ALGEBRA

POLYNOMIALS LECTURE 1

March 20, 2024

Contents
1 POLYNOMIALS 1
1.0.1 Definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.0.2 Degree of a polynomial: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.0.3 Addition of a polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.0.4 Subtraction of a polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.0.5 Multiplication of a polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.0.6 Division of polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 FACTORIZATION OF POLYNOMIALS 3
2.1 Factorization of cyclic polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Sophie Germain Identity 5

3.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1 POLYNOMIALS

1.0.1 Definition:
A polynomial p , in variable x over a set A is defined as
p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0
, where ai ∈ A∀i = 1, 2, ..., n.
The set of all polynomials over set A is denoted by A [X].

1.0.2 Degree of a polynomial:

The highest power variable with a nonzero coefficient is called the degree of a
polynomial.
The degree of a non-zero constant polynomial is zero.
The degree of a zero polynomial is undefined.

1
1.0.3 Addition of a polynomials
Let p, q ∈ A [X] be two polynomials defined as p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 +
... + a1 x + a0 and q(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + ... + b1 x + b0 , then, p + q is a
polynomial over A defined as (p + q)(x) = ck xk + ck−1 xk−1 + ... + c1 x + c0 where
each coefficient ci = ai + bi and the degree k = maximum {m, n}.

1.0.4 Subtraction of a polynomials

Let p, q ∈ A [X] be two polynomials defined as p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 +
... + a1 x + a0 and q(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + ... + b1 x + b0 , then, p − q is a
polynomial over A defined as (p − q)(x) = ck xk + ck−1 xk−1 + ... + c1 x + c0 where
each coefficient ci = ai − bi and the degree k = maximum {m, n} .

1.0.5 Multiplication of a polynomials

Let p, q ∈ A [X] be two polynomials defined as p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... +
a1 x + a0 and q(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + ... + b1 x + b0 , then, p · q is a polynomial
over A defined P as (p + q)(x) = ck xk + ck−1 xk−1 + ... + c1 x + c0 where each
coefficient ci = ax bi−x and the degree k = m · n

1.0.6 Division of polynomials

Theorem: Division Algorithm Let f (x) and g(x) be two polynomials with coef-
ficients in A and let g(x) be nonzero. Then there exits unique polynomials q(x)
and r(x) with coefficients in A such that, f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x), where either
r(x) is a zero polynomial or a nonzero polynomial of the degree less than that
of g(x).
Note that usually polynomial division is considered over R[x]. We say 2x | x3
as x3 = 2x · 21 x2 so in polynomial division leading coefficient of divisor can be
any constant in R and need not be integer.
∴If p(x) | q(x), then kp(x) | q(x) for any nonzero real k.

1.1 Problems
1. Express x4 + 4x3 + 4x + 1 as a polynomial in x + 1.
Hint: We want a polynomials in x + 1 = y so clearly x = y − 1 substituting
and expanding we get the result.
2. If xy = a, xz = b, yz = cand abc ̸= 0, find the value of x2 + y 2 + z 2 terms
of a, b, c.
3. Find the equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of x4 + ax3 +
bx2 + cx + d = 0
Sol: Let y = x2 so we need all even powers of xin the equation and we
will try to eliminate all odd powers of x.
x4 + bx2 + d = −ax3 − cx

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 Squaring both sides and substituting y = x2 we get the required equationy 4 +
(2b − a2 )y 3 + (b2 + 2d − 2ac)y 2 = (2bd − c2 )y − d2 = 0
4. Find the equation with the roots as the cube of the roots of the equation
x4 − x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1 = 0
Sol: y 4 + 14y 3 + 50y 2 + 6y + 1 = 0
5. If (x2 − x − 1)n = a2n x2n + a2n−1 x2n−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 , find the
value of a0 + a2 + a4 + · · · + a2n .
Sol: (−1)n + 1 = 0 for n odd and 2 for n even.

2 FACTORIZATION OF POLYNOMIALS

Polynomials or numbers are easy to handle and process in the factorized form.Hence
factorization of polynomials is very useful tool in problem solving. Various iden-
tities are useful for factorization of the polynomials . Few are listed here.

• a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
• (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)
• (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4
3
• (a + b + c) =
P 3
a + 3 (a2 b + ab2 ) + 6abc
P

•
P 2
(a b + ab2 ) + 2abc = (a + b)(b + c)(c + a)
3
• (a + b + c) − ( a3 ) = 3(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)
P

• (a + b + c) (ab + bc + ca) = (a2 b + ab2 ) + 3abc

P

• (a + b + c) a2 + b2 + c2 = a3 + b3 + c3 + ab(a + b)

P


2 2
• a3 +b3 +c3 −3abc = (a + b + c) a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca = (a + b + c) 21 (a − b) + (b − c) + (c −

= (a + b + c) a + bw + cw2 a + bw2 + cw where ω is non-real cube root

of unity
If a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = 0 , then, either (a + b + c) = 0 or a = b = c
• an − 1 = (a − 1)(an−1 + an−2 + · · · + a + 1)

• a2n+1 + 1 = (a + 1)(a2n − a2n−1 + · · · + a − 1)

2.1 Factorization of cyclic polynomials

1. Factorize a(b2 −c2 ) + b(c2 −a2 ) + c(a2 −b2 )
Method 1
Let f (a) = a(b2 − c2 ) + b(c2 − a2 ) + c(a2 − b2 )
Since this is a cyclic polynomial , factors are also cyclic
f (b) = b(b2 − c2 ) + b(c2 − b2 ) + c(b2 − b2 ) = 0

3
 ⇒ a − b is a factor of the given expression.
Therefore, other factors are (b−c)and(c−a) . As f (a) is cyclic of degree 3 ,
it has at most 3 linear factors. The given expression may have a coefficient
a constant factor which is nonzero. Let it be m.
∴ a(b2 −c2 ) + b(c2 −a2 ) + c(a2 −b2 ) = m(a − b)(b − c)(c − a)
The coefficient of a2 b on the LHS is −1, while on the RHS a2 b appears as
m(a)(b)(−a), thus the coefficient is −m. hence −m = −1.
Method 2
a(b2 −c2 ) + b(c2 −a2 ) + c(a2 −b2 )
= ab2 − ac2 + bc2 − ba2 + ca2 − cb2
= a2 c − a2 b + ab2 − ac2 + bc2 − cb2
= a2 (c − b) − a(c2 − b2 ) + bc(c − b)
= (c − b)(a2 − ac − ab + bc)
= (c − b)(bc − ab − ac − a2 )
= (c − b) (b(c − a) − a(c − a))
= (c − b)(b − a)(c − a) = (a − b)(b − c)(c − a)

2.2 Problems
√ √
1. Factorize 3x2 + 11x + 6 3
2. Factorize a2 b2 + c2 d2 − a2 c2 − b2 d2
3. Factorize (a + 1)(a + 2)(a + 3)(a + 4)−120
sol:(a − 1)(a + 6)(a2 + 5a + 16).
4. If a, b, c are nonzero real numbers, satisfying a1 + 1b + 1c = a+b+c ,
1
prove
that among a, b, c there must be two opposite numbers.
Sol: (ab + bc + ca)(a + b + c) = abc
⇐⇒ (a + b)(b + c)(c + a) = 0
5. Factorize (x − y)3 + (y − z)3 + (z − x)3 .
Sol: (x − y)3 + (y − z)3 + (z − x)3 = 3(x − y)(y − z)(z − x).
6. Given a4 + a3 + a2 + a + 1 = 0. Find the value of a2000 + a2010 + 1.
3 3 3
7. Factorize (5x + 2y + 2z) + (2x + 8y − 11z) + (−7x − 10y + 9z)
8. Let x, y, z be integers such that (x − y)2 + (y − z)2 + (z − x)2 = xyz. Prove
that x3 + y 3 + z 3 is divisible by x + y + z + 6.
Sol: As x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz = 21 (x + y + z) (x−y)2 + (y−z)2 + (z−x)2 =


1
2 (x + y + z) (xyz)
∴ x3 + y 3 + z 3 = 3xyz + 12 (x + y + z) (xyz) = 12 (x + y + z + 6) (xyz)
9. Given E (a, b, c) = a b3 − c3 + b c3 − a3 + c a3 − b3 ,

find the value of

E (2014, 2016, 2018)
.
(2014 − 2016)(2014 + 2016 + 2018)
Hint: E (a, b, c) = (c−b)(b−a)(c−a)(a + b + c)

4
 10. If x3 − 2x2 + ax − 6 and x3 + 5x2 + bx + 8 have a second order common
factor, determine the values of a, b .
Sol: Let x3 −2x2 +ax−6 = (x2 +px+q)(x+c) = x3 +(c+p)x2 +(cp+q)x+cq
x3 + 5x2 + bx + 8 = (x2 + px + q)(x + d) = x3 + (d + p)x2 + (dp + q)x + dq
Make the corresponding coefficients equal to have p + c = −2, cp + q =
a, cq = −6, d + p = 5, dp + q = 6, dq = 8 .
From these six algebraic equations, we obtain a = −1, b = 6, c = −3, d =
4, p = 1, q = 2.
11. [HMMT 2005] The number 27000001 has exactly four prime factors. Find
their sum.
Sol:x3 + 1 = (x + 1)(x2 − x + 1)


27000001 = 301(3002 − 300
+ 1) = 301 3002 + 2 · 300 + 1 − 900
27000001 = 301 3012 − 302 = 301 · 271 · 331 = 7 · 43 · 271 · 331

12. (PreRMO 2014) Let x1 , x2 , ···, x2014 be real numbers different from 1, such
that x1 + x2 + · · · + x2014 = 1 and
x1 x2 x2014
+ +···+ =1
1 − x1 1 − x2 1 − x2014
What is the value of
x21 x22 x22014
+ +···+ ?
1 − x1 1 − x2 1 − x2014
Solution: Let P = x1 x2 x2014
1−x1 + 1−x2 + · · · + 1−x2014 =1
x21 x22 2
x2014
and Q =
1−x1 + 1−x 2
+ · · · + 1−x 2014
P xi (xi −1) P
∴Q−P = 1−xi = − x i = −1
∴Q=P −1=0

3 Sophie Germain Identity

Consider the expression

a4 + 4b4 = a4 + 4b4 + 4a2 b2 − 4a2 b2
= a4 + 4b4 + 4a2 b2 − 4a2 b2
= (a2 + 2b2 )2 − (2ab)2
= (a2 + 2b2 + 2ab)(a

2
+ 2b2 − 2ab)

= (a + b)2 + b2 (a − b)2 + b2
Hence a4 + 4b4 is non composite only if (a + b)2 − b2 = 1. that is if
 

(a, b) = (±1, 0) or (±1, ∓1) giving values of a4 + 4b4 as 1 and 5 respectively. for
any other integral values of a,b it is a composite number.
Also note that each factor (a + b)2 + b2 and (a + b)2 − b2 is greater than
  

or equal to b2 .

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3.1 Problems
1. Is 4545 + 5454 a prime?
Sol: 4545 + 5454 = (545 + 4136 )2 + 4272 (545 − 4136 )2 + 4272
  

2. (RMO 1991) Prove that n4 + 4n is composite for all integer values of n

greater than 1.
Sol:If n is even then, 2 | n4 + 4n
If n is odd then, n = 2k + 1, then use Sophie Germain Identity.
3. (RMO 2009) Show that 32008 + 42009 can be written as product of two
positive integers each of which is larger than 2009
 . 2
182

Sol: 3 = a + 4b = (a + b) + b (a − b) + b2 and each

2008 2009 4 4
 2 2

+4
factor is greater than b2 .   
∴ 32008 +42009 = (3502 )4 +4(4502 )4 = (3502 + 4502 ) + (4502 )2 (3502 − 4502 ) + (4502 )2
and each factor is greater than (4502 )2 = 22008 > (211 )182 > 2048182 .
4. Find the value of the expression







34 + 32 + 1 54 + 52 + 1 74 + 72 + 1 94 + 92 + 1 114 + 112 + 1 134 + 132 + 1
(24 + 22 + 1) (44 + 42 + 1) (64 + 62 + 1) (84 + 82 + 1) (104 + 102 + 1) (124 + 122 + 1)
when written in lowest form.
ans:61
Solution: x4 + x2 + 1 = (x2 + 1)2 − x2 = (x2 + x + 1)(x2 − x + 1)
∴ The given expression becomes 7·13·21·31·43·57·73·91·111·133·157·183
3·7·13·21·31·43·57·73·91·111·133·157 =
183
3 =
61
2
Note as (n + 1) − n2 = (n + 1) + n
∴ n2 + n + 1 = (n + 1)2 − (n + 1) + 1 .
20144 + 4 × 20134 20124 + 4 × 20134
5. Evaluate 2 2
− .
2013 + 4027 20132 + 40252