a pressure OUP In ‘sme dimensions of poles other than the relatively marzow ange ually reserved fori seme of tho imiationn any be sen incu sxaoation ota oeranre oui ar ‘auch What ipent wher presue cick xe GET pee ‘ita ily ceed interes A survey ca few othe tight ely gre coe to me sepia about the elec tenes of preeie tacti in this 08. ‘re the puicapeked people who ives tine, coer, tod one in ere organiatons playing te ht gure? ‘Would it not be intent to conidr the relation btrosa the retoorees malized by have orpeiztos and the pro rts ofthe ak deta by esa? Wot el fl teal engin i appropte tte tke asad by ‘hese soup "What lind of “press” can the 950 member of the Store and Beach Prosrvtion Anchtln eert ox Con es Wo ot be intligent to recepize ht thi kind {group i whaly dependent onthe sean ofc Wee Game De Weer? « ‘ete Poi Rewores of be Flowing Pblc bees Pemare ‘Groups Asean tr he Tas Tey Have Underaen? Me age wanes Var he und vee ‘ston oot gee ° Pepe am lt? This 0 wager organization which may start chain reaction, bt what happens thereafter? Uhimately general Dalle take demands on the politcal yer atx while, Sooner or Iter we come to questions concerning the grand strategy of American poiter—for what shal te profes if ‘we are organized to win all the te ets nd los al the big oned? fe enough to start a multitude cf bates f we anoot follow through? Tn police ain every Ailfeence wode game we pay. Thule of the ne the requzoments for succes, Resources aficen for scousiPERE et enter eee o ‘The Semisvercen Feel ene game may be whallyinadoqote tn att These oo- ‘orton goto tho eat of pltel togy be contrat Tecween prese plies aa paty pues becomes ove Ses sce ny fo tani She lye em oe tobe other, "low sal the ferrets doe ot became lat ntl we tianpt fo convert premogroup monbenkip {mo party vote A predation Inve Be great ‘Sttobllatin of pole fercer inte our goed et th gibeance of he pra sie i party plies 8 ‘Geretoe to eatinst the potent weight of pei ater ‘eins presidental elacton, Wecsa makes begasiagby ctaniaing «amber opob- 1 elaon pas taken during presidental cmp (0 ‘how the patty preference of sane of tho laoreet ter groupe, goupe of wach organ Kor rae. ‘What the tact of reaizd born these ection? ratio than nonunion ber) voted Democratic a 1940 and| 1844 aocordng to pals taken atthe tne. (The CIO mes ‘About 70 peroont of organized labor (tore “a bership voted 78 and 78 percent Democratic in these lee Mons) Tn series of pole taken in 1886, 1943, 1944 1945, and 1948, the Demceratic party preference of organized labor was 72, 72,64, 74, end 69 pecent.* For the porpotes ‘oF this calculation these figures may bo takon ot type Sle ofthe fact that auall variations in more reent eloe ‘ons have shown thit arganzod labor may now be less strongly Democrat. That iso ay, tho satis wed here probably cinggerat th pact of orgenized labor slightly, ‘wil be observed. Some allowance mut be made forthe foc thet itis never poste to convert the whole membetsbip of ny group into ‘oles. The way in which the law ofthe imperfect polteal Incbiliaten of soll groupe affects the ealealusof politics is Whose Game Do We Ply? « ‘shown in the following mode! af the probable inflaonce of the AFL-CIO in a typial election. The percentages and re ‘nes shown are merely anstativo. raed Labrand Freee Eons ronnie Hii racy 2,000 This analy probably exaggerates the pola weight of cxganized bor beens oul ht ws roy a bal of {thor unio members actully vote in presidental lesions (The 3300260 net coven of organized br they ‘Demecrati taal inportant, but only anew} seat a would have been i unions were ate acta the vote of thi whe menbersip, “The ducusion has ce Boon try cone by the fend. abs ua some ope The of tho imperfect pole! mobilaation of cil groupe {ores uso ror the cleus of plies when we ty 10 trate prea group power inl party power. “he effet of ergndzaon ix abana Tee an foregoing calalaion sagen, however. Fer examole, @