Global Ecology and Conservation 18 (2019) e00646

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Global Ecology and Conservation

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Original Research Article

Field measurement and analysis of water losses at the main

and tertiary levels of irrigation canals: Varamin Irrigation
Scheme, Iran
Amir Mohammadi a, Atefeh Parvaresh Rizi a, *, Nader Abbasi b
a
Department of Irrigation & Reclamation Engineering, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
b
Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AERI), Karaj, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Irrigation canals waste some of the water during the conveyance and distribution process.
Received 26 December 2018 Due to the effect of water losses on distribution planning and operation process, it is
Received in revised form 30 April 2019 necessary to estimate the conveyance efficiency and water losses. The purpose of this
Accepted 1 May 2019
research is to evaluate the performance of water conveyance in all level of canals and to
carry out an in-depth analysis of the water losses problem in the irrigation schemes
Keywords:
through a case study. Therefore, the recorded data in more than 40 selected points of the
Water conveyance efficiency
main, secondary and tertiary canals were analyzed. The use of ultrasonic flowmeter in this
Seepage losses
Concrete lining
study provided an appropriate precision for determining seepage losses and water
Maintenance conveyance efficiency. Results show that conveyance efficiency for main, secondary, and
Irrigation systems tertiary canals in the 1000 m reaches are 95%, 91.5%, and 89.3% respectively. In addition,
the amount of seepage losses per unit of seepage surface for main, secondary, and tertiary
canals is equal to 1.22, 1.18, and 0.63 m3/day respectively. Regarding the length of the
canals, the total amount of seepage losses in a certain time and in an irrigation interval, in
tertiary canals is more than secondary and in secondary canals is more than the main
canal. In order to decrease the seepage losses, it is recommended to consider the serious
preventive and corrective maintenance programs.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Proper operation of an irrigation system depends on the performance of its various components. Water conveyance
structures are the main part of any irrigation system. Transferring water with minimum losses is considered as the main task
of these structures. Increasing irrigation efficiency is a way to save large quantities of water resources, resulting in dimin-
ishing the agricultural water scarcity problem. In Iran, more than 85% of agricultural land are irrigated using low-efficient
surface systems. Irrigation canals waste up between 30% and 50% of the total volume of water transported, due to a differ-
ence between conditions of construction and operation (Abu-Khashaba, 2013). Water conveyance efficiency is affected by
several factors such as cracks, percolation, seepage and physical damages of the canals (Sen et al., 2018). In a research con-
ducted by Eshetu and Alamirew (2018), seepage losses was measured in the irrigation canals of Tendaho Sugar Estate using

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mohammadiamir@ut.ac.ir (A. Mohammadi), parvarsh@ut.ac.ir (A. Parvaresh Rizi), nader_iaeri@yahoo.com (N. Abbasi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00646
2351-9894/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.
0/).
2 A. Mohammadi et al. / Global Ecology and Conservation 18 (2019) e00646

method of inflow-outflow. Main canals mainly had lined with geo-membrane lining, while the secondary and tertiary canals
were unlined. In this research, seepage losses were reported for main, secondary and tertiary canals equal to 1.09, 3.38 and
2.14 m3/day/m2, respectively. Damage of geo-membrane lining and inadequate maintenance were introduced as the main
causes of high water losses. They recommended serious attention to the maintenance and repair of canals to reduce seepage
losses. Orojloo et al. (2018) stated that the unreliable and imprecise operational activities have directed to inadequate
conveyance and distribution performance of the irrigation canal systems. Due to their findings from a risk assessment model,
poor maintenance, seepage, unexpected event, drought and vandalism were determined as the riskiest hazards relating to the
irrigation scheme's components. In developing countries, structural problems and inappropriate management of irrigation
canals lead to loss of a large amount of water. Conveyance efficiency for lined canals in Pakistan, India, Turkey and Egypt has
been reported to be 56.5%, 89%, 90%, and 87%, respectively (Sultan et al., 2014). Mohammadi et al. (2018) conducted a
comprehensive assessment of Varamin irrigation scheme in Iran. They evaluated the hydraulic performance of the regulation
and distribution structures. The results of their research showed that most of these structures are under improper operation,
leading to unfair delivery and the loss of a large amount of water during the water distribution. They believe that improving
the current situation is dependent on preventive maintenance and repair of aged structures in a rehabilitation process. In a
study carried out by Bahramloo et al. (2017), the amount of water losses in irrigation canals of Kerman, Moghan and
Zayandehrod plains were evaluated. Results of this study showed that there is a direct relationship between the canals' flow
rate and seepage losses. They found that replacing the canals' concrete lining with geo-membranes could reduce costs and
increase the conveyance efficiency by 20%. In a research conducted by Jadhav et al. (2014), water losses in lined and unlined
canals in the Panchnadi Scheme in India were appraised. They reported conveyance efficiency equal to 75% for lined canals
and 52% in unlined canals. Riahi et al. (2013) conducted a series of experiments to examine the operating status of lined canals
in Kerman province. They found that the scheme has various problems. The most important of these is the accumulation of
sediment and destruction of the canal lining. The conveyance efficiency in these canals was reported to be between 57% and
81%. If the canal lining is implemented correctly, all seepage losses are preventable. Over the time, the lining of canals has
changed and its initial performance is lost. Factors such as cracks, weed growth, and incompatible construction materials may
cause increasing seepage losses (Uchdadiya and Patel, 2014). Research showed that with the expansion of the cracks on the
canal surface, there is no significant difference for seepage in lined and unlined canals (Swamee and Chahar, 2015). In
addition, researchers have shown that if only 0.01% of the concrete canal lining is cracked, seepage in the lined and unlined
canals is equal (Merkley, 2007). Generally, determining the exact amount of seepage in irrigation canals is difficult and time-
consuming. However, field experiments and direct measurement yield more accurate results than other methods (empirical
equations and software methods) (Zhang et al., 2016). When the irrigation canal has been constructed improperly and is
under an unconvincing operation, the input-output flow method is the most appropriate and precise procedure for esti-
mating seepage (Brockway and Worstell, 1969). The research carried out by Pognant et al. (2013) on three canals in the
northwest of Italy shows that the use of traditional methods increases the cost and time of seepage measurements. They
verified the use of System Electromagnetic Induction method to determine seepage in irrigation canals. Akkuzu (2011)
conducted a research in the Menemen Irrigation Scheme (western Turkey) to estimate the seepage losses. In this study,
losses in concrete canals were calculated by input-output flow method. Seepage losses for the main canal was reported
107.6 L/sec/km, for secondary canals 32.1 L per second at 100 m, and for tertiary canals were 11.7 L per second at 100 m.
Results showed that the experimental equations do not have sufficient accuracy to estimate seepage in concrete canals with
inappropriate maintenance.
Moaven Shahidi et al. (2016) introduced canal seepage as the main source of water losses in Australian irrigation systems.
They referred to 100-year old irrigation schemes and emphasized that the age of infrastructure has an undeniable role in
increasing water losses. They have taken actions to overcome problems and improve productivity, such as modernizing and
automating distribution and transmission equipment. Total Channel Control system provides seepage checking with online
measurements of discharge and water depth across the canals. In a study conducted by Kilic and Tuylu (2011), status of water
seepage in the Right Bank Irrigation System of the Ahmetli Regulator in the Gediz Basin Turkey was investigated. The
conveyance losses in the main, secondary and tertiary canals were reported to be 0.067, 0.119 and 0.03 L per second per square
meter, respectively. The key factor in increasing losses was found to be neglecting repairs and maintenance. They recom-
mended that farmers participate in the operation scheme needs to be increased. Some researchers believe that a water loss in
irrigation systems affect the hydrological cycle of the area and causes the recharge of aquifers. It is estimated that in 1990,
about 47% of the recharge resources in the Cache Valley were due to seepage from irrigation canals (Kariya et al., 1994). The
research conducted by Meijer et al. (2006) on the Uda Walawe Irrigation Scheme showed that seepage from irrigation canals
plays an important role in the recharge of groundwater resources. It has been estimated that after lining the canals, recharge
of groundwater has been reduced up to 50%. This saving could result to expand irrigation lands and allowing more farmers to
use water.
Varamin scheme is one of the largest irrigation systems in Tehran Province and produces a major part of agricultural
production in the region. The poor performance of water conveyance structures results in an inappropriate and inequitable
distribution of water. This defect reduces the conveyance efficiency and makes system operation and maintenance difficult. In
recent years, the cultivation area of this scheme has been expanded, while water supplies have been decreasing. Therefore, it
is essential to improve the management of irrigation, provide accurate and reliable information on the conveyance efficiency
and water losses in the canals. In this research, physical and managerial structures of water conveyance facilities in Varamin
Scheme were checked. The ultimate goal is to provide a suitable solution to solve problems and increase water productivity.
 A. Mohammadi et al. / Global Ecology and Conservation 18 (2019) e00646 3

For this purpose, field measurements were carried out on a large scale, and seepage, conveyance efficiency and lining status in
selected canals were investigated.

2. Materials and methods

In this section, in addition to explaining the research method, some descriptions about the irrigation district under study
are presented, and the equations and measuring devices that were employed for discharge measurement are described.

2.1. Varamin Irrigation Scheme

Varamin Irrigation Scheme is located in the northern part of Iran. This scheme is under semi-private management. It was
designed about four decades ago and the age of its hydraulic structures is more than 30 years. Water supply in this area is
conducted via diversion dams, as well as the outflow of a wastewater treatment plant. The irrigated command area of this
scheme is about 60,000 ha. As shown in Fig. 1, main canals, named as AB and BC, have 5 Km and 6 Km length, respectively. This
scheme is consist of six secondary canals (Table 1). Almost all main, secondary and tertiary canals have a concrete lining.
After surveying various parts of the scheme, the data mining process was performed at a region of over 40,000 ha. In the
evaluation process, ultrasonic flowmeter was used to record the discharge parameter in more than 70 selected points (canal
cross sections). A qualitative report was prepared in each point including the physical conditions such as sedimentation and
lining health. We tried to select the canal reaches such that they are a symbol of the general situation in that part of the
irrigation scheme. Lengths of the studied reaches in main, secondary and tertiary canals were on average 1820, 925 and
870 m, respectively. During the data acquisition, some factors such as water flow turbidity, non-geometric sections and
sedimentation in the canals made it impossible to determine the flow rate preciously in the canal cross section. Consequently,
some recoded data were omitted and finally, three reaches from the main canal, 6 reaches from the secondary canals and 12
reaches from the tertiary canals were included in result analysis.

2.2. Water conveyance efficiency (ec)

To compensate the water losses in the transfer path, it is necessary to determine the exact amount of conveyance effi-
ciency. The classical definition of the conveyance efficiency is the ratio of the amounts of water delivered to the certain farm to
amounts of diverted water from the source for the same farm (Israelsen, 1932). The water conveyance efficiency depends on
various factors such as canal length, soil type and material of the canal lining. A number of reaches were selected as a sample
to determine the amount of water losses in the canals. Selected reaches had the same general specifications of the canals and
were in perfect condition in terms of access and flow control during the measurement. The amount of water losses in these
reaches is calculated by the inflow-outflow method. In this way, all losses of water conveyance, including loss of water

Fig. 1. A view of Varamin Irrigation scheme.

4 A. Mohammadi et al. / Global Ecology and Conservation 18 (2019) e00646

Table 1
Characteristics of secondary canals.

Canal name Canal length (Km) Command area (%)

AMX 16.6 23
AU 4.3 6
BY 8.4 7
BV 8.1 9
CNZ 20.6 31
CW 8.2 12

seepage through the canal and evaporation from the water surface are obtained. The evaporated water losses in irrigation
canals are not significant (Xie et al., 1993) so it is not determined separately in this research. We should declare that this
parameter could be estimated using daily meteorological data of the region and with knowing the time span of the field
measurements. In addition to the references above, our estimation showed that it is negligible in the irrigation canals’ scale.
Equation (1) is used to calculate the conveyance efficiency (Howell, 2003).

Vd þ V2
ec ¼  100 (1)
Vc þ V1

Where VC is the amount of water diverted from the source (m3), Vd is the amount of water delivered to the distribution system
(m3), V1 is the input flow from other sources to the conveyance system (m3) and V2 is water supply for non-irrigation pur-
poses (m3). Based on the tables provided by the FAO, expected value for the conveyance efficiency in the lined canals with
different lengths is 95% (Brouwer et al., 1989).

2.3. Seepage losses

Seepage is affected by various factors such as water depth, canal lining quality, canal dimensions, bed slope, sediment
volume, age of canal, flow volume, flow velocity and quality of implementation and operation of canals (Robinson and
Rohwer, 1959). Fig. 2 shows that the time elapsed from the canal construction, affects the amount of seepage (Kraatz,
1977). It is observed that seepage rate in a bentonite lining over a period of 14 years have increased by more than 12,000
times. This is a decisive factor in the importance of using the appropriate lining for conveyance canals. Similarly, concrete
canals meet constructional changes over the time and amount of seepage losses will be increases.
Low flow velocity is one of the most effective factors in increasing seepage losses. Minimum permissible velocity in
irrigation canals to prevent flow sedimentation is 0.6e0.9 (m/s). To overcome the growth of aquatic plants and moss in canals,
it is recommended that the minimum velocity be greater than 0.75 (m/s) (Chow, 1959). Equation (2) is used to determine the
seepage (Birara and Halefom, 2017).

Fig. 2. Annual measured seepage rates over time. Logan, Utah, U.S.A (Kraatz, 1977).
 A. Mohammadi et al. / Global Ecology and Conservation 18 (2019) e00646 5

86:4  Dq
s¼ (2)
PL

Which S is the seepage loss (m3/m2/day), Dq is difference between inflow and outflow in a canal reach (l/s), P is the wetted
perimeter (m) and L is length of the reaches (m).
Different methods can measure the flow rate in irrigation canals. The low accuracy of some of them reduces the accuracy of
the assessment process. Using simple tools such as flume, Venturi meter, orifice and weirs are common for measuring the
flow in irrigation canals (Michalski, 2000). The precision of these methods depends on how it is used and the environmental
conditions. In this research, an ultrasonic flow meter was used to increase the measurement accuracy. This technology is
widely used in water flow measuring equipment (Eckert et al., 2015) and numerous calibrations have confirmed its accuracy.
In a research conducted by Kinzli et al. (2010) in the Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District, the use of acoustic Doppler flow
meters is recommended to estimate seepage in irrigation canals. The results of this technology has a relative improvement
comparing to the classic methods. In the present research an acoustic Doppler flow meter with the commercial name of
"Portable AV-Flowmeter Mainstream" were employed. This device consists of an ultrasonic velocity measurement probe and
a pressure transmitter to measure the water depth. The sensors are stationed at the bottom of the canal and in the opposite of
the flow direction.
Although unsteady flow occur in the main irrigation canals (and less in the tertiary ones), most periods of operation occur
under steady state. In this study, measurement of the flow rate at the beginning and end of the canal reaches was done under
steady flow. The flow meter has reported depth and flow rate every 2.5 s. Therefore, water level variation due to maneuver of
gates or other sources for unsteady state was detectable during data mining.

3. Result and discussion

Some of the results are aggregated in Table 2. The length of the considered reaches are presented in this table (column 3).
Column 4 shows the average flow velocity for each reach. In the fifth column, the average of the wetted perimeter for each
reach is reported. Column 6 is the seepage surface. In this paper, seepage surface is defined as the area of canal lining that is
directly touched by water. It is obtained by multiplying column 5 by column3. Column 7 shows the volume of input and
output flow related to selected reaches. Figures presented in this column were recorded by an ultrasonic flow meter. In the
eighth column, using equation (2), the amount of seepage losses was calculated. In column 9, the value of the conveyance
efficiency is calculated using equation (1). Column 10 shows the percentage of the water loss in 1 km of canal length. In

Table 2
Determination of conveyance efficiency and seepage losses in the main, secondary and tertiary canals.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Reach Canal Reach Velocity Wetted Seepage Discharge Seepage Conveyance Water Average Average
m3 =m2
number type length (m/s) perimeter surface (l/s) efficiency during the losses/ seepage conveyance
day
(m) (m) (m2) Inflow reach (%) 1 km (%) losses efficiency (%)
m3 =m2
Outflow
day
1 Tertiary 720 0.53 1.19 856 66.8 64 0.28 95.8 5.8 0.63 91.8
2 950 0.49 1.2 1140 58 54.2 0.29 93.4 6.9
3 460 0.48 1.42 653 109 100 1.19 91.7 17.9
4 250 0.54 1.32 330 95 91.5 0.92 96.3 14.7
5 560 0.6 1.1 616 90.3 86.4 0.55 95.7 7.7
6 620 0.55 1.3 794 82.1 68.2 1.51 83 27.3
7 1300 0.41 1.17 1521 76.4 70 0.36 91.6 6.4
8 1000 0.48 1.2 1200 67.7 60.8 0.5 89.8 10.2
9 900 0.48 1.5 1350 125 112.5 0.8 90 11.1
10 940 0.43 1.1 1034 42.2 39 0.27 92.4 8.1
11 1700 0.58 1.35 2295 122.7 105.4 0.65 86 8.3
12 1030 0.51 1.39 1431 100.2 95.7 0.27 95.5 4.4
1 Secondary 900 0.45 3.3 2970 627 584 1.25 93.1 7.6 1.18 92.1
2 900 0.5 4.8 4320 1061 972 1.78 91.6 9.3
3 990 0.5 2.8 2772 360 338 0.68 93.8 6.2
4 1100 0.7 2.28 2508 387 366 0.72 94.6 4.9
5 730 0.75 3.1 2263 820 798 0.84 97.3 3.7
6 930 0.42 2.56 2380 281 231 1.81 82.2 19.1
1 Main 2150 1 4.2 9030 1483 1361 1.17 91.8 3.8 1.22 91.1
2 1580 0.75 3.23 5103 847 765 1.38 90.3 6.1
3 1740 0.9 2.87 4993 739 674 1.12 91.2 5
6 A. Mohammadi et al. / Global Ecology and Conservation 18 (2019) e00646

columns 11 and 12, the average value of column 8 (seepage losses) and column 9 (conveyance efficiency) were reported for
each canal level.
According to Table 2, average conveyance efficiency for the main canal in an average length of 1820 m is 91.1%. This value
for secondary canals in reaches with an average length of 925 m is 92.1%, and for tertiary canals with an average length of
870 m, is 91.8%. By unification the data conditions in terms of the length of the reaches, it is determined that the conveyance
efficiency for each 1000 m of the main, secondary and tertiary canals is 95, 91.5, and 89.3%, respectively. Although the main
canal has the greatest seepage surface, it has the less relative losses (relative to the total volume of flow) compared to the
secondary and tertiary canals. In contrast, tertiary canals with the lowest seepage surface have the highest relative losses. This
shows that in Varamin Scheme, the main canal has a better performance in comparison to the secondary canals, while
secondary canals outperform tertiary canals.
The results of the evaluations show that water losses in tertiary canals vary from 0.27 to 1.50 m3/day/m2. This difference is
due to the destruction of canal lining, penetration of the water from the canal joints and weeds growth within the canals. The
main source of water supply in Varamin Scheme is refined sewage. This has led to the creation of suitable conditions for
growth of the aquatic plants in canals. Generally, growing of plants cause water losses in three ways: 1- A part of the water is
used for plant growth. 2- Root of these plants breaks the concrete. With the destruction of the concrete texture, its resistance
against water penetration decreases. 3- Plants block the path of the canals and reduce the flow velocity. In this condition, the
effective surface of seepage increases and the amount of seepage is also increased. In this scheme, the average amount of
seepage in tertiary canals is 1.18 m3/day/m2. Inappropriate operation has caused serious damage to some areas of these canals.
During the time, it has caused extensive joints and gaps in the concrete lining. Development of small and big cracks provides
suitable conditions for water entrance into the lower layers of concrete.
Fig. 3 shows the relationship between water velocity and wetted perimeter in evaluated canals. The maximum difference
between velocity and the wetted perimeter belongs to secondary canals. Topographical conditions in these canals (Fig. 1) has
resulted in reducing the canals bed slope and flow velocity, as well as increasing sedimentation. Based on the continuity
equation and empirical equations for estimating seepage, as the velocity decreases, flow height, seepage surface, and seepage
increases.
In Figure (4-A) the canal inflow has showed against the seepage losses per 1 km meanwhile wetted perimeter versus the
seepage losses per 1 km is displayed in Figure (4-B). Main canal with a mean value of 1.18 m3/day/m2 has the highest seepage
losses. Cracks, more evaporation surface and high volumes of flow are the cause of increased losses in this canal.
Fig. 5 shows the relationship between seepage surfaces of 1000 m of canal length with an average value of seepage losses.
From a simultaneous analysis of Table 2 and Fig. 5, the following points can be concluded:

- Contrary to the conveyance efficiency, which depends only on the difference in input and output flow rates in a specific
reach, seepage losses (per square meter from the canal section) depend on other factors, such as canal width and seepage
surface over the reach.
- On average, for every 1000 m of canal length, seepage surface of the main canal is higher than the secondary canal and
seepage surface of secondary canals is greater than the tertiary canals.
- On average, for every square meter of conveyance canal surface, average seepage losses of the main canal is greater than
the secondary canals and average seepage losses of secondary canals is greater than the tertiary canals.
- Comparison of the main canal seepage surface with the secondary canals seepage surface in a 1000-m reach shows that by
reducing the flow volume by more than 50%, seepage surface was reduced by only 12%.
- Comparing of the main canal seepage surface with the tertiary canals seepage surface in a 1000-m reach shows that by
reducing the flow volume by more than 90% (from main to tertiary canal), seepage surface was reduced only by 36%.

Fig. 3. Average Flow velocity vs. wetted perimeter at measured points of the main, secondary and tertiary canals.
 A. Mohammadi et al. / Global Ecology and Conservation 18 (2019) e00646 7

Fig. 4. (A) The relation between inflow and water losses per 1 km of canal length. (B) The relation between wetted perimeter and water losses per 1 km of canal
length.

Fig. 5. Seepage surface (per 1000 m length) versus average seepage losses in the main, secondary and tertiary canal.

Comparison of the inflow-outflow and seepage surface of the main canal with the tertiary canals shows that discharge
reduction ratio is far higher than the ratio of seepage surface reduction. Its reason is related to the geometric characteristics of
the canal. When the increasing or decreasing of the flow occur in a trapezoidal canal, seepage surface does not necessarily
change related to the flow variations. When compared, in the tertiary canals both the numerator and denominator in Eq. (2)
are smaller than the main canal. However, the reduction in the denominator is much higher, and as a result, the total amount
of the fraction increases in the tertiary canals. To investigate the effect of the volume of the passing flow on seepage losses, Sr
as a dimensionless parameter is introduced:

Vs
Sr ¼  100 (3)
TF

Where Sr is the ratio of the volume of seepage losses to the volume of the passing flow at a specified time and seepage surface
(%); Vs is the volume of seepage losses from the canals at the same time and seepage surface; TF is the total volume of the flow
through the same canal and at the same time. The average value of Sr for each square meter seepage surface of the main,
secondary and tertiary canals is 1.51 103, 2.87  103 and 8.4  103 percent respectively. Fig. 6 shows the variation in
conveyance efficiency (for each 1000 m length of canals) versus the Sr value.
Looking at the Sr parameter in three levels of the canals show the reason for low conveyance efficiency of tertiary canals
compared to the main and secondary canals. This indirectly refers to the effect of the length of the measurement reaches on
the value of the conveyance efficiency. Regardless of the type of the canal, each unit area of the seepage surface removes a part
of the water volume from the conveyance system. Therefore, if the input flow is constant and the canal length changes, the
8 A. Mohammadi et al. / Global Ecology and Conservation 18 (2019) e00646

Fig. 6. Variations of conveyance efficiency and Sr parameter.

output flow and conveyance efficiency will also change. We believe that it is necessary to mention the reach(s) length as a part
of conveyance efficiency report.
Minimum permissible velocity for preventing the growth of aquatic plants is 0.75 m/s and preventing the sedimentation in
canals is 0.6e0.9 m/s. According to Table 2, the average velocity in secondary and tertiary canals is 0.5 m/s, which could result
in possible sedimentation. Reducing velocity in secondary canals causes the seepage increase. Factors such as the long length
of tertiary canals, Low volume of water and twisted canals are the main reasons for increasing the amount of water losses. One
of the important principles of canals maintenance is protecting the canal lining which is mainly violated during operation.
Furthermore, inadequate attention to soil geotechnical characteristics during the implementation of the canal project could
lead to problems such as cracking, creating fractures and finally, complete destruction of the canal lining.
Results of this study are similar to the results of Akkuzu (2011) on the impropriety of empirical equations for calculating
seepage in concrete canals. Our calculations showed the big errors in the results of seepage empirical equations, especially in
tertiary canals.
Groundwater is the main source of irrigation water supply for many areas in Iran (Ashrafzadeh et al., 2016). Thus, some
believe that seepage from the irrigation canals is a positive phenomenon to recharge the groundwater and as a balance factor
between the environment and a manmade irrigation infrastructure (with all its environmental impacts). However, in the
present case ignoring the high water losses due to its return to the hydrological cycle is not defendable. Because this concept
requires some preconditions. The canal, for example, should be designed in such a way that water could reach the down-
stream while seepage water is removing from the canal. But currently, water does not reach the end of the main and some
secondary canals and distribution of water is inequitable. It seems that due to the critical situation of water resources in the
region and the high cost of extraction, water storage, and conveyance of water, seepage from irrigation canals to recharge the
groundwater resources is not defendable. As it was mentioned before, a large part of the water requirement of this irrigation
scheme is supplied by the sewage refinery and in some non-irrigation seasons, continuous flow of refined water is used for
artificial recharge of ground water through special lagoons. Thus, the water losses in water conveyance process should be
minimized in this irrigation scheme to cover the more percentage of command area with water delivery services. It will
directly cause the decrease of ground water depletion.
According to the results of this research and other studies conducted in various case studies, it seems that the report of the
conveyance efficiency in irrigation canals needs consideration of some physical and operation conditions of canals, as were
summarized in Table 3.

4. Conclusion

In this field study, seepage and water conveyance for three levels of irrigation canals were investigated. Normally in the
literature, only main canals are considered and the issue relating to the second and tertiary canals are attributed to the water
distribution efficiency. We tried to study the conveyance situation and losses of water in sub - canals more precisely, with a
slight change of the usual approach. The results showed that, the conveyance efficiency for the main, secondary, and tertiary
canals in a 1-km reach was determined equal to 95%, 91.5% and 89.3% respectively. Also, for the main, secondary, and tertiary
canals the volume of seepage losses per unite area of seepage surface is 1.22, 1.18 and 0.63 m3/day, respectively. In the analysis
of the seepage rate, the achieved values for seepage losses should be declared versus the volume of conveyed water. With this
viewpoint, the main canal has a better performance than the secondary and tertiary canals. At a certain length, the main canal
has the higher conveyance efficiency but it has the maximum absolute losses compared to the secondary and tertiary canals.
For this reason, the proper maintenance of the main canal will improve the overall performance of the scheme and mutually
its damage will cause more volume of water to be lost. Because of their spreading and harder access, tertiary canals (and
 A. Mohammadi et al. / Global Ecology and Conservation 18 (2019) e00646 9

Table 3
Effective parameters on water conveyance efficiency that should be considered in comparing and analyzing the results.

Effective parameter Description

Size of irrigable area In small irrigable areas (less than 1000 ha) and large areas (more than 10,000 ha), the method of
management has a great impact on conveyance efficiency. In small areas, due to financial resources
limitation and lack of professional staff, different areas of management are not segregated. As an
example, aggregation of tasks such as managing water distribution and transmission systems,
maintenance and repair of the scheme, legal issues and marketing will disrupt the overall performance
of the network.
In large irrigation areas, canals are scattered and long. So, much time is needed to reach the effects of
fluctuation in the upstream to the downstream. In this situation, as the incidence of any factor that
changes the volume of required water in the downstream canals, much water will be lost. (Bos, and
Nugteren, 1990)
Size of rotational unit Irrigation water can be used on a continuous or rotational state. Size of rotational unit strongly affects
the conveyance efficiency (Bos, and Nugteren, 1990). In a large rotational unit, with the great command
area, canals are intermittently filled and empty. During this process, a large amount of water is wasted.
Lining quality With the extension of breaks and holes in the lining, the quality of the lining is significantly reduced.
Seepage losses are due to the continuous movement of water from the transmission canals. Seepage
includes water permeation from the bed of the canals and small cracks in the lining. Increasing the
length of the canals, increases the total volume of losses. seepage is affected by various factors such as
water depth, lining of canal, canal dimensions, cross sectional shape, bed slope, volume of sediment, age
of canal, flow volume, flow velocity, soil and bed permeability.
Operation and Irrigation scheduling and Rotational scheduling has higher losses than continuous flow due to higher losses at the beginning and
Maintenance correct timing end of each flooding (Rohwer et al., 2007). Various alternatives that are used in irrigation scheduling can
affect the flow rate of the main canal, wetted perimeter, timing of connecting and disconnecting the flow
in the main and secondary canals, and the amount of unused water at the end of the canals.
Vegetation Aquatic Weeds growing within the irrigation canals, consumes some of the water that is being
transported. They also increase the wetted perimeter by reducing the flow velocity.
Leakage Part of the water is lost during the transfer process due to leakage from edge of the regulation and
distribution structures and failures.
Overtopping If volume of the flow in a canal is greater than its design capacity, overtopping may occur.
Repair and maintenance Improper maintenance can increase the water losses as much as 50% of the discharged volume (Brouwer
activities et al., 1989). Large-scale schemes have more need to maintenance practice than smaller ones. The
prohibition of impermissible manipulations is one of the main principles of maintenance of irrigation
facilities.

sometimes the secondary ones) are less considered in the researches subjected to water losses and operation problems. Also
in tertiary canals, the interaction with the farmers for the maintenance and repairs of the canal is normally low. These canals
differ from the main canal in term of the effective factors on seepage and conveyance efficiency. They have more seepage area
related to conveyed volume of water and lower conveyance efficiency as well. Generally, the effective factors in seepage can
be divided into two groups. In the first group, which includes all canals, it is directly influenced by factors such as the quality
and material of lining, and visible damage. The losses from all crack and joints and generally, all escape ways with possibility
of water losses, are in this group. The second group included factors that indirectly increase seepage losses in secondary (and
sometimes tertiary) canals. This amount of losses was often imposed due to inappropriate operation. In general, every barrier
in the waterway that causes reducing the velocity and increasing the water level falls into this group. Various factors, such as
sedimentation, bed slope reduction, debris accumulation, and growth of the aquatic plants can reduce the flow velocity. In
this situation, with increasing water level in the canal, seepage surface and accordingly seepage losses will also increase. Also,
in this irrigation scheme, it is necessary to pay attention to the education and participation of farmers (as operators of tertiary
canals) in the operation and management. A large part of the damages of irrigation facilities in the Varamin scheme can be
identified in the rapid appraisal process. However, due to poor (and semi-private) management and lack of enough financial
support, there is no tendency to improve the current situation. It is clear that preventive repairs will be much more cost
effective and faster than the next reconstruction efforts. The use of impermeable insulators or pipes can control a large part of
seepage losses.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00646.

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