The Lima Bean: A Vegetable Crop for Processing Ed Kee!, James L. Glaneey#, and Tracy L. Wootten for canning and freezing in specific areas of the United States. Three types of lima beans are used for processing: the small- seeded baby type; the large-seeded Fordhook type; and the speckled bean type (Fig. 1). The predominant method of harvest is with pod- stripper combines (Fig. 2). In 1995, lima beans for processing were planted on 52,100 acres in the United States (USDA, 1996). Dela- ware plants more acreage (10,000 to 12,000 acres) annually for pro- cessing purposes than any other state (Tarburton et al., 1995) and on more acres than any other vegetable. Other major production areas for processing are California, Washington, Oregon, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Minnesota. In Tennessee and other isolated areas in the southern United States, speckled lima beans (butterbeans) are produced for canning and freezing. These speckled types are considered to be more heat tolerant than baby or Fordhook types. Alll three bean types— baby, Fordhook, and speckled—are planted in Delaware commercially (Kee et al., 1996). Although most lima beans grown in the United States are har- vested fresh, dry lima beans are also grown. California is the only state that reports acreage for dry lima bean, with 23,000 acres of baby lima beans and 21,000 acres of large-seeded lima beans planted in 1995 (USDA, 1996). The largest share of the U.S. dry lima bean market is packaged for retail sale, Other significant markets for dry lima beans are for rchydrated products, often for canning purposes. Most of the California dry baby lima bean production is exported to Japan. Dry lima beans are produced as a traditional pulse crop in many arid regions of the world. Madagascar and Peru have been leading centers of production. Lima beans are also produced for local use in Ecuador, the Philippines, India, and in the subhumid and humid tropics of Africa. Dry lima beans and their flour are excellent nutri tional sources, containing about 20% protein and 65% carbohydrates (Lyman et al., 1985). T: lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) is an important crop grown ‘Beeston egeable cope cain 1, Unie of Dewars Revs and oan Caner Gemprovm, DE TORT, “stan pre "acenvon asc I-Vegeile ros, Unies of Delate Reseach end Ecaon Cente, Georgetown, DE 19947, se ofeaemames does oe imply endorsement ofthe rots aed nr io ia ones ote The ces of pub tispuper was dete npr the payne of ape charges. cer ps relator, ths pipe therefore st beheeby the ‘Minnre wich ont thie ce Heéchnaogy + Apri-fune 1997 7(2) ug Depart of Agr Engiteting, Univers of Delaware, Newark, BE. 19711Fig. 1. Small-seeded ‘baby lima beans, large- seeded Fordhooks, and speckled lima beans. 120 ‘The Central Valley of California is the major seed. production center, with about 1000 acres, The arid conditions that exist as seeds mature enhances seed quality by reduc: ing the incidence of seedborne diseases. In Delaware, lima beans are considered to be a comerstone crop of the vegetable processing industry, Because the state is one of the few areas that produce the crop, lima beans offer a unique item that local proces: sors sell nationally. Lima beans are double- cropped on as much as three-fourths of Delaware’s lima bean acreage, thus maximiz- ing land use. ‘They are often planted in June or July after peas (Pisum satioum L.) or small grains. This enhances the grower’s competi- tiveadvantage while helping to ensure consis- tent supply for local processors. ‘Typically, the grower contracts with a processing company fora certain acreage. In most cases, the processing company performs the harvest and raw product delivery fanc~ tions, although some growers own their own hharvest equipment, in which case the proces- sor paysa higher price forthe lima beans. The same harvesting equipment is used for peas and lima beans, so capitalization costs can be spread over two crops per year: The purpose ofthis article isto acquaint the reader with ima beans, identify examplesof successfil production improvements, andsug. gest further research issues. Improving profit ability and efficiency are essential, not only to individual producersand processors, but to the enhancement ofa competitive position for the vegetable processing industry. The lima bean plant Lima bean is native to tropical Central and South America. Guatemala is the general region of origin. Dispersal of the crop is thought to be due to Native American tade and travel. Lima beans were wel established in the southwestern and southeastern United States before the early European explorers arrived. Although a tropical perennial in the wild, lima beans have been developed as annuals for production in the United States Wilk lima beans probably supported them- selves by climbing on other plants (Mackie, 1943), Indeterminate climbing varieties, knownas pole beans because ofthe pole that supports their growth, are a popular item in hhome and garcen marker settings. Varieties developed for commercial production havea determinate habit. These smaller, bush types are necessary for mechanical harvest. A significant fact about the lima bean’s development still impacts the industry today There are two major subgroups—Meso- Americanand Andean—that have genetically distinct DNA. Direct descendants of the Meso-American subgroup are the baby lima bean varieties, which exhibit more heat toler ance than Fordhook types, the descendants of the Andean group (Nienhuis, 1993). The cooler Andean conditionsin the highercleva tions would not require the development of heat tolerance necessary for adequate pro duction in the Meso-American area. Many factors influence yields, but weather conditions that affect flower bad development, pollination, and pod matura tion have the most impact in Delaware (Kee, 1986), Lowyieldsare associated with profuse abscission of flowers and developing pods. Low soil moisture, along with high tempera- tures and low relative humidity, lead t0 re duced pod setand retention (Andrews, 1935; Corder, 1933). These climatic stresses nega- tively affect pollen tube growth and fertiliza~ tion. Unfertlized flowers abscise within 48 hours of the hooded bud stage. At least one ovule must be fertilized and begin develop: mentandpreventabscission (Lambeth, 1950). Temperatures of 90 °F or above redtce pol- lination and pod set. Prolonged drought (7 days ormore with less than 2 inches of water) also negatively affects yield (Fisher and Weaver, 1974), High humidity favors pollination and pod set and is one reason lima beans have been grown successfully in the coastal valleys, of California (Hendry, 1918) and coastal areas of Delaware. Fogs, heasy dews, and their moderating effects On temperature are help to pollination and podset. High night temperatures also adversely affect yields, be cause the plant’s energy is consumed through respiration, limiting the plant's physiological ability to grow, set and retain pods (Fisher and Weaver, 1974) Lima bean flowers are produced on an indeterminate raceme; three flowers appear at each node along the raceme (Fig. 3) Recentresearch conductedlin Delaware iden- tified important phenomena related to flow- ering, The two outer flowers at each node begin to develop simultaneously, while the middle flower lags in development. Ifone or bothofthe outer flowersabscised, the middle Hordéhungy + Apri-June 1997 7(2)flower continues to develop, but at a greater rate than when the outer two flowers continued to develop (Fig. 4) New buds and flowers also appear and develop at the site of abscised flowers. In Delaware, this reflowering contrib: uted very little to final yield, while concurrent studies in California found that reflowering accounted for up to '5% of the final pod set (Wootten, 1995). Lima bean yields in California (4000 Ibs/acre) are consistently higher than those in Delaware (1800 Ibs/ sere), in part due to reflowering. Night temperatures frequently fillinto the to 60 °F range in the Central Valley of California, especially from Los Banos area northward. These cool nights in California play a role in allowing the plant to perform at higher efficiency Interestingly, yieldsin Delaware gener ally increase with later planting dates, which corresponds to higher rainfall, cooler day and night temperatures, in Sep rember and October, when these later plant and setting pods (Wootten, ingsare lowe 1995) Depending on variety, first flowering days from planting and generally occurs peak flowering at 60 days. Harvest occurs from 80 0 90 days for baby varieties and 90 to 100 days for Fordhook varieties. A wide range of factors can influence maturity, in cluding temperature, drought, and any envi ronmental conditions that cause a prolonged flowering period, commonly described as split-ser Production practices [Lana ano Fenriuizarion. Lima beansare Jegumes that may fix atmospheric nitrogen with the aid of nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in their roots. This process is enhanced when the soil pH isin the range of 5.8 t0 7.0 Typically, 60 to 80 Ibs /acre of nitrogen is applied at planting. However, recent re search indicates that lima beans may not Hordichnogy + Apsil-June 1997 respond to fertilizer nitrogen in certain pro- ductionareas, even on sandy soils (Siraitetal., 1994). The Univ. of Delaware recommenda: tion for nitrogen has been lowered to 20 Ibs/ acre forlimabeans double cropped atterpeas, another legume (Kee et al., 1996 Phosphorous and potassium are sup: plied in fertilizers in amounts based on soil testing. At medium levels of fertility, 80 Ibs/ acre of P.O, and 120 Ibs/acre of K,O are recommended. There is no demonstrated need for minor element fertilization ifsoil pH is in the recommended range. This is espe- cially true if the field has a history of cover cropsor manure applications. The decompo: sition of these organic materials provide ad equate levels of minor elements. VARIETY SELECTION, Lima bean varieties for processing purposes are all green-cotyle clon types. These remain green through out maturity (Wester, 1965). Before discovery of genetically controlled cotyledon color, pro: cessors incurred a major expense in removing, Fig. 2. Lop et) Atypical commercial Bed of ima beans in Delaware, har vested by pod-nripper combines: Fig 3: (lower icf) Lint bein saoree with (from the top) buds, Swollen buds (balloons), open flowers, snd imma thee pode Big. 4, (oop ght) Alina bean Dome: fet. The center bud ithe second formed at that site, preparing to reflower. Fig 8. ower Fight)Downy mildew (Peopiora psc) Tima bean.mature beans whose cotyledons turn white Significant progress in yield, quality, and disease resistance is attributed to the lima bean improvement program conducted at the USDA, Beltsville, between 1936 and 1989. More than 30 varieties and breeding. lines were made available to plant breeders, seed companies, and producers (Stavely, 1989). Processors determine which type oflima beans are planted to meet market demands. More baby lima beans are grown than Fordhook or speckled types. Baby lima beans produce consistently higher yields than the heat-sensitive Fordhook types, although con- sumer demand for Fordhook types is signifi- cant. Speckled types falfill a regional market demand, primarily in the southern United States ‘Characteristics that infiuence variety se- lection are consistentyield, disease resistance, guality,and availability. The varictieslisted in Table 1 are used in several production re- gions. Lima bean yield was found to be Closely related to plant size (Smittle, 1986), Varieties that set more pods higher on the plantare also more-efficiently harvested (Kee and Glancey, 1996). Maturities (days from planting) are given on the best evidence from the Delaware variety trials and commercial experience in Delaware, Maturity can vary from season to season and even within a ‘Table 1, Descriptions of commercially available lima bean varieties. season, depending on conditions. For plan- ning purposes, the relative maturity differ- ences between varieties are important. There ate also several privately owned varieties that are planted exclusively for certain processing companies. PLANTING DATE, RATE, AND SPacING. Lima beans ate planted’ in scheduled plantings, coordinated by processors, to accommodate ‘orderly low of raw product. These schedules are based on the acreage that canbe harvested per day. The growers with their own harvest equipment must coordinate their planting and harvest schedules with processors. Baby lima beans may be planted in Dela- ware between 15 May and 20 July. Fordhook lima beans are planted from 1 June to 10 July. Fordhook types require warmer soil for opt ‘mum germination, and their longer mavurity increases the risk of frost before are harvest. ‘Minimum soil temperature for best geemina- tion ofall ypesis65 °F. Plantings that macure in August and early September are subject to reduced yields from heat and drought. Depth of planting is ertical for obtaining ‘optimum populationsand uniform stands. Lima beans should be planted no deeper than 1.5 inches, with Ito 1.5inchesthe optimum depth for most conditions, Extremely dry soils may ‘warrant irrigation to provide optimum concl- tions for germination Baby and Fordhook lima beans can be Maturity- Downy mildew Variety Type days toharvest resistance Source Comments Mas Baby 80 ABCD Socramento Valley, Milling Tssmallsizeand tendency toset pods on the ends of raceme can recuce harvest recovery with pod-stripper combines Easdand Baby 2 ABGD Several (Closely related to M-18, Has a more upright plant architecture, more conducive to harvest by pod-stripper combine 878 Baby 85 ABCD Ben Fish Seed Co, Larger plant type. Consistently good yielding variety 184-85 Baby 86 ABGD — Ben Fish Seed Co, Larger plant rype that sers more pods in the top ofthe plant. A good yielding, varity. Taekson Wonder Speckled 85 None Several Speckled bean type, with more heat resistance than others. 16607 Baby 83 AB.C,D Sacramento valley, Milling New Variety tharhasdemonstrated good yield potential in trials. Packers Baby 85 None Ferry-Morse as demonstrated good yield potential in later plantings in Delaware when conditions are cooler 1072 Fordhook 95 ABC Several Standard green-sceded Fordhook Sensitive to heat 90-1 Fordhook 95, ABCD USDA release YVieldsequal to P1072, Hasalargerberry 5516 Fordhook 95; ABC,D Sacramento Valley, Milling Has outyielded P1072 in trials Recommended for trial use. 122 Hoictnangy + Apni-june 1997 7(2)planted in rows 30 to 36 inches apart. Baby lima beans should be planted at rates to give 9to 12 plants/yard and Fordhook ima beans 6 109 plants/yard, Research has been con- ducted on the effect of narrow-row spacing, (Sirait et al., 194). Excellent weed control and irrigation are necessary to produce and hharvestlimabbeanssuccessfullyinnarrowrows, i.e., ows less than 24 inches. Even when this thas been achieved, there has been no clear yield advantage in varied commercial settings to advocate narrow-row lima bean produc- tion, ‘Seedsizevaries among varieties and must betaken intoaccount when determining seed needed per acte. Baby lima bean varieties range ftom 1150 to 1450seeds/Ib. Fordhook varieties range from 440 to 550 seeds//b. Hence planting rates for baby lima beans in 30-inch rows can range from 61 to 48 lbs/ acre. Weep contmot AND cutrvaTion. Good. weed control is essential to achieve good yields and facilitate harvest operations. Weeds ‘compete with the lima bean plant for nutri- ‘ents, water, and sunlight, Heavy weed popu- lations may create environments more favor- able for plant diseases and insects. Weedy ficlds at harvest reduce raw product recovery by harvesters and generate more trash in the harvested product. Handling trash reduces efficiency and adds cost during raw product preparation at the processing plant (Glancey etal, 1995), Cost-effective weed control relieson the use of herbicides. Preemergence treatments ‘of metolachlor, alachlor, or trifluralin are often used toachieve control of annual grasses and some broadleaf weeds. Imazthepyr is labeled in certain states for preemergence control of many broadleaf weeds (Kee and Rider, 1988). Postemergence control of ‘grasses can be achieved with sethoxydim, while postemergence control of many broad- leaf weeds can be achieved with bentazon, except in California (Kee et al., 1996) “Mechanical cultivation isa major part of a weed-control program, Proper cultivation will not only enhance weed control, but can improve recovery of raw product during har- vest, thus increasing the harvested yield per acre. Cultivating too deeply, or creating, a ridge thar restricts the harvesters ability 10 harvest the lower portion of the plant, will reduce yields. To improve harvest recovery _prowers are encouraged to cultivate in a way that leaves the field as flat as possible, either by cultivating slowly or with equipment like stine cultivators designed to maintain level fields (Glaneey et al. 1995). Horsenettle (Solanum carotinere L.), lanceleaf ground cherry (Piysalislancefiolia), black nightshade (Solano nigrum), hairy Tesbcickay + Api-fone 1997 7(2) nightshade (Solansum sarrachoides), yellow nutsedge (Cyperusesculentus), and morning glory (Ipomea sp.) are major weed problems, nationally. These weedsnotonly reduce yields through competition, but can also reduce duality through fruit or weed seed contami- nation in the raw and processed product. Nightshade species are particularly important because of the toxicity oftheir berries and the potential of staining the light-skinned lima beans. Growers face economically significant grade reductions and processors face costly contamination removal procedures when confronted with these situations, Registered herbicides often do not adequately control these weeds. Postharvest applications of siyphosate or dicamba may offer opportuni ties to control horsenette in the future, if application timing is appropriate in relation to the weed stage and the time of year Inmiaation. Lima deans are routinely ir rigated in California and Delaware. Farrow invigation is the predominant system in Cal fornia. Sprinkler irigation is the only type used in Delaware. Research in Delaware indi- cated 2 positive response from irrigation, especially sandy soils (Vierum et al., 1963; Ritter and Scarborough, 1990). However, temperatures above 90 °F can override pos” sible benefits of irrigation by causing blos- soms to drop. InDelaware, later plantingsoflima beans usually experience cooler conditions and more rainfallin late August and September than in carlier plantings. About 30% ofthe lima bean acreage is not irrigated in Delaware. In Mi nesota, Wisconsin, and Iinois, irrigation is generally not used. Growers in all regions face the management decision of what crops offer the best potential return from irriga- tion, Although there is strong evidence of lima bean response to irrigation, other crops may offer better use of irrigation than lima beans. However, even in late season conditions, irrigation reduces risk and offers higher yield potential than non- irrigated production. ISEASE PROBLEMS AND CONTROL, Downy mildew (Plytophthora phaseolé Thast.) has been a major disease problem of lima beans {grown in the humid regions of the eastern United States since it was first reported in Connecticut in 1889 (Fig, 5). Major yield losses due to downy mildew occurred peri- codically in New Jersey and Delaware before 1960. During the 1930s, one processor was, forced to move trom New Jersey to a region in Delaware where lima beans had not been procuced. Other firms were forced out of business because of this discase. As late as 1958, Delaware producers experienced aloss of more than 2 million Ibs of beans from 11,675 acres (App, 1959) 123rp Stes ec See te ar meni Storage Bin \ Four lima bean strains, from India, Gua- temala, southeastern United States, and Cali- fornia, were found to be resistant to downy mildew. The inheritance of downy mildew is controlled bya single dominant gene (Wester and Cetas, 1959). In 1958, Thaxter was the first commercially released variety with resis tance to downy mildew (App,1959). Genetic resistance has successfully reduced the inci- dence ofthis disease (Westerand Cetas, 1959). However, soon after the release of Thaxter, Which is resistant to one strain, additional strains of downy mildew were found, making development of varieties with resistance cri calto profitable production. Four strains (A, B,C, ane D) of downy mildew are presentin themid-Atlanticregion (Thomasand Blount, 1976). During the 1950s, conditions that were conducive to downy mildew were studies Delaware(Hyre, 1957; Hyre and Cox, 1953). Conditions for disease development are fa- vorable when fields receive 1.2 inches or more of rain within 7 days and when the average daily temperature during this period i878°F orless. Ifaperiod of 90°F occurs, the cycle is broken, and an additional 7-day pe- riod with the above weather conditions is necessary to start inflection, Periods of og or heavy dew can lower the amount of rain (Cleaning Fan Y/ Ganveyr ‘Threshing Beater(s) lc=3 coxa NN Hydraulic Lift Cylinder necessary for infection. Since environmental conditions vary from field to field and in different locations within a field, the above information is provided only as @ guideline. Fields that are not rotated and are planted to susceptible varieties should be scouted regu larly for disease. When weather conditionsare favorable for disease or when disease is first observed, treatments of tri-basic copper sul- fate areusefil for control. Historically, mane’ fungicides were used, but these fungicides are no longer labeled in the United States. Rhizoctonia and Pythinm are the major root rot causal organisms in Delaware, Crop rotation with nonlegume crops is important to minimize this disease, Plowing under pre- vious crop residue rather than disking helps reduce the incidence ofthese diseases, Ridomil PCLL, which contains metalaxyl (which con- trols Pythinin) and terrachlor (which controls Rhizoctonia) are often used. Ridomil PCL is scrongiyrecommendedon lateplantingswhen hot, moist conditions ean favor problems swith Pychinm, Rhizoctonia can be pervasive in many fields as a result of many years of legume cropping. Rhizoctonia usually does rot kill the plant, but the distinct reddish- brown lesions on the stem are easily seen and reduced growth can result. ‘White mold (Sclerotinia) can be found ‘Threshing Drum (Goreens not shown) Herbig + Apri-Fune 1997 7(2)in small areas of late lima bean plantings, but is usually not an economic problem. Anthra- nose and gray mole (Botrytis) can also attack Jima beans, but are rarely an economic prob- Jem in Delaware. INSECT PROSLEMS AND coNTROL, Insect pests that attack lima beansinclude eutworms, tarnished plant bugs, mites, aphids, leafhop- pers, lygus bugs, Mexican bean beetles, com eanworms, and fill armyworms. Because sig- nificant acreage of lima beans are planted in June and July, late-season podworms (com canworms nd fall armyworms) are the major economic pests. Infestations can be severe in some years For baby ima beans, treatment isrecom- mended when corn earworm populations exceed one larvac /6 feet of row from the late flat pod stage to harvest. For Fordhook lima beans, treat when com earworm populations exceed two larvac/6 feet of row upto weeks from harvest and three larvac/6 feet of row thereafter. Forbabyand Fordhooklima beans, treatment should be timed when 50% or more or fall armyworm larvae reach 0.5 inch or longer. Treating too early for corn ear- worm and fall armyworm will eliminate natu- ralcontrol and may esultin additional sprays. Methomyl is recommenced for com. ear- worm and fall armyworm control (Kee et al., 1996), Nematooe cowrnot. Various nematode sgenera can infect lima beans. Southern root Main ‘Threshing Beater ‘Threshing. Drum Clear surface of screen ‘Threshing Drum Pane HNS Left Hand Apron Hercinciogy + April-June 1997 7(2) knot nematode can be damaging. Crop rota tion i useful in managing this pest. Fumiga- tion is effective, but expensive. Ethoprop can beusedatplanting, Itmustbe applied ina 12 inch band over the row. Soybean cyst nematode spresentin lima bean acreage of Delaware. Lima beans are resistant to this nematode at present, but green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are not. Growers who rotate with soybeans ( Glrcine ‘max) or green beans should be alert to the possibility of potential problems with fields infested with soybean cyst nematodes. In California, root-knot nematodes are occa- sionally a problem. Soil sampling for nematode detection is strongly recommended in the fll before plant- inglima beans. Anematode assay taken at this time will have the best chance of detecting damaging levels ofplant parasitic nematodes, especially southern root-knot nematode (Kee etal, 1996}, Harvesting lima beans Alllima beans grown for processing are harvested mechanically, most with pod str per combines, which have largely replaced the pull-type combines. Pull-type combines requirecuttingand windrowingofthe plants Tig. 7- Rearview at harvest and threshing the whole plant. threshing beater and Pod-strippercombines harvest primarily pods leaning sprom opesa- ‘with significantly lessplantmaterial. Advances tions on a typical pod- over the last 2 decades in harvesting of lima stripper combine. Path of Unthreshed Vines Threshing Drum Long Bean Ja Convenor as Drive Wheel TS ight Hand ‘Apron‘Table 2. Representative returns and costs per acre of baby lima beans grown in Delaware. Dollars (§ Returns! 3000 @ $0.1675/Ib 2000 @ $0.1675/lb Costs? Nitrogen, ‘Mixed fereiizer Lime Seed Herbicide Plowing Disk and harrowing Planting, ‘Chemical application Calkivation Insecticide Irrigation Total Net return @ 3000 Ib Net retuen @ 2000 Ib Teng con pe at 15, Datare Caoperate Retenson, Uv of Dela, 126 beans (and peas) include mult-beater thresh- ing systems for additional throughput capac ity, sit-wheeled and tracked harvesters for improved performance in wet conditions, lectrohydraulic systems, which provide the ‘operator with increased control of key ma- chine functions, as well as the stripper head for once-over harvesting (Figs. 6 and 7). Before 1994, little work had been done with od-stripper combines in any crop to quan- tify the effects and interactions of harvester ‘operation, growing practices, and crop vari~ ety on harvest loss, product cleanliness, and product processing, In 1994, a 2-year study was initiated in Delaware to evaluate current technology and practices for growing and harvesting lima beans for processing, The objectives of the study were to measure harvest losses and product quality under a wide range of prac- tices and conditions in the mid-Atlantic re- ‘gion, determine interactions of cultural pac- tices, crop varieties, harvester type and com- bine'operating parameters with. harvest loss and harvested product quality, and develop recommendationsto improve productionand harvesting efficiency. ‘More than 90 harvester evaluations tests have been performed on pod:stripper com- bines including machines manufactured by FMC, Inc., Hoopeston, Il.,Chis-holm-Rider Co. Tne. (no longer in business); Pic-Ryte, ‘Walla Walla, Wash., Hamachek Machine Co., Kewaunee, Wis., and Byron Enterprises, Byron, N.Y. In addition, several varieties grown in awide range of field con- ditions have been evalu- ated for their harvesting characteristics. The fol- lowing is a list of recom- ‘mendations based on the 502.50 538.09 feldrenlsoverthelst2 Toa, rnovine RECOVERY. gogo Poorharvestrecoveryrep- Sep resents a significant eco: nomiclossto growersand 34.50 processors. On. average, 1pos morethan 15% ofthelima 129 bean ctop is left in che 10) field after harvest with 1009 pod-stipper combines More than 75% of the 12.09 More th hi 1200 arvest loss occurs at the 120) head of the combine 2500) where the pods are 23893 ripped from the plant 6357 Losses during threshing and cleaning on the com- bine averaged less than 25% of the total harvest loss. The three most sig- nificant factors that effect lima bean recovery at the combine head are field levelness, the relationship between combine ground speed and picking.reel speed, and lima bean variety. Field levelness across the width of the combine head significantly affects head loss, Field tests indicate unlevel ground condi- tions resulting from mechanical cultivation forweed control doubled the amount ofhead Joss compared to level ground. Excessive ‘ground speed, multiple passes with the cult Yator, and improper cultivator configuration will contribute to unlevel ground, Weed con- trol programs that incorporate cultivation practices that result in minimal ground dis turbance and leave alevel ground surface will help maximize recovery with pod-stripper combines, Experiments to determine optimal com- bine operating speeds clearly indicate higher head losses occur at lower ground speeds. Specifically, loose pod loss increases at speeds Jess than 0.75 miles/hour resulting in exces- sive loss at the head. This losscan be reduced with lower picking reel speeds; however, re- ducing ground speed below 0.75 miles/onr doesnotimprove recovery. In general, ground speed should be limited by the threshing and cleaning capacities of the combine and not reduced to improve product recovery (Glan- ev etal., 1996). Field tests verified that some lima bean varieties are better suited than others for ‘mechanical harvesting with pod-strippercom- bines. From measurements of feld loss over the last 2 years, varieties with small plant structures like Maffei 15 exhibited twice the head losses compared to varieties withalarger structure like 8-78, The higher head loss with smaller varieties is attributed to the funda ‘mental plant architecture in which a greater portion of the pod set is close to the ground Even with properly adjusted combines, pods lose vo the ground will be difficult ro recover (Kee and Glanccy, 1996). ‘Hanvesten proouer quarry. Averagetrash content forall field tests was 13% over the 2- year test period. While over-threshing, im- proper apronangle and tension, excessive weeds, and incorrect header height all contributed to «excessive trash, proper leaning fan adjustment is critical to minimize trash content in the harvested product. Tests have shown thatsmall changes in fan speed can resale in significant ‘bean loss through the fan, Maximum trash removal with the leastamount oflima bean loss can be achieved with proper distsbution of the product under the secondary fan inlet, This, approach will expose the greatest portion of ‘rash that can be removed by the fan. Some trash particles are dificult to re- ‘move from the harvested product. Weeds ike horsenettle and momningglory produce ber Fedéchnotgy + Apri-June 1997 7(2)res or seeds that are similarin size or colorto Jima beans, Weed seeds as well as other for- cign materials detected can result in penalty or price reduction to the grower, including outright rejection of the load if nightshade is detected. Removing these weed seeds with the cleaning systems on the combine or with color sorters in the processing plant is difi- cult, Many times, loads of lima beans must be resorted by hand when any Horsenettle ber- ries, nightshade, and/or morningglory weed seeds are detected during a quality inspec- tion, At present, the best method to reduce berries and weed seed content from the har- vested product is a good weed-control pro- gram (Glancey et al., 1996). Overall, 2 systematic approach to pro. duction that includes proper variety sel tion, field preparation, cultivation, and com- bine adjustment and operation will minimize harvest loss and maximize quality. Consider- ation ofall these factors will improve profit- ability for growers and processors. Economics and marketing Processed lima beans are marketed as cither a canned or frozen product. Canned Jima beans are distributed for retail and inst tutional use, either a5 a single product or ‘mixed with other vegetables, Often lima beans are used as in ingredient in soup products. Frozen lima beans are distributed for retail, institutional, or industrial use for repacking in soups, frozen prepared meals, and other mixed vegetable products In 1995, the average yield for the entire United States was 1.36 tons acre, witha value of $31,240,000 (USDA, 1996). In 1994, che Jatest year reported by the National Agricul tural Statistics Service, lima beans were planted ‘on 10,200 acres in Delaware. Yields averaged 2000 ibs /acre, generating 2 total production (of 20.4 million Ibs of lima beans, With an average price of $335/ton, a cash income to Delaware producers of more than $3.4 milion, was generated (Tarbarton et a., 1995). “Table 2 lists representative costs, yields, and prices for baby lima beans in Delaware. This is designed to be used as @ guide for producers and processors as they plan pro- duction, These are averages, growers mustbe better than average to be profitable. ‘Although there is considerable competi tion from other lima bean producing regions, those regions have limited acreage and are distant, Delaware has along tradition of lima bean production and the grower-processor infrastructure to support it. ‘The relative uniqueness of the crop gives area processors a product line that, while profitable in itself, also helps defray Overhead and fixed costs associated with processing of other vegetables Jn short, lima beans bring a stability to Horfichookgy + Aps-Tune 1997 7(2) Delaware's vegetable processing industry. However, challenges persist. Lime beans yields on a per-acre basis are lower in Dela ‘ware than in all other production areas. Dif- ficulties that must be overcome include seri- ‘ous production issues related to disease, sect, and weed control; developing varieties better adapted to Delaware conditions; en- hhancing harvest recovery; and reducing trash content in the raw product to increase effi- ciency and decrease wastewater production at the processing plant. Such improvements would reduce costs, mitigate negative im- pacts on the environment, and reduce the regulatory burden, Per capita consumption ofllima beans is declining. Consumer ediuca- tion programs designed to inform the public about the nutritional and health advantages associated with lima beans would be beneficial tothe industry and consumersalike. Increased consumption, coupled with improved variet Jes, advanced cultural practices, and more eff cient harvest methods, can enhance the profit- ability for growers and processors, Literature cited Andrews, FS. 1935. Physiological factors assoc ated with the fruiting habitsof the bush lima bean, Proc. Amer. Soe, Hort, Si, 33:473-476, ‘App, F. 1959, The history and economic impor tance of the lima bean downy mildew disease Plant Dis. Rt, Crops Res, Di, Aer. Res, Ser, USDA, Suppl 257, 15 June. Corder, H.B. 1933. Excemal and internal factors affecting blosom drop and set of pods in lima ‘peans. Proc. Amer: Sox. Hort. Sci 30:571-576. Fisher, VJ. and C.K. Weaver. 1974. Flowering, pod sei and pod retention olima bean in response Tonight emperature, humidity, andsoilmoiscure J. Amer. Soe, Hort, $< 99:448-450. Glancey,J.1,,W.B. Kee, TL, Wootten, and B.C Pontes, 1993, Harvesting of green peas and ina byeans for processing. Prac. Amer. Soc. Ags. Eng. Ann, Meg. Paper 95-1773, Glancey, JL, WE Kee,and TL. Wootten. 1997. Machine harvest of lima beans for processing, J. Veg. Prod. (In Press.) Hendry, GW. 1918. Bean culture of California Calif Ags. Expt Sta Bul 294, Univ. of Califor nia, Berkeley Hire, RA. 1957. Forecasting downy mildew of lima bean, Mane Bis Rpt 41/1)7-9. Hyre, RA. and RS. Cox, 1953, Factors affecting iltyand growth of Pyrophchor phaval, Phy= topathology 43:419-425, Kee, WE and L. Rider. 1988. Eine, phytoron icity, sl rcsdual oFimazathepyr on peat and lima beans, Proc: Northeastern Weed Sc. Soc. 42:191— 99, Kee, W.E, J.L, Glancey, and'T.L. Wootten. 1996, 127128 Success lima bean production in Delaware Veg. Fact Sheet 6, Univ. of Delzware, Newark Kee, ., R.P. Mulrooney,).Caron,and J. Whalen. 1996. Commercial vegetable production ecom- mendations, Ext. Bul. 137, Univ. of Delaware, Newark, Kee, W.R.and J.L. Glancey. 1996. Rating the pod setting habit of lima hean cultivars to improve harvest recovery with the pod stripper combine. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Soe. Annis. Meg. Lexing ton, Ky., Abstr. 610, Lambeth, VIN. 1980. Some factors influencing ppod setand yield ofthe lima bean. Res. Bul. 466, Univ. of Missouri College of Agriculture, Colum bia, Lyman,J.M.,J.P. Bandoin, and R. Hidalgo. 1985, Lima bean (Phaseolus lunarusL.),p. 477-519, a: RS. Summerfield and EH. Robert. (eds). Grain legume erops. Collins, London, Mackie, W.W. 1943. Osgin, dispersal, and vai abiityofthe mabean, Phaseluslunatus Hilgardia 1551-29. Nienbuis, J., J.B. Dos Santos, J. Tivang, and P. Skorch. 1993. Organization offima bean (Phasto- Jus timasusL.} germplasm based on RAPD band: ing pattems. Proe. Bean Imp. Coop., 2-4 Now: Ritter, W.F. and RW. Scarborough. 1990, leriga~ tion management of lima beans. Amer. Soe. Agr Eng. 1990 Anne. Summer Mecting Paper 90 2006, Sint, ¥., W.G. Pill, and W.E. Kee. 1994, Lima bean (Phineolus lumatns L.) response to irigation regime and plant population density, HortSeience 2971-73, Smittle, D.A. 1986. Influence of cukivar and remperature on lima bean yield and quality J Amer. Soe. Hort, Sei. 11:685-659. Stavely, .R. 1991, Lima bean (Phaseois lunaius L,) development at Beltsville, Annu, Rpt. Bean Imp, Coop. 34:15: Tarburton, [.F., TW. Feurer, and DM. Bay. 1995, Delaware agriculrural statistics sammary for 1994, Delsware Dept. of Agr ‘Thomas, C.A.and VI. Blount. 1976. Race D of Plysopbibora phaseo. Plat Dis. Rpt. 60:308. US. Department of Agriculture. 1996, Lima beans for processing: Area planted and harvested, yield, production, and value by uslization 1993-05 Natl, Agr. Stat. Serv. Veg. Situation, Januaty US. Department of Agriculture, 1996, Bean mar Ketnews. vol. 32, no. 10. Greeley, Colo. Vireum, McT., RIB. Alderfer, BLE, Janes, CW. Reynolds, and RLA. Siruchtemeyer. 1963. Crop response to irigation in the Northeast, Bul. $00, New York State Agr. Expt, Sta., Geneva Wester, R.L-and RD. Cetas. 1959. Breedinglima beans for resistance ro downy mildew. Plant Dis. Rpt. Suppl. 287, Crops Res, Div., Agr. Res Ser 15 June. Wester, RL. 1968. Green cotyledon inlimabeans, its originand development, SeedWorld 96(11)20. Wootten, TL. 1995. The eects ofheat sess on retention snd abscissionoflima bean reproductive structures, MS thesis. Univ. of Delaware, Newark, Heechnaogy + Apri-June 1997 7(2)