Unit 2 Ecosystem

Environmental Studies: Ecosystem
Introduction
• The term ecosystem was first used in 1935 in a
publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley.
• Ecosystem: A self-regulating group of biotic
communities of species interacting with one another and
with their non-living environment exchanging energy and
matter
• The term oekologie (ecology)was coined by the German
biologist Ernst Haeckel in the year 1866. Greek word
“Oikos” meaning “home” and “logos” meaning “study”
• Ecology: The study of organisms in their natural habitat
interacting with their surroundings
This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration
are present in book. Examination quesions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
Classification of Ecosystems Natural Ecosystems
Terrestrial
Ecosystems
Man-made Ecosystems (aquaria,
garden, dams & cropland of Forest
maize, wheat, rice). Ecosystems
Grass land
Aquatic Ecosystems
Ecosystems
Desert
Ecosystems
Fresh water
Ecosystems
Standing water Running water Marine

Ecosystems (lentic) Ecosystems (lotic) Ecosystems
Natural Ecosystems Man-made Ecosystems
Natural Vs Artificial Ecosystems
Natural Ecosystem Artificial Ecosystem
(i) Plants of one species are often (i) Plants of the different species grow
scattered. in close proximity.
(ii) Natural ecosystems usually have (ii) Artificial ecosystems usually contain
alternate sources of food available if less food choices.
one fails.
(iii) Natural ecosystem is developed (iii) Artificial ecosystem is created and
under natural conditions. manipulated by human activities.
(iv) In a natural ecosystem the inorganic (iv) In artificial ecosystems, the

nutrients are returned to the soil from inorganic nutrients do not return to
which they were taken. the soil but are carried away at some
other places.
(v) Natural ecosystems have no distinct (v) Artificial ecosystems have distinct
boundaries. boundaries.
Structure of Ecosystem
Biotic Components of Ecosystems
Producers (or autotrophs)
Green plants and some bacteria which manufacture
their own food.
Consumers (or heterotrophs)

Animals which obtain their food from producers
Primary consumers = herbivores
Secondary consumers = carnivores
Tertiary consumers = top canivorous
Decomposers
Bacteria and fungi that decompose dead
organic matter and convert it into simpler parts
This material is for reference only. Points present in the slides are only for assistance and their elaboration are present in book.
Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only.
Abiotic Components of an Ecosystem
Physical Factors
Rainfall
Humidity
Temperature
Nature of soil
Water currents
Sunlight Chemical Factors
Percentage of Water and air in soil
Salinity of Water
Oxygen dissolved in water
Nutrients present in soil
Limiting Factors
Food, water, shelter and space are limiting
factors for the growth of population of human and animals.
Functions of an Ecosystem
 Food chain and food web ( food chain is a series of

organisms that eat one another so that energy and nutrients
flow from one to the next. Many food chains interacts to
form food web)
 Energy flow (The energy flow takes place via the food
chain and food web)
 Ecological pyramids (An ecological pyramid is a

graphical representation designed to show the biomass or
bio productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem)
Functional unit
• Food chain (sequence of eating and being
eaten), food web, trophic structure
• Energy flow
• Cycling of nutrients
Food Chain
The transfer of food energy from the
source (plants) through a series of
organisms by repeated eating and being
eaten up is referred to as food chain.
Types:
• Grazing food chain-a common chain
starting with plant or plant product
• Detritus food chain-chain derived by

the organic wastes and dead matter from
grazing food chains
Trophic Level
Food web
The interlocking pattern formed by several food chains that are

linked together is called a food web.
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
First Law of Thermodynamics energy can neither
be created nor destroyed but only is transformed
from one form to another.
Second Law of Thermodynamics-The second law

of thermodynamics states that no energy
transformations are 100% efficient.
10 Percent Rule of Energy

As a rule of thumb, 90 percent of the energy
involved is degraded at each tropic transfer and only
10 percent of the energy is conserved in the
organism's tissue.
Biogeochemical cycles
Types:
• Gaseous Cycle: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon
• Sedimentary Cycle: Phosphorus, Sulphur
Nutrient cycles
• Nitrogen
Nutrient cycles
• Carbon
Nutrient cycles
• Phosphorus
Ecological Pyramid
The graphical representations of different tropic levels in an

ecosystem where producers occupy the base and the top consumer
occupy the apex of the pyramid, is known as ecological pyramid .
They are used to illustrate the feeding relationships between

organisms.
Types of Ecological Pyramids
•Pyramid of number = no of individual at each tropic level is considered

•Pyramid of biomass = biomass at each tropic level is considered
Pyramid of energy = energy at each tropic level is considered
Pyramid of Number
Pyramid of number is used to show

the number of individuals in each
tropic level.
It is upright in case of grassland

and pond ecosystems.
Pyramid of Number
Pyramid of Biomass tertiary
consumers 75 g/m2
Pyramid of biomass records the

total dry organic matter of
organisms at each trophic level in a
secondary 150g/m2
given area of an ecosystem. consumers
The pyramid of biomass is used to

show the total biomass of individuals
primary
at each trophic level. consumers 675g/m2
It is better than the pyramid of number

for showing the relationships between
organisms.
producers 2000g/m2
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Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of energy
Pyramid of energy is used to
show the amount of energy
transferred between tropic
levels.
It provides the best

representation of the overall
nature of an ecosystem.
The pyramid of energy flow is

always upright because there is
always loss of energy while
moving from lower tropic level
to higher tropic level. Therefore,
the energy reaching the next
tropic level is always less
compared to that in the previous
tropic level.
Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the slow process by which

ecosystems change and develop over time. It is therefore a
series of predictable temporary communities or stages leading
up to a climax community. Each stage/temporary community
is called a successional stage. Each step prepares the land for
the next successional stage. All habitats are in the state of
constant ecological succession.
Ecological Succession is an orderly sequence of different

communities over a period of time.
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The Climax Community
• A climax community is a mature, stable community that is the

final stage of ecological succession. In an ecosystem with a
climax community, the conditions continue to be suitable for
all the members of the community.
• Any particular region has its own set of climax species, which
are the plants that are best adapted for the area and will persist
after succession has finished, until another disturbance clears
the area.
28
These are Climax Communities
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Types of ecological succession
Primary Succession Secondary Succession
:
Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only. 30
Primary succession is the process by which an area first changes from bare
rock into a functioning ecosystem.
31
Secondary Succession
• SECONDARY SUCCESSION begins in habitats where
communities were entirely or partially destroyed by some kind of
damaging event.
• When an existing community has been cleared by a disturbance such

as a fire, tornado, etc...and the soil remains intact, the area begins to
return to its natural community. Because these habitats previously
supported life, secondary succession, unlike primary succession,
begins on substrates that already bear soil. In addition, the soil
contains a native seed bank.
• Since the soil is already in place, secondary succession can take

place five to ten times faster than primary succession.
32
Secondary succession is the process by which an ecosystem that has been
destroyed gradually returns to its previous state.
33
The Circle of Life in Secondary
Succession
34
Process / Stages of Ecological Succession
Nudation- Succession begins with the development of a bare site,

called Nudation (disturbance).
Invasion
•Migration- It refers to arrival of propagules, dispersion.
•Ecesis- It involves establishment and initial growth of

vegetation.
•Aggregation- It involves increase in number of species.
35
Competition- As vegetation became well established,
grew, and spread, various species began to compete
for space, light and nutrients. This phase is called
competition.
Stabilization- Reaction phase leads to development of

a climax community.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ceDE01iWLE
36
Study of some common ecosystems
• Terrestrial ecosystem
o Grassland ecosystem
o Desert ecosystem
o Forest ecosystem
• Aquatic ecosystem
o Pond ecosystem
o Ocean ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
Abiotic Components
Inorganic and organic substances found in the
soil, climatic factors, e.g., temperature,
humidity, rainfall, and light.
Biotic Components
Producers
Different kinds of trees depending upon the climate
Consumers
Different kinds of primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers, e.g., deer,
elephant, snakes, lizards, lion, and tiger
Decomposers
These are various kinds of bacteria and fungi
Tropical rain forest
• Notable features:
– Found in tropical region (near the equator).
– High rainfall, humidity and temperature
– Large leaves
– Rich in biodiversity
– Fauna of these rainforests includes the jaguar,
tapir, okapi, boa constrictor, African grey parrot,
keel-billed toucan, crowned eagle, three-toed sloth,
spider monkey, large flying fox and more.
• Layers
– Emergent layer
– Canopy
– Understory
– Forest floor
• Example: Amazon Rainforest, Congo
Rainforest, Southeast Asian Rainforest etc.
Tropical deciduous forest
– Tropical deciduous forests form
a natural cover almost all over
India.
– They are of two types-moist and
dry. Moist forests are found on
the eastern slopes of Western
Ghats, North eastern parts of
the Peninsular Chhota Nagpur
plateau and along the Shiwaliks.
– They shed there leaves for a
particular period of time.
– They are economically very
important because of timber like
sal and teak.
– The animals found here are
tiger, wolves, rabbit etc.
Sub-tropical forest
– Subtropical forests are
within or bordering the
tropical zone.
– temperatures may vary
only slightly over a year
– Subtropical rainforests
occur in Central
America, the West
Indies, India,
Madagascar, mainland
Southeast Asia, and the
Philippines.
– Small deciduous trees
and shrubs are found.
Temperate rain forest
– The world's largest temperate
rain forests are found on the
Pacific coast of North
America.
– Temperate rain forests are
also found in coastal Chile,
Norway, the United Kingdom,
Japan, Australia and New
Zealand.
– The mild weather conditions
– Adequate rainfall
– Coniferous trees dominate the
forest
– tall evergreen trees are also
found
– Animals: black bears, lynx,
wolves etc.
Temperate deciduous forest
– Located in the mid-latitude
areas (between the polar
regions and the tropics).
– The temperature varies
widely from season to
season with cold winters
and hot, wet summers.
– During the fall, trees
change color and then lose
their leaves.
– Most of the trees are
broadleaf trees such as
oak, maple, beech, hickory
and chestnut.
– Animals: toad, chipmunk,
gray squirrel, Yellow-
breasted chat etc.
Evergreen coniferous forest
– They are found just in
south of arctic tundra
– Winters are long, cold and
dry
– Sunlight is available for few
hours only
– Soil has less nutrient and
acidic
– Major trees are Pine, Fir,
Cedar etc.
– Animals: moose, deer,
reindeer, squirrels, wolves,
bears, foxes, owls,
woodpeckers hawks etc.
Grassland Ecosystem
Abiotic Components
Inorganic elements (C, H, O, N, P, S), climatic components,

temperature, rainfall, light, etc.
Biotic Components
Producers
Mainly grasses with a few scattered trees
Consumers
Deer, rabbit, giraffe, etc., are herbivores,
while wolf, leopard, etc., are carnivores
Decomposers
Mainly bacteria and fungi
Tropical grassland
– Located near the equator, between
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic
of Capricorn.
– Although these areas are overall
very dry, they do have a season of
heavy rain.
– Dominated by grasses
– May have some drought-resistant,
fire-resistant trees
– Animals: giraffes, zebras, buffaloes,
kangaroos, mice, moles, gophers,
ground squirrels, snakes, worms,
termites, beetles, lions, leopards,
hyenas, and elephants.
• Examples:
– Savannas
Temperate grassland
– Trees and shrubs are
completely absent or
rare.
– cold winters (-40 C) and
hot summers (38 C)
– Gentle slope
– Animals: Rodents,
bisons, wolves, hawks,
owls etc.
• Examples:
– Prairies (South America)
– Pampas (Africa)
– Velds (Central Europe)
– Steppes (Asia)
Polar grassland
– Severe cold and strong
wind
– Arctic wolf, arctic fox,
reindeer, migratory
birds and insects are
found.
• Examples:
– Arctic Tundra
– Permafrost: Permafrost is
soil, rock or sediment that
is frozen for more than two
consecutive years. In areas
not overlain by ice, it exists
beneath a layer of soil, rock
or sediment.
Desert Ecosystem
Characteristics:
Deserts are arid ecosystems that receive
fewer than 25 centimeters (10 inches) of
precipitation a year.
Abiotic Components
Low rainfall, high temperature, and
sandy soil
Biotic Components
Producers
Predominantly shrubs, cactus, etc.
Consumers
Different insects, lizards, reptiles, rodents, birds, etc.
Decomposers
Various bacteria and fungi
Examination questions will be in depth and can be solved by following text book only. 49
Desert ecosystem
• About 1/5th of the earth surface is covered with desert
• Tropical desert
– Notable features:
• It is the driest and hottest place on earth.
• Rainfall is sporadic and in some years no measurable precipitation falls at all.
– Examples: Sahara, Kalahari, Thar, Mexican deserts, Great Australian desert.
• Temperate desert
• Temperate deserts can be much colder than tropical deserts
• The floor of the temperate desert is often covered by rocks and small pebbles
– Examples: Mojave, Sonoran Deserts
• Cold desert
• cold deserts occur in temperate regions at higher latitudes
• hot summers but extremely cold winters.
– Examples: Atacama,
– Gobi, Great Basin, Namib, Iranian, Takla Makan, and Turkestan
Pond Ecosystem
Abiotic Components
It includes organic and inorganic substances,
atmospheric gases dissolved in water, minerals
found in dissolved state, etc.
Biotic Components
Producers
Submerged floating and emergent aquatic plants
For example, hydrilla, etc.
Consumers
May be primary, secondary, or tertiary, e.g., small fishes, mollusca, etc.
Decomposers
Chiefly bacteria,fungi, etc.
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Lake ecosystem
• Organisms of aquatic
ecosystem
– Planktons (Algae, rotifers: limited
locomotion)
– Nektons (Fishes: active swimmer)
– Neustons (Floating plants)
– Benthos (Bottom dweller: Snail)
– Periphytons (Crustaceane)
• Zonation (Stratification)
– Epilimnion (Warm, lighter,
circulating surface layer)
– Hypolimnion (Cold, viscous, non-
circulating bottom layer)
Types of lakes
• Oligotrophic lakes (Low nutrient content)
• Eutrophic lake (High nutrient content)
• Dystrophic lake (Low pH Examples:Lake Suchar II in
Poland, lakes Allgjuttern, Fiolen, and Brunnsjön in Sweden.)
• Endemic lakes (Ancient, deep, having endemic fauna)
• Desert salt lakes (High salt content Ex: Great Salt Lake
northern Utah, United States)
• Volcanic lakes
• Mermictic lakes (Permanently stratified)
• Artificial lakes
Ocean Ecosystem
Abiotic Components
Largest ecosystem on the Earth. Characterized
by high salinity of water, the major ocean in the
world are Pacific, Indian, Atlantic ocean and all.
Biotic Components
Producers
Phytoplanktons
For example, diatoms, microscopic algae and other
organism are sea weed, red algae and brown algae etc.
Consumers
May be primary, secondary, or tertiary, e.g., small fishes,
molluscs.
Decomposers
Chiefly bacteria, fungi, etc.
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Streams
– Stages
• Mountain highland
(Young River)
• Second phase
(Middle Aged
River)
• Third phase (Old
River)
Oceans
– Marine ecosystems support a great diversity of life and variety of
habitats.
– The ocean is a major influence on weather and climate.
– Plants: seaweeds, or marine algae (brown, green, red), sea grasses,
phytoplankton
– Animals: protozoans, marine invertebrates (echinoderms, mollusks,
segmented and non-segmented worms, jellies, coral, sea anemones,
hyroids) marine vertebrates (fishes, birds, mammals), and
zooplankton.
• Zones
– Coastal zone
– Open sea
• Euphotic zone (Abundant sunlight, high photosynthetic activity)
• Bathyal zone (Dim light)
• Abyssal zone (Dark zone)
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Environmental Studies: Ecosystem

Standing water Running water Marine

(iv) In a natural ecosystem the inorganic (iv) In artificial ecosystems, the

Consumers (or heterotrophs)

 Food chain and food web ( food chain is a series of

 Ecological pyramids (An ecological pyramid is a

• Detritus food chain-chain derived by

The interlocking pattern formed by several food chains that are

Second Law of Thermodynamics-The second law

10 Percent Rule of Energy

The graphical representations of different tropic levels in an

They are used to illustrate the feeding relationships between

Types of Ecological Pyramids

•Pyramid of number = no of individual at each tropic level is considered

Pyramid of number is used to show

It is upright in case of grassland

Pyramid of biomass records the

The pyramid of biomass is used to

It is better than the pyramid of number

It provides the best

The pyramid of energy flow is

Ecological succession is the slow process by which

Ecological Succession is an orderly sequence of different

• A climax community is a mature, stable community that is the

Primary Succession Secondary Succession

• When an existing community has been cleared by a disturbance such

• Since the soil is already in place, secondary succession can take

Nudation- Succession begins with the development of a bare site,

•Ecesis- It involves establishment and initial growth of

•Aggregation- It involves increase in number of species.

Stabilization- Reaction phase leads to development of

Inorganic elements (C, H, O, N, P, S), climatic components,

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